Abstract
Several hominin genera evolved to use savanna and woodland habitats across Pliocene Africa. This radiation into novel niches for apes occurred despite a daunting array of carnivores (Mammalia, Carnivora) between 6.0 and 1.8 Ma (Figure 17.1). Many of these carnivores would have preyed on hominins if given the opportunity. In this paper we ask what the behavioral adaptations were that permitted hominins to survive and spread, despite this potentially higher risk of predation in ancient Africa.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anyonge, W. (1993). Body mass in large extant and extinct carnivores. Jour. of Zool. Lond., 231: 339–350.
Anyonge, W. (1996). Locomotor behaviour in Plio-Pleistocene sabre-tooth cats: A biomechanical analysis. Jour. of Zool. Lond., 238: 395–413.
Arribas, A., and Palmqvist, P. (1998). Taphonomy and palaeoecology of an assemblage of large mammals: hyaenid activity in the lower Pleistocene site at Venta Micena (Orce, Guadix-Baza Basin, Granada, Spain). Geobios, 31(suppl.): 3–47.
Arribas, A., and Palmqvist, P. (1999). On the ecological connection between sabre-tooths and hominids: Faunal dispersal events in the lower Pleistocene and a review of the evidence for the first hominin arrival in Europe. Jour. of Arch. Sci., 26: 571–585.
Baeninger, R., Estes, R., and Baldwin, S. (1977). Anti-predator behaviour of baboons and impalas toward a cheetah. East African Wildlife Journal, 15: 327–329.
Bailey, T.N. (1993). The African leopard: Ecology and behavior of a solitary felid. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
Barry, J.C. (1987). Large carnivores (Canidae, Hyaenidae, Felidae) from Laetoli. In M.D. Leakey and J.M. Harris (Eds.), Laetoli: A Pliocene site in Tanzania (pp. 235–258). London: Clarendon Press.
Bednekoff, P.A., and Lima, S.L. (1998a). Randomness, chaos and confusion in the study of anti-predator vigilance. Tree, 13: 284–287.
Bednekoff, P.A., and Lima, S.L. (1998b). Re-examining safety in numbers: Interactions between risk dilution and collective detection depend upon predator targeting behaviour. Proc. of the Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 265: 2021–2026.
Bellomo, R.V. (1994). Methods of determining early hominin behavioral activities associated with the controlled use of fire at FxJj 20 Main, Koobi Fora Kenya. Jour. of Human Evol., 27: 173–195.
Berger, L.R., and Tobias, P.V. (1994). New discoveries at the early hominid site of Gladysvale, South Africa. South African Jour. of Sci., 90: 223–226.
Berta, A. (1981). The Plio-Pleistocene hyaena Chasmaporthetes ossifragus from Florida. Jour. of Vertebr. Paleontol., 1: 341–356.
Blumenschine, R.J. (1995). Percussion marks, tooth marks, and experimental determinations of the timing of hominin and carnivore access to long bones at FLK Zinjanthropus, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Jour. of Human Evol., 29: 21–51.
Boaz, N.T., Gaziry, A.W., and El-Aurnati, A. (1979). New fossil finds from the Libyan Upper Neogene site of Sahabi. Nature, 280: 137–140.
Bocherens, H., Emslie, S., Billiou, D., and Mariotti, A. (1995). Stable isotopes (13C, 15N) and paleodiet of the giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus). Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, t. 320 (série II a): 779–784.
Boesch, C. (1991). The effects of leopard predation on grouping patterns in forest chimpanzees. Behaviour, 117: 220–242.
Boesch, C., and Boesch, H. (1981). Sex differences in the use of natural hammers by wild chimpanzees: A preliminary report. Jour. of Human Evol., 10: 585–593.
Boggess, J. (1980). Intermale relations and troop membership changes in langurs (Presbytis entellus) in Nepal. Inter. Jour. of Primatol., 1: 233–263.
