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Environmental Impacts in Relation to Wind Energy

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Wind Energy for Power Generation
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Abstract

The environmental impacts irrespective of the energy source can range from extremely deleterious to acceptable minimum levels. In the case of fossil power generation, impacts could be extremely harmful in terms of long-term human health hazards. In the case of renewable energies such as solar and wind, the effect on health can be of acceptable levels, whereas in the case of biomass and bioenergy, it can be a minimax depending upon the surrounding environmental areas. For example, if farm products, located in sparsely populated areas with low-density development, are used for power generation, depending upon the level of carbon emissions, these could be acceptable for interim power generation. Thus, in addition to large scale, medium scale, or small scale of operation, consideration of the location where the generation takes place is important. The following seven World Bank regions are addressed such as the Pacific region; Europe and Central Asia; Latin America and the Caribbean; the Middle East and North Africa; sub-Sahara; South Asia; Canada, Mexico, and the rest of North America; and finally the United States.

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Notes

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    IPCC, 2007, cited in https://www.fws.gov/pacific/Climatechange/changepi.html

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    https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe

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    http://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/solution-to-global-warming-will-be-found-in-new-technologies-1.2150050

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    John Fitzgerald Tue, Mar. 24, 2015, in http://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/solution-to-global-warming-will-be-found-in-new-technologies-1.2150050

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    http://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/solution-to-global-warming-will-be-found-in-new-technologies-1.2150050

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    “Climate change in Central and South America: Recent trends, future projections, and impacts on regional agriculture,” Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Working Paper no. 73 by Cecilia Schubert, cited in https://ccafs.cgiar.org/research-highlight/look-how-changing-climate-will-hit-south-and-central-america#.WCx26j8zU1h

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    Roberto Abdenur, Brazilian ambassador to the United States, and Sen. Richard G. Lugar (R-Ind.), Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, published an article “America and Brazil Intersect on Ethanol,” on May 6 in the Miami Herald and the Brazilian newspaper Folha de S. Paulo. May 15, 2006, by Richard Lugar and Roberto Abdenur. This commentary was released publicly by the Brazilian Embassy and published in RenewableEnergyWorld.com issue of May 15, 2006; see http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2006/05/america-and-brazil-intersect-on-ethanol-44896.html.

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    Ibid.

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    Ibid.

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    Cited in http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/latin-america.html

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    Biringer et al., 2005, cited in http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch13s13-5.html

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    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  509. 509.

    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/africa.html

  510. 510.

    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/africa.html

  511. 511.

    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/africa.html

  512. 512.

    For actual notations, see http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/africa.html

  513. 513.

    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/africa.html

  514. 514.

    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/africa.html

  515. 515.

    https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/sectors/climate-change/

  516. 516.

    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/africa.html

  517. 517.

    See Fifth Assessment Report (AR5): Working Group II (2008–2014).

  518. 518.

    http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch12.html

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    http://www.climatenetwork.org/event/high-level-event-100-renewable-energy-15c-degrees

  520. 520.

    http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/en/partnerships/energy

  521. 521.

    http://sessa.org.za/

  522. 522.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  523. 523.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  524. 524.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  525. 525.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  526. 526.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  527. 527.

    Ibid.

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    IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K., and Meyer, L.A. (eds.). Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    World Bank. (2013). Turn Down the Heat: Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts, and the Case for Resilience. A report for the World Bank by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics. Washington, DC: The World Bank 187. Knox, J., Hess, T., Daccache, A., and Wheeler, T. (2012). Climate change impacts on crop productivity in Africa and South Asia. Environmental Research Letters 7(3). Accessed on 07 April 2015, doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034032, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    Knox, J.; Hess, T.; Daccache, A.; and Wheeler, T. (2012). Climate change impacts on crop productivity in Africa and South Asia. Environmental Research Letters 7(3). Accessed on 07 April 2015, doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034032, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K., and Meyer, L.A. (eds.). Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  532. 532.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  533. 533.

    Ibid.

  534. 534.

    Ibid.

  535. 535.

    IPCC, 2014. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  536. 536.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  537. 537.

