Abstract
It is well known that prolonged passive muscle stretch reduces maximal muscle force production. There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that adaptations occurring within the nervous system play a major role in this stretch-induced force reduction. This article reviews the existing literature, and some new evidence, regarding acute neurophysiological changes in response to passive muscle stretching. We discuss the possible contribution of supra-spinal and spinal structures to the force reduction after passive muscle stretch. In summary, based on the recent evidence reviewed we propose a new hypothesis that a disfacilitation occurring at the motoneuronal level after passive muscle stretch is a major factor affecting the neural efferent drive to the muscle and, subsequently, its ability to produce maximal force.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Simenz CJ, Dugan CA, Ebben WP. Strength and conditioning practices of National Basketball Association strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res. 2005;19(3):495–504.
Witvrouw E, Mahieu N, Danneels L, et al. Stretching and injury prevention. Sports Med. 2004;34(7):443–9.
Amako M, Oda T, Masuoka K, et al. Effect of static stretching on prevention of injuries for military recruits. Mil Med. 2003;168(6):442.
Bixler B, Jones RL. High-school football injuries: effects of a post-halftime warm-up and stretching routine. Fam Pract Res J. 1992;12(2):131–9.
Ekstrand J, Gillquist J, Möller M, et al. Incidence of soccer injuries and their relation to training and team success. Am J Sports Med. 1983;11(2):63–7.
Behm DG, Blazevich AJ, Kay AD, et al. Acute effects of muscle stretching on physical performance, range of motion, and injury incidence in healthy active individuals: a systematic review. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41(999):1–11.
Small K, Mc Naughton L, Matthews M. A systematic review into the efficacy of static stretching as part of a warm-up for the prevention of exercise-related injury. Res Sports Med. 2008;16(3):213–31.
Shehab R, Mirabelli M, Gorenflo D, et al. Pre-exercise stretching and sports related injuries: knowledge, attitudes and practices. Clin J Sport Med. 2006;16(3):228–31.
Ebben WP, Blackard DO. Strength and conditioning practices of National Football League strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res. 2001;15(1):48–58.
Ebben WP, Carroll RM, Simenz CJ. Strength and conditioning practices of National Hockey League strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(4):889–97.
Ebben WP, Hintz MJ, Simenz CJ. Strength and conditioning practices of Major League Baseball strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res. 2005;19(3):538–46.
Wiart L, Darrah J, Kembhavi G. Stretching with children with cerebral palsy: what do we know and where are we going? Pediatr Phys Ther. 2008;20(2):173–8.
Committee ACP. Exercise prescription for older adults with osteoarthritis pain: Consensus practice recommendations. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49(6):808–23.
McHugh MP, Cosgrave CH. To stretch or not to stretch: the role of stretching in injury prevention and performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(2):169–81.
Pope RP, Herbert RD, Kirwan JD, et al. A randomized trial of preexercise stretching for prevention of lower-limb injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(2):271–7.
Shrier I. Meta-analysis on preexercise stretching. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(10):1832.
Thacker SB, Gilchrist J, Stroup DF, et al. The impact of stretching on sports injury risk: a systematic review of the literature. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(3):371–8.
Rubini EC, Costa AL, Gomes PS. The effects of stretching on strength performance. Sports Med. 2007;37(3):213–24.
Kay AD, Blazevich AJ. Effect of acute static stretch on maximal muscle performance: a systematic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(1):154–64.
Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD. Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors. J Appl Physiol. 2000;89(3):1179–88.
Power K, Behm D, Cahill F, et al. An acute bout of static stretching: effects on force and jumping performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(8):1389–96.
Kokkonen J, Nelson AG, Cornwell A. Acute muscle stretching inhibits maximal strength performance. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1998;69(4):411–5.
Cramer JT, Beck TW, Housh TJ, et al. Acute effects of static stretching on characteristics of the isokinetic angle–torque relationship, surface electromyography, and mechanomyography. J Sports Sci. 2007;25(6):687–98.
Kay AD, Blazevich AJ. Isometric contractions reduce plantar flexor moment, Achilles tendon stiffness, and neuromuscular activity but remove the subsequent effects of stretch. J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(4):1181–9.
Kay AD, Blazevich AJ. Moderate-duration static stretch reduces active and passive plantar flexor moment but not Achilles tendon stiffness or active muscle length. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106(4):1249–56.
Kay AD, Blazevich AJ. Concentric muscle contractions before static stretching minimize, but do not remove, stretch-induced force deficits. J Appl Physiol. 2010;108(3):637–45.
Morse CI, Degens H, Seynnes OR, et al. The acute effect of stretching on the passive stiffness of the human gastrocnemius muscle tendon unit. J Physiol. 2008;586(1):97–106.
Avela J, Kyrolainen H, Komi PV. Altered reflex sensitivity after repeated and prolonged passive muscle stretching. J Appl Physiol. 1999;86(4):1283–91.
Armstrong RB, Duan C, Delp MD, et al. Elevations in rat soleus muscle [Ca2+] with passive stretch. J Appl Physiol. 1993;74(6):2990–7.