Boinski, S., Treves, A., and Chapman, C.A. (2000). A critical evaluation of the influence of predators on primates: Effects on group movement. In S. Boinski and P.A. Garber (Eds.), On the move: How and why animals travel in groups (pp. 43–72). Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Borries, C. (1993). Ecology of female social relationships: Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) and the van Schaik model. Folia Primatol., 61: 21–30.
Borries, C. (2000). Male dispersal and mating season influxes in Hanuman langurs living in multi-male groups. In P.M. Kappeler (Ed.), Primate males. (pp. 146–158). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Borries, C, Sommer, V., and Srivastava, A. (1994). Weaving a tight social net: Allogrooming in free-ranging female langurs (Presbytis entellus). Inter. Jour. of Primatol., 15: 421–444.
Brain, C.K. (1981). The hunters or the hunted? An introduction to African cave taphonomy. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Brain, C.K. (1994). The Swartkrans palaeontological research project in perspective: Results and conclusions. South African Jour. of Sci., 91: 220–223.
Brantingham, P.J. (1998). Hominid-carnivore coevolution and invasion of the predatory guild. Jour. of Anthropol. Arch., 17: 327–353.
Brunet, M., Beauvilain, A., Geraads, D., Guy, F., Kasser, M., Mackaye, H.T., Maclatchy, L.M., Mouchelin, G., Sudre, J., and Vignaud, P. (1997). Chad: A new Pliocene hominid site. Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences Serie II-A: Sciences de la Terre et des Planetes, 324: 341–345.
Bunn, H.T., and Ezzo, J.A. (1993). Hunting and scavenging by Plio-Pleistocene hominids: Nutritional constraints, archaeological patterns, and behavioural implications. Jour. of Arch. Sci., 20: 365–398.
Busse, C. (1980). Leopard and lion predation upon chacma baboons living in the Moremi Wildlife Reserve. Botswana Notes & Records,12: 15–20.
Byers, J.A. (1997). American pronghorn: Social adaptations and the ghosts of predators past. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Capaldo, S.D. (1997). Experimental determinations of carcass processing by Plio-Pleistocene hominins and carnivores at FLK 22 (Zinjanthropus), Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Jour. of Human Evol., 33: 555–597.
Caro, T.M. (1987). Cheetah mothers’ vigilance: Looking out for prey or for predators? Behav. Ecol. and Sociobiol., 20: 351–361.
Caro, T.M. (1989a). The brotherhood of cheetahs. Natural History, 6: 50–56.
Caro, T.M. (1989b). Determinants of asociality in felids. In V. Standen and R.A. Foley (Eds.), Comparative socioecology: The behavioural ecology of humans and other mammals (pp. 41–74). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
Chapman, C.A. (1986). Boa constrictor predation and group response in white-faced Cebus monkeys. Biotropica, 18: 171–172.
Chapman, C.A, Wrangham, R.W., and Chapman, L.J. (1995). Ecological constraints on group size: An analysis of spider monkey and chimpanzee subgroups. Behav. Ecol. and Sociobiol., 36: 59–70.
Chapman, C.A, White, F.J., and Wrangham, R.W. (1994). Party size in chimpanzees and bonobos. In R.W. Wrangham, W.C. McGrew, F.B.M. de Waal, and P. Heltne (Eds.), Chimpanzee cultures (pp. 41–58). Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.
Chellam, R., and Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1993). Management of Asiatic lions in the Gir Forest, India. Symp. of the Zool. Soc. of Lond., 65: 409–424.
Cheney, D.L., and Seyfarth, R.M. (1990). How monkeys see the world. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Cooke, H.B.S. (1991). Dinofelis barlowi (Mammalia, Carnivore, Felidae) cranial material from Bolt’s Farm collected by the University of California African expedition. Paleontologia Africana, 28: 9–22.
Corbett, J. (1954). The man-eating leopard of Rudrapayang. London: Oxford Univ. Press.
Cowlishaw, G. (1994). Vulnerability to predation in baboon populations. Behaviour, 131: 293–304.