    IPCC, 2014. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R. K. Pachauri and L. A. Meyer (eds.). Geneva: IPCCC, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  538. 538.

    Delgado, C.; Hino, M.; and Grist, N. (2015) (forthcoming), “Transforming Agriculture and Land Use in Africa,” New Climate Economy Background paper for the Africa Progress Report 2015, Overseas Development Institute and World Resources Institute, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    Beilfuss, R. (2012). A risky climate for Southern Africa hydropower: Assessing risks and consequences for Zambezi. Berkeley: International Rivers Network, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  540. 540.

    IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, cited in in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  541. 541.

    In http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  542. 542.

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    IEA (2014). Africa Energy Outlook: A focus on energy prospects in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Energy Outlook Special Report. Paris: International Energy Agency, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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  545. 545.

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    Cheung, W.; Lam, V.; Sarmiento, J.; Kearney, K. et al. (2010). Large-scale redistribution of maximum fisheries catch potential in the global ocean under climate change. Global Change Biology, 16(1), 24–35. Accessed on 07 April, 2015, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01995.x/abstract, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    Skoufias, E.; Rabassa, M.; and Olivieri, S. (2011). The poverty impacts of climate change: A review of the evidence. Policy Research Working Paper 5622. Washington, DC: The World Bank, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    IFAD (2011). Rural Poverty Report 2011: New realities, new challenges: New opportunities for tomorrow’s generation. Rome: International Fund for Agricultural Development Background paper for the Africa Progress Report 2015, Overseas Development Institute and World Resources Institute, cited http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    UNDP (2007). Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a divided world. Human Development Report 2007/2008. New York: United Nations Development Program, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    Beegle, Kathleen, Rajeev H. Dehejia, and Roberta Gatti (2006). Child Labor and Agricultural Shocks. Journal of Development Economics 81: 80–96, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    Bastagli, F. (2014). Responding to a crisis: The design and delivery of social protection. ODI Working Paper. Accessed 09 April, 2015, http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/8919.pdf Kuriakose, A.; Heltberg, R.; Wiseman, W.; Costella, C.; Cipryk, R.; and Cornelius, S. (2012). Climate Responsive Social Protection. Discussion Paper No. 1210. Washington: World Bank. Accessed 09 April 2015, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/Resources/SP-Discussion-papers/430578-1331508552354/1210.pdf, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    Africa Progress Panel (2014). Grain, Fish, Money: Financing Africa’s Green and Blue Revolutions. Africa Progress Report 2014. Geneva: Africa Progress Panel, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    World Bank (2008). Agriculture for Development. World Development Report 2008. Washington DC: The World Bank, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  555. 555.

    Africa Progress Panel (2014). Grain, Fish, Money: Financing Africa’s Green and Blue Revolutions. Africa Progress Report 2014. Geneva: Africa Progress Panel, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.). Geneva: IPCCC, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  557. 557.

    Delgado, C.; Hino, M.; and Grist, N. (2015) (forthcoming), “Transforming Agriculture and Land Use in Africa,” New Climate Economy Background paper for the Africa Progress Report 2015, Overseas Development Institute and World Resources Institute, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  558. 558.

    Africa Progress Panel (2014). Grain, Fish, Money: Financing Africa’s Green and Blue Revolutions. Africa Progress Report 2014. Geneva: Africa Progress Panel, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  559. 559.

    Kuriakose, A.; Heltberg, R.; Wiseman, W.; Costella, C.; Cipryk, R.; and Cornelius, S. (2012). Climate Responsive Social Protection. Discussion Paper No. 1210. Washington, D.C: World Bank. Accessed 09 April 2015, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/ Resources/SP-Discussion-papers/430578-1331508552354/1210.pdf, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  560. 560.

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  561. 561.

