Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a general or specific working memory (WM) system is related to writing and whether individual differences in reading and/or processing efficiency underlie the correlations between WM and writing. Two studies correlated WM with writing (Test of Written Language-TOWL) and reading measures. In Study 1, WM was correlated significantly with a number of writing measures, particularly to those measures related to text generation. Working-memory also contributed unique variance to writing, beyond what is predicted by reading comprehension. Study 2 compared the correlations of verbal and visual-spatial WM measures with the TOWL under initial and enhanced memory processing (dynamic assessment) conditions. The coefficients were statistically comparable between initial and enhanced processing conditions, suggesting that individual differences in processing efficiency do not account for the correlations between WM and writing. Overall, the results indicated that (a) WM measures contribute unique variance to writing, especially text generation, and (b) working memory performance improves under gain conditions, but this enhanced processing efficiency did not appear to mediate the links between WM and writing. Taken together, the two studies support a general capacity explanation for the relationship between working memory and text generation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working-memory. London, UK: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A. D., Logie, R., Nimmo-Smith, I. & Brereton, N. (1985). Components of fluent reading, Journal of Memory and Language 24: 119–131.
Beal, C. R. (1990). The development of text evaluation and revision skills, Child Development 61: 247–258.
Bereiter, C., Burtis, P. & Scardamalia, M. (1988). Cognitive operations in constructing main points in written composition, Journal of Memory and Language 27: 261–278.
Berninger, V. & Swanson, H. L. (1994). Modifying Hayes and Flower's Model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing. In E., Butterfield (ed.), Children's writing: Toward a process theory of the development of skilled writing (pp. 57–81). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Brock, J. K. (1982). Toward a cognitive psychology of syntax: Information processing contributions to sentence formulation, Psychological Review 89: 1–47.
Campione, J. & Brown, A. (1987). Linking dynamic assessment with school achievement. In C., Lidz (ed.) Dynamic assessment (pp. 82–115). New York: Guildford Press.
Cantor, J., Engle, R. W. & Hamilton, G. (1991). Short-term memory, working memory, and verbal abilities: How do they relate?, Intelligence 15: 229–246.
Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.
Clay, M. (1971). Sentence repetition: Elicited imitation of a controlled set of syntactic structures by four language groups, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 36: 85.
Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Daneman, M. (1987). Reading and working-memory. In J. R., Beech & A. M., Colley (eds.), Cognitive approaches to reading (pp. 57–86). New York: Wiley.
Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19: 450–466.
Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1983). Individual differences in integrating information between and within sentences, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition 9: 561–584.
Daneman, M. & Green, I. (1986). Individual differences in comprehending and producing words in context, Journal of Memory and Language 25: 1–18.
Daneman, M. & Tardiff, T. (1987). Working-memory and reading skill re-examined. In M., Coltheart (ed.) Attention and performance, XII: The psychology of reading (pp. 491–508). Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
Dixon, P., LeFevre, J. & Twilley, L. C. (1988). Word knowledge and working memory as predictors of reading skill, Journal of Educational Psychology 80: 465–472.
Dunn, L. M. & Dunn, L. M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Embretson, S. E. (1987). Toward a development of a psychometric approach. In C., Lidz (ed.), Dynamic assessment (pp. 141–172). New York: Guildford Press.
Engle, R., Cantor, J. & Carullo, J. (1993). Individual differences in working-memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18: 972–992.
Engle, R. W., Nations, J. & Cantor, J. (1990). Is working-memory capacity just another name for word knowledge?, Journal of Educational Psychology 82: 799–804.
Flower, L. S. & Hayes, J. R. (1980). The dynamics of composing: Making plans and juggling constraints. In L. W., Gregg & E. R., Steinberg (eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 31–50) Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gathercole, S. E. & Baddeley, A. D. (1993). Working memory and language. East Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hammill, D. & Larsen, S. (1988). Test of written language. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Hayes, J. & Flower, L. (1980). Identifying the organization of the writing process. In L. W., Gregg & E. R., Steinberg (eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3–30). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hidi, S. E. & Hildyard, A. (1983). The comparison of oral and written productions in two discourse types, Discourse Processes 6: 91–105.
Jastak, S. & Wilkinson, G. (1984). Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates.
Just, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working-memory, Psychological Review 99: 122–149.
Kellogg, R. T. (1987). Effects of topic knowledge on the allocation of processing time and cognitive effort to writing processes, Memory & Cognition 15: 256–266.
Marascuilo, L. & Levin, J. R. (1983). Multivariate statistics in the social sciences. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Masson, M. E. J. & Miller, J. A. (1983). Working-memory and individual differences in comprehension and memory of text, Journal of Educational Psychology 75: 214–219.
McCutchen, D. (1984). Writing as a linguistic problem. Educational Psychologist 19: 226–238.
McCutchen, D. (1986). Domain knowledge and linguistic knowledge in the development of writing ability, Journal of Memory and Language 25: 431–444.
McCutchen, D. (1987). Children's discourse skill: Forms and modality requirements of schooled writing, Discourse Processes 10: 267–286.
McCutchen, D. & Perfetti, C. A. (1982). Coherence and connectedness in the development of discourse production, Text 2: 113–139.
Perfetti, C. & McCutchen, D. (1987). Schooled language competence: Linguistic abilities in reading and writing. In S., Rosenberg (ed.), Advances in applied psycholinguistics, Vol 2 (pp. 105–141). New York: Cambridge Press.
Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
Scardamalia, M. (1981). How children code with the cognitive demands of writing. In C. H., Frederiksen & J. F., Dominic (eds.), Writing: The nature, development, and teaching of written communication, Vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Scardamalia, M. & Bereiter, C. (1986). Research on written composition. In M. C., Wittrock (ed.) Handbook of research on teaching, 3rd ed. (pp. 778–803). New York: Macmillan.
Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C. & Goelman, H. (1982). The role of production factors in writing ability. In M., Nystrang (ed.), What writers know. New York: Academic Press.
Shanahan, T. (1984). Nature of the reading-writing relation: An exploratory multivariate analysis, Journal of Educational Psychology 76: 466–477.
Swanson, H. L. (1992). The generality and modifiability of working memory, Journal of Educational Psychology 84: 473–488.
Swanson, H. L. (1993). Individual differences in working memory: A model testing and subgroup analysis, Intelligence 17: 285–332.
Swanson, H. L. (1995). S-Cognitive Processing Test. Austin, TX: PRO_ED.
Swanson, H. L. (1996). Age-related and individual differences in children's working memory, Memory & Cognition 24: 70–82.
Swanson, H. L. & Berninger, V. (1995). Working memory as a source of individual differences in children's writing. In E., Butterfield (ed.), Children's writing: Toward a process theory of skilled writing (pp. 31–35). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Swanson, H. L. & Berninger, V. (1996). Individual differences in children's working memory and writing skill, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (in press).
Swanson, H. L., Cochran, K. & Ewers, C. (1989). Working-memory and reading disabilities, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 17: 745–746.
Turner, M. L. & Engle, R. W. (1989). Is working-memory capacity task dependent?, Journal of Memory and Language 28: 27–154.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Swanson, H.L., Berninger, V.W. Individual differences in children's writing: A function of working memory or reading or both processes?. Read Writ 8, 357–383 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00395114
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00395114