Cowlishaw, G., Lawes, M.J., Lightbody, M., Martin, A., Pettifor, R., and Rowcliffe, J.M. (2004). A simple rule for the costs of vigilance: Empirical evidence from a social forager. Proc. of Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 271: 27–33.
Creel, S.R., and Creel, N.M. (1995). Communal hunting and pack size in African wild dogs, Lycaon pictus. Animal Behaviour, 50: 1325–1339.
de Ruiter, D.J., and Berger, L.R. (2000). Leopards as taphonomic agents in dolomitic caves: Implications for bone accumulations in the hominid-bearing deposits of South Africa. Jour. of Arch. Sci., 27: 665–684.
Delson, E, Terranova, C.J, Jungers, W.L, Sargis, E.J, Jablonski, N.G., and Dechow, P.C. (2000). Body mass in Cercopithecidae (Primates, Mammalia): Estimation and scaling in extinct and extant taxa. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 83: 1–159.
Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., and Pickering, T.R. (2003). Early hominid hunting and scavenging: A zooarcheological review. Evol. Anthropol., 12: 275–282.
Doran, D. (1997). Influence of seasonality on activity patterns, feeding behavior, ranging and grouping patterns in Tao chimpanzees. Inter. Jour. of Primatol., 18: 183–206.
Doran, D., and McNeilage, A. (1998). Gorilla ecology and behavior. Evol. Anthropol., 6: 120–131.
Edmunds, M. (1974). Defence in Animals: A Survey of Anti-Predator Defences. London: Longman.
Elgar, M.A. (1989). Predator vigilance and group size in mammals and birds: A critical review of the empirical evidence. Biol. Review, 64: 13–33.
Fanshawe, J.H., and Fitzgibbon, C.D. (1993). Factors influencing the hunting success of an African wild dog pack. Animal Behaviour, 45: 479–490.
Fay, J.M., Carroll, R., Peterhans, J.C.K., and Harris, D. (1995). Leopard attack on and consumption of gorillas in the Central African Republic. Jour. of Human Evol., 29: 93–99.
Ferretti, M.P. (1999). Tooth enamel structure in the hyaenid Chasmaporthetes lunensis lunensis from the Late Pliocene of Italy, with implications for feeding behavior. Jour. of Vert. Paleontol., 19: 767–770.
FitzGibbon, C.D. (1989). A cost to individuals with reduced vigilance in groups of Thomson’s gazelles hunted by cheetahs. Animal Behaviour, 37: 508–510.
FitzGibbon, C.D. (1990a). Mixed-species grouping in Thomson’s gazelles: The antipredator benefits. Animal Behaviour, 39: 1116–1126.
FitzGibbon, C.D. (1990b). Why do hunting cheetahs prefer male gazelles? Animal Behaviour, 40: 837–845.
Fitzgibbon, C.D., and Lazarus, J. (1995). Anti-predator behavior of Serengeti ungulates: Individual differences and population consequences. In A.R.E. Sinclair, P. Arcese (Eds.), Serengeti II: Dynamics, management and conservation of an ecosystem (pp. 274–296). Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Foley, R. (1987). Another unique species. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Foster, W.A., and Treherne, J.E. (1981). Evidence for the dilution effect in the selfish herd from fish predation on a marine insect. Nature, 293: 466–467.
Fuller, T.K., and Kat, P.W. (1993). Hunting success of African wild dogs in southwestern Kenya. Jour. of Mammalogy, 74: 464–467.
Galton, F. (1871). Gregariousness in cattle and men. MacMillan’s Magazine, 23: 353–357.
Gautier-Hion, A., and Tutin, C.E.G. (1988). Simultaneous attack by adult males of a polyspecific troop of monkeys against a crowned hawk eagle. Folia Primatol., 51: 149–151.
Geraads, D. (1997). Pliocene Carnivora from Ahl al Oughlam (Casablanca). Geobios, 30: 127–164.