    Cartwright, A (2015) (forthcoming), “Better Growth, Better Climate, Better Cities: Rethinking and Redirecting Urbanization in Africa.” New Climate Economy Background paper for the Africa Progress Report 2015, African Centre for Cities Godfrey, N; Zhao, X (2015) (forthcoming), “The Contribution of African Cities to the Economy and Climate: Population, Economic Growth, and Carbon Emission Dynamics,” New Climate Economy Background paper for the Africa Progress Report 2015, New Climate Economy The Global Commission on the Economy and Climate. (2014). Better Growth, Better Climate: The New Climate Economy Report. Washington, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    Scott, A. (2015) (forthcoming). Building electricity systems for growth, access and sustainability in Africa. New Climate Economy, Overseas Development Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute background paper for the Africa Progress Report 2015, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  563. 563.

    IRENA (2015). Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2014. Bonn: International Renewable Energy Agency. Accessed 09 April, 2015, http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_RE_Power_Costs_2014_report.pdf; if this capacity were not present, CO2 emissions related to world energy would have been an estimated at 1.2 gigatons or higher in 2013 and would add about 12 percent to the 2020 projected emissions gap that needs to be closed to remain within an average global temperature increase of 2° Celsius. Cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  564. 564.

    IEA (2014). CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights. Paris: International Energy Agency. Accessed on 09 April 2015, https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/CO2Emissions FromFuelCombustionHighlights2014.pdf, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  565. 565.

    Ibid.

  566. 566.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  567. 567.

    Ibid.

  568. 568.

    http://www.iea.org/publications/medium-termreports/

  569. 569.

    IEA (2014). Medium-Term Coal Market Report 2014: Market Analysis and Forecasts to 2019. Accessed on 08 April, 2015, http://www.iea.org/bookshop/495-Medium-Term_Coal_Market_Report_2014, cited in

  570. 570.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  571. 571.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  572. 572.

    Ibid.

  573. 573.

    Ibid.

  574. 574.

    McKinsey. (2015). Brighter Africa: The Growth Potential of the Sub-Saharan Electricity Sector. New York: McKinsey & Company. Accessed 08 April 2015, http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/energy_resources_materials/powering_africa, cited in http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  575. 575.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  576. 576.

    Ibid.

  577. 577.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  578. 578.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  579. 579.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

  580. 580.

    http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/publications/policy-papers/2015-africa-progress-report/?gclid=CMWOkNWHq9ACFVE7gQodFbcLfA

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    https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/mar/22/global-warming-hit-asia-hardest

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    https://www.edf.org/climate/india-development-while-fighting-climate-change

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    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-locations/kolkata-west-bengal-india.html

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    Union of Concerned Scientists, Global Warming, Climate Change in Asia, cited in http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming#.WBqY7T8zW7w

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    Harrabin, Roger (1 February 2007). “How climate change hits India’s poor”. BBC News. Retrieved 2007-03-10, cited in https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia

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    Bangladesh.” MERIC. 18 Oct 2008. 18 Oct. 2008; and http://www.ded.mo.gov/researchandplanning/indicators/international/ cty5380.stm cited in https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia

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    “Climate change: The big emitters”. BBC News. 4 July 2005. Retrieved 18 October 2008, cited in https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hazesmoke_Gangeticbasin.jpg

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  600. 600.

    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-solutions/asia.html

  601. 601.

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  602. 602.

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    http://m.rediff.com/money/2007/jun/05clim.htm, June 05, 2007

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  605. 605.

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    World News/22 Aug 2016 by Abhimanyu Shrivastava, cited in http://intpolicydigest.org/2016/08/22/climate-change-and-indian-agriculture/

  608. 608.

    World News/22 Aug 2016 by Abhimanyu Shrivastava, cited in http://intpolicydigest.org/2016/08/22/climate-change-and-indian-agriculture/

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    Air pollution in India (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution_in_India) and pollution in Pakistan (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Pakistan#Pollution)

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    Kharmujai R. R. (3 March 2007). “Wet Desert of India Drying Out.” Retrieved 2007-12-01, cited in https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia

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    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-locations/karnataka-india.html

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    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-locations/kolkata-west-bengal-india.html

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    http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-locations/kolkata-west-bengal-india.html

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Rao, K.R. (2019). Environmental Impacts in Relation to Wind Energy. In: Wind Energy for Power Generation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75134-4_5

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