Ghiglieri, M.P. (1989). Hominoid sociobiology and hominin social evolution. In P. Heltne and L. Marquardt (Eds.), Understanding chimpanzees (pp. 370–379). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behaviour. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Goodman, S.M., O’Connor, S., and Langrand, O. (1993). A review of predation on lemurs: Implications for the evolution of social behavior in small, nocturnal primates. In P.M. Kappeler and J.U. Ganzhorn (Eds.), Lemur social systems and their ecological basis (pp. 51–66). New York: Plenum Press.
Gould, L., Fedigan, L.M., and Rose, L.M. (1997). Why be vigilant? The case of the alpha animal. Inter. Jour. of Primatol., 18: 401–414.
Haile-Selassie, Y. (2001). Late Miocene hominins from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 412: 178–181.
Hendey, Q.B. (1974). The late Cenozoic Carnivora of the south-western Cape Province. Annals of the South African Museum, 63: 1–363.
Hendey, Q.B. (1980). Agriotherium (Mammalia, Carnivora, Ursidae) from LangeBannweg, South Africa, and relationships of the genus. Annals of the South African Museum, 81: 1–109.
Hens, S.M., Konigsberg, L.W., and Jungers, W.L. (2000). Estimating stature in fossil hominins: Which regression model and reference sample to use? Journal of Human Evolution, 38: 767–784.
Hill, K.R., and Hurtado, A.M. (1995). Aché life history: The ecology and demography of a foraging people. New York: Aldine-DeGruyter.
Hill, R.A., and Cowlishaw, G. (2002). Foraging female baboons exhibit similar patterns of anti-predator vigilance across two populations. In L. Miller (Ed.), Eat or be eaten: Predator sensitive foraging in nonhuman primates (pp. 187–204). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, M., Byrne, R.W., Takasake, H., and Byrne, J.M.E. (1986). Aggression toward large carnivores by wild chimpanzees of Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Folia Primatol., 47: 8–13.
Holekamp, K.E., Smale, L., Berg, R., and Cooper, S.M. (1997). Hunting rates and hunting success in the spotted hyena (Crocuat crocuta). Jour. of Zool. Lond., 242: 1–15.
Hoppe-Dominik, B. (1984). Etude du spectre des proies de la panther Panthera pardus, dans le Parc National de Tao en Cote d’Ivoire. Mammalia, 48: 477–490.
Horrocks, J.A., and Hunte, W. (1986). Sentinel behaviour in vervet monkeys: Who sees whom first? Animal Behaviour, 34: 1566–1567.
Hunt, R.M. (1996). Biogeography of the Order Carnivora. In J.L. Gittleman (Ed.), Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution, Vol. 2. (pp. 485–541). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
Jones, M. (1998). The function of vigilance in sympatric marsupial carnivores: The eastern quoll and the Tasmanian devil. Animal Behaviour, 56: 1279–1284.
Keyser, A.W. (1991). The palaeontology of Haasgat: A preliminary account. Palaeontologia Africana, 28: 29–33.
Klump, G.M., and Shalter, M.D. (1984). Acoustic behavior of birds and mammals in the predator context. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 66: 189–226.
Knight, S.K., and Knight, R.L. (1986). Vigilance patterns of bald eagles feeding in groups. The Auk, 103: 263–272.
Koenig, A. (1994). Random scan, sentinels or sentinel system? A study in captive common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). In J.J. Roeder, J.R. Anderson, N. Herrenschmidt (Eds.), Current primatology, Vol. 11 Social development, learning and behaviour (pp. 69–76). Strasbourg: University Louis Pasteur.
Koenig, A., Beise, J., Chalise, M.K., and Ganzhorn, J.U. (1998). When females should contest for food-testing hypotheses about resource density, distribution, size, and quality with Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). Behav. Ecol. and Sociobiol., 42: 225–237.
Kortlandt, A. (1980). How might early hominins have defended themselves against large predators and food competitors? Jour. of Human Evol., 9: 79–112.
Kortlandt, A. (1989). The use of stone tools by wild-living chimpanzees. In P. Heltne and L. Marquardt (Eds.), Understanding chimpanzees (pp. 146–147). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
Kruuk, H. (1972). The spotted hyena. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Leakey, L.N., Milledge, S.A.H., Leakey, S.M., Edung, J., Haynes, P., Kiptoo, D.K., and McGeorge, A. (1999). Diet of striped hyaena in northern Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 37: 314–326.
Leakey, M.G., Feibel, C.S., McDougall, I., Ward, C., and Walker, A. (1998). New specimens and confirmation of an early age for Australopithecus anamensis. Nature, 393: 62–66.
Lee-Thorp, J.A., Thackeray, J.F., and van der Merwe, N. (2000). The hunters and the hunted revisited. Jour. of Human Evol., 39: 565–576.
Lee-Thorp, J.A., van der Merwe, N.J., and Brain, C.K. (1994). Diet of Australopithecus robustus at Swartkrans from stable carbon isotopic analysis. Jour. of Human Evol., 27: 361–372.
Lewis, M.E. (1997). Carnivoran paleoguilds of Africa: Implications for hominin food procurement strategies. Jour. of Human Evol., 32: 257–288.
Lima, S.L. (1990). The influence of models on the interpretation of vigilance. In M. Bekoff and D. Jamieson (Eds.) Interpretation and explanation in the study of animal behavior (pp. 246–267). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Lima, S.L. (1993). Ecological and evolutionary perspectives on escape from predatory attack: A survey of North American birds. The Wilson Bulletin, 105: 1–47.
Lima, S.L. (1995). Back to the basics of anti-predatory vigilance: The group-size effect. Animal Behaviour, 49: 11–20.
Linnell, J.D.C., Odden, J., Smith, M.E., Aanes, R., and Swenson, J.E. (1999). Large carnivores that kill livestock: Do problem individuals really exist? Wildlife Society Bulletin, 27: 698–705.
Linnell, J.D.C., Solberg, E.J., Brainerd, S., Liberg, O., Sand, H., Wabakken, P., and Kojola, I. (2003). Is the fear of wolves justified? A Fenniscandian perspective. Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 13: 1–160.
Lupo, K.D. (1998). Experimentally derived extraction rates for marrow: Implications for body part exploitation strategies of Plio-Pleistocene hominin scavengers. Jour. of Arch. Sci., 25: 657–675.
Marean, C.W. (1989). Sabertooth cats and their relevance to early hominin diet and evolution. Jour. of Human Evol., 18: 559–582.
Marean, C.W., and Ehrhardt, C.L. (1995). Paleoanthropological and paleoecological implications of the taphonomy of a sabertooth den. Jour. of Human Evol., 29: 515–547.
Martin, L.D. (1989). Fossil history of the terrestrial Carnivora. In J.L. Gittleman (Ed.), Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution (pp. 536–568). Ithaca: Comstock.
Martinez-Navarro, B., and Palmqvist, P. (1995). Presence of the African machairodont Megantereon whitei (Broom, 1937) (Felida, Carnivora, Mammalia) in the Lower Pleistocene site of Venta Micena (Orce, Granada, Spain), with some considerations of the origin, evolution and dispersal if the genus. Jour. of Arch. Sci., 22: 569–582.
Martinez-Navarro, B., and Palmqvist, P. (1996). Presence of the African saber-toothed felid Megantereon whitei (Broom, 1937) (Mammalia, Carnivora, Machairodontinae) in Apollonia-1 (Mygdonia Basin, Macedonia, Greece). Jour. of Arch. Sci., 23: 869–872.
Martínez-Navarro, B., and Rook, L. (2003). Gradual evolution in the African hunting dog lineage. Systematic implications. Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences Palevol., 2: 695–702.
Mathers, K., and Henneberg, M. (1996). Were we ever that big? Gradual increase in hominin body size over time. Homo, 46: 141–173.
Matheus, P.E. (1995). Diet and co-ecology of Pleistocene short-faced bears and brown bears in eastern Beringia. Quaternary Research, 44: 447–453.
McDougal, C. (1987). The man-eating tiger in geographical and historical perspective. In R.L. Tilson and U.S. Seal (Eds.), Tigers of the world (pp. 435–448). Park City, NJ: Noyes.
McHenry, H.M. (1992). Body size and proportions in early hominins. Amer. Jour. of Phys. Anthropol., 87: 407–431.
McHenry, H.M. (1994). Behavioral ecological implications of early hominin body size. Jour. of Human Evol., 27: 77–87.
Miller, W.E., and Carranza, O.C. (1996). Agriotherium schneideri from the hemphillian of Central Mexico. Jour. of Mammalogy, 77: 568–577.
Mills, M.G.L. (1989). The comparative behavioral ecology of hyenas: The importance of diet and food dispersion. In J.L. Gittleman (Ed.), Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution (pp. 125–142). Ithaca: Comstock Assocs.
Monahan, C.M. (1998). The Hadza carcass transport debate revisited and its archaeological implications. Jour. of Arch. Sci., 25: 405–424.
Packer, C., Scheel, D., and Pusey, A.E. (1990). Why lions form groups: Food is not enough. The American Naturalist, 136: 1–19.
Palmqvist, P. (2002). On the presence of Megantereon whitei at the south Turkwel hominin site, northern Kenya. Jour. of Paleontol., 76: 923–930.
Palmqvist, P., and Arribas, A. (2001). Taphonomic decoding of the paleobiological information locked in a lower Pleistocene assemblage of large mammals. Paleobiology, 27: 512–530.
Palmqvist, P, Martinez-Navarro, B., and Arribas, A. (1996). Prey selection by terrestrial carnivores in a lower Pleistocene paleocommunity. Paleobiology, 22: 514–534.
Palmqvist, P., Arribas, A., and Martínez-Navarro, B. (1999). Ecomorphological study of large canids from the lower Pleistocene of southeastern Spain. Lethaia, 32: 75–88.
Palmqvist, P., Martínez-Navarro, B., Toro, I., Espigares, M.P., Ros-Montoya, S., Torregrosa V., and Pérez-Claros, J.A. (2005). A re-evaluation of the evidence of human presence during Early Pleistocene times in southeastern Spain. L’Anthropologie, 109:411–450.
Palmqvist, P., Grocke, D.R., Arribas, A., and Farina, R.A. (2003). Paleoecological reconstruction of a lower Pleistocene large mammal community using biogeochemical (δ13C, δ15N, δ18O, Sr: Zn) and ecomorphological approaches. Paleobiology, 29: 205–22
Peetz, A.A., Norconk, M.A., and Kinzey, W.G. (1992). Predation by jaguar on howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) in Venezuela. Amer. Jour. of Primatol., 28: 223–228.
Peres, A. (1990). A harpy eagle successfully captures an adult male red howler monkey. The Wilson Bulletin, 102: 560–561.
Peterhans, J.C.K., and Gnoske, T.P. (2001). The science of ‘man-eating’ among lions Panthera leo with a reconstruction of the natural history of the ‘Maneaters of Tsavo’. Jour. of East African Natural History 90: 1–40
Petter, G., Pickford, M., and Senut, B. (1994). Presence of the genus Agriotherium (Mammalia, Carnivora, Ursidae) in the late Miocene of the Nkondo Formation (Uganda, East Africa). Paleontology, 319: 713–717.
Rajpurohit, K.S. (1998). Child lifting wolves in Hazaribagh, India. Ambio, 28: 163–166.
Rajpurohit, R.S., and Krausman, P.R. (2000). Human-sloth-bear conflicts in Madhya Pradesh, India. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 28: 393–399.
Rasa, O.A.E. (1986). Coordinated vigilance in dwarf mongoose family groups: ‘The watchman’s song’ hypothesis and the costs of guarding. Ethology, 71: 340–344.
Rasa, O.A.E. (1989). The cost and effectiveness of vigilance behaviour in the dwarf mongoose: Implications for fitness and optimal group size. Ethology, Ecology and Evolution, 1: 265–282.
Rodman, P.S., and Mitani, J.C. (1987). Orangutans: Sexual dimorphism in a solitary species. In B.B. Smuts, D.L. Cheney, R.M. Seyfarth, R.W. Wrangham, and T.T. Struhsaker (Eds.), Primate societies (pp. 146–154). Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Rook, L. (1994). The Plio-Pleistocene Old World canis (Xenocyon) ex gr falconeri. Bollettino della Societa Paleontologica Italiana, 33: 71–82.
Sanyal, P. (1987). Managing the man-eaters in the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve of India-A case study. In R.L. Tilson and U.S. Seal (Eds.), Tigers of the world (pp. 427–434). Park City, NJ: Noyes.
Savage, A., Snowdon, C.T., Giraldo, L.H., and Soto, L.H. (1996). Parental care patterns and vigilance in wild cotton-top tamarins (Sanguinas oedipus). In M. Norconk, A. Rosenberger, P. Garber (Eds.), Adaptive radiation of Neotropical primates (pp. 187–199) New York: Plenum Press.
Schaller, G.B. (1972). The Serengeti Lion: A study of predator-prey relations. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Seidensticker, J. (1983). Predation by Panthera cats and measures of human influence in habitats of South Asian monkeys. Inter. Jour. of Primatol., 4: 323–326.
Selvaggio, M.M. (1998). Evidence for a three-stage sequence of hominin and carnivore involvement with long bones at FLK Zinjanthropus, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Jour. of Arch. Sci., 25: 191–202.
Setiawan, E., Knott, C.D., and Budhi, S. (1996). Preliminary assessment of vigilance and predator avoidance behavior of orangutans in Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity, 3: 269–279.
Sillen, A., and Lee-Thorp, J.A. (1994). Trace element and isotopic aspects of predator-prey relationships in terrestrial foodwebs. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 107: 243–255.
Simons, J.W. (1966). The presence of leopard and a study of the food debris in the leopard lairs of the Mount Suswa Caves, Kenya. Bulletin of the Cave Exploration Group of East Africa, 1: 51–61.
Smith, D.W., Peterson, R.O., and Houston, D.B. (2003). Yellowstone after wolves. Bioscience, 53: 330–340.
Smuts, B.B. (1985). Sex and friendship in baboons. Hawthorne, Aldine.
Spoonheimer, M., and Lee-Thorp, J.A. (1999). Isotopic evidence for the diet of an early hominin, Australopithecus africanus. Science, 283: 368–370.
Sugardjito, J., te Boekhorst, I.J.A., and van Hooff, J.A.R.A.M. (1987). Ecological constraints on the grouping of wild orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus) in the Gunung Leuser National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia. Inter. Jour. of Primatol., 8: 17–41.
Sunquist, M.E., and Sunquist, F.C. (1989). Ecological constraints on predation by large felids. In J.L. Gittleman (Ed.), Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution (pp. 283–301). Ithaca: Comstock Assocs.
Taylor, M.E. (1989). Locomotor adaptations of carnivores. In J.L. Gittleman (Ed.), Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution (pp. 382–409). Ithaca: Comstock Assocs.
Treves, A. (1997). Vigilance and use of micro-habitat in solitary rainforest mammals. Mammalia, 61: 511–525.
Treves, A. (1999a). Has predation shaped the social systems of arboreal primates? Inter. Jour. of Primatol., 20: 35–53.
Treves, A. (2000). Theory and method in studies of vigilance and aggregation. Animal Behaviour, 60: 711–722.
Treves, A. (2002). Predicting predation risk for foraging, arboreal monkeys. In L. Miller (Ed.), Eat or be eaten: Predator sensitive foraging in nonhuman primates (pp. 222–241). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Treves, A., and Chapman, C.A. (1996). Conspecific threat, predation avoidance and resource defense: Implications for grouping in langurs. Behav. Ecol. and Sociobiol., 39: 43–53.
Treves, A., Drescher, A., and Ingrisano, N. (2001). Vigilance and aggregation in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra). Behav. Ecol. and Sociobiol., 50: 90–95.
Treves, A., Drescher, A., and Snowdon, C.T. (2003). Maternal watchfulness in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra). Ethology, 109: 135–146.
Treves, A., and Naughton-Treves, L. (1999). Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores. Jour. of Human Evol., 36: 275–282.
Treves, A., and Pizzagalli, D. (2002). Vigilance and perception of social stimuli: Views from ethology, and social neuroscience. In M. Bekoff, C. Allen, G. Burghardt (Eds.), The cognitive animal: Empirical and theoretical perspectives on animal cognition (pp. 463–469). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Tsukahara, T. (1993). Lions eat chimpanzees: The first evidence of predation by lions on wild chimpanzees. Amer. Jour. of Primatol. 29: 1–11.
Turnbull-Kemp, P. (1967). The leopard. Cape Town: Howard Timmins.
Turner, A. (1990). The evolution of the guild of larger terrestrial carnivores during the Plio-Pleistocene in Africa. Geobios, 23: 349–368.
Turner, A. (1997). Further remains of Carnivora (Mammalia) from the Sterkfontein hominin site. Palaeontologica Africana, 34: 115–126.
Turner, A., and Anton, M. (1996). The giant hyaena, Pachycrocuta brevirostris (Mammalia, Carnivora, Hyaenidae). Geobios, 29: 455–468.
Turner, A., and Anton, M. (1997). The big cats and their fossil relatives. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
Turner, A., and Anton, M. (1998). Climate and evolution: Implications of some extinction patterns in African and European machairodontine cats of the Plio-Pleistocene. Estudios Geologicos (Madrid), 54: 209–230.
Tutin, C.E.G., McGrew, W.C., and Baldwin, P.J. (1981). Responses of wild chimpanzees to potential predators. In A.B. Chiarelli and R.S. Corruccini (Eds.), Primate behavior and sociobiology (pp. 136–141). New York: Springer-Verlag.
van Schaik, C.P., and Griffiths, M. (1996). Activity patterns of Indonesian rain forest mammals. Biotropica, 28: 105–112.
Watts, D.P. (1998). A preliminary study of selective visual attention in female mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei). Primates, 39: 71–78.
Werdelin, L., Turner, A., Solounias, N. (1994). Studies of fossil hyaenids: The genera Hyaenictis Gaudry and Chasmaporthetes Hay, with a reconsideration of the Hyaenidae of Langebaanwegm South Africa. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 11: 197–217.
Werdelin, L., and Turner, A. (1996). Turnover in the guild of larger carnivores in Eurasia across the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. Acta Zoologica Cracovensia 39: 585–592.
Wickler, W. (1985). Coordination of vigilance in bird groups. The ‘watchman’s song’ hypothesis. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 69: 250–253.
Wirtz, P., and Wawra, M. (1986). Vigilance and group size in Homo sapiens. Ethology, 71: 283–286.
WoldeGabriel, G., White, T.D., Suwa, G., Renne, P., de Heinzelin, J., Hart, W.K., and Helken, G. (1994). Ecological and temporal placement of early Pliocene hominins at Aramis, Ethiopia. Nature, 371: 330–333.
Wright, P.C. (1998). Impact of predation risk on the behaviour of Propithecus diadema edwardsi in the rain forest of Madagascar. Behaviour, 135: 483–512.
Ydenberg, R.C., and Dill, L.M. (1986). The economics of fleeing from predators. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 16: 229–251.
Zuberbühler, K. ((2000). Interspecies semantic communication in two forest primates. Proc. of Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 267: 713–718.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Treves, A., Palmqvist, P. (2007). Reconstructing Hominin Interactions with Mammalian Carnivores (6.0–1.8 Ma). In: Gursky, S.L., Nekaris, K.A.I. (eds) Primate Anti-Predator Strategies. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-34810-0_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-34810-0_17
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-34807-0
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-34810-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)