Trajano GS, Nosaka K, Seitz L, et al. Intermittent stretch reduces force and central drive more than continuous stretch. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46(5):902–10.
Trajano GS, Seitz L, Nosaka K, et al. Contribution of central vs. peripheral factors to the force loss induced by passive stretch of the human plantar flexors. J Appl Physiol. 2013;115(2):212–8.
Jones D. High-and low-frequency fatigue revisited. Acta Physiol Scand. 1996;156(3):265–70.
Martin V, Millet GY, Martin A, et al. Assessment of low-frequency fatigue with two methods of electrical stimulation. J Appl Physiol. 2004;97(5):1923–9.
Cornwell A, Nelson AG, Sidaway B. Acute effects of stretching on the neuromechanical properties of the triceps surae muscle complex. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;86(5):428–34.
Cramer JT, Housh TJ, Weir JP, et al. The acute effects of static stretching on peak torque, mean power output, electromyography, and mechanomyography. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005;93(5–6):530–9.
Behm DG, Button DC, Butt JC. Factors affecting force loss with prolonged stretching. Can J Appl Physiol. 2001;26(3):261–72.
Gandevia SC. Spinal and supraspinal factors in human muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev. 2001;81(4):1725–89.
Herda TJ, Costa PB, Walter AA, et al. The effects of two modes of static stretching on muscle strength and stiffness. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(9):1777–84.
Ryan ED, Beck TW, Herda TJ, et al. Do practical durations of stretching alter muscle strength? A dose-response study. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(8):1529–37.
Arabadzhiev TI, Dimitrov VG, Dimitrova NA, et al. Interpretation of EMG integral or RMS and estimates of “neuromuscular efficiency” can be misleading in fatiguing contraction. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2010;20(2):223–32.
Farina D, Merletti R, Enoka RM. The extraction of neural strategies from the surface EMG. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(4):1486–95.
Dimitrova NA, Dimitrov GV. Interpretation of EMG changes with fatigue: facts, pitfalls, and fallacies. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2003;13(1):13–36.
Christie A, Inglis JG, Kamen G, Gabriel DA. Relationships between surface EMG variables and motor unit firing rates. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(2):177–85.
Taylor JL, Allen GM, Butler JE, et al. Supraspinal fatigue during intermittent maximal voluntary contractions of the human elbow flexors. J Appl Physiol. 2000;89(1):305–13.
Gandevia S, Petersen N, Butler J, et al. Impaired response of human motoneurones to corticospinal stimulation after voluntary exercise. J Physiol. 1999;521(3):749–59.
Gandevia S, Allen GM, Butler JE, et al. Supraspinal factors in human muscle fatigue: evidence for suboptimal output from the motor cortex. J Physiol. 1996;490(Pt 2):529.
Søgaard K, Gandevia SC, Todd G, et al. The effect of sustained low-intensity contractions on supraspinal fatigue in human elbow flexor muscles. J Physiol. 2006;573(2):511–23.
Ross EZ, Middleton N, Shave R, et al. Corticomotor excitability contributes to neuromuscular fatigue following marathon running in man. Exp Physiol. 2007;92(2):417–26.
Nordlund MM, Thorstensson A, Cresswell AG. Central and peripheral contributions to fatigue in relation to level of activation during repeated maximal voluntary isometric plantar flexions. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(1):218–25.
Taylor JL, Gandevia SC. A comparison of central aspects of fatigue in submaximal and maximal voluntary contractions. J Appl Physiol. 2008;104(2):542–50.
Matthews PB. The human stretch reflex and the motor cortex. Trends Neurosci. 1991;14(3):87–91.
Gellhorn E, Hyde J. Influence of proprioception on map of cortical responses. J Physiol. 1953;122(2):371–85.
Scott SH, Sergio LE, Kalaska JF. Reaching movements with similar hand paths but different arm orientations. II. Activity of individual cells in dorsal premotor cortex and parietal area 5. J Neurophysiol. 1997;78(5):2413–26.
Phillips C, Powell T, Wiesendanger M. Projection from low-threshold muscle afferents of hand and forearm to area 3a of baboon’s cortex. J Physiol. 1971;217(2):419–46.
Hore J, Preston J, Cheney P. Responses of cortical neurons (areas 3a and 4) to ramp stretch of hindlimb muscles in the baboon. J Neurophysiol. 1976;39(3):484–500.
Huffman KJ, Krubitzer L. Area 3a: topographic organization and cortical connections in marmoset monkeys. Cereb Cortex. 2001;11(9):849–67.
Rathelot J-A, Strick PL. Subdivisions of primary motor cortex based on cortico-motoneuronal cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2009;106(3):918–23.
Avendaño C, Isla AJ, Rausell E. Area 3a in the cat II. Projections to the motor cortex and their relations to other corticocortical connections. J Comp Neurol. 1992;321(3):373–86.
Murray EA, Coulter JD. Organization of corticospinal neurons in the monkey. J Comp Neurol. 1981;195(2):339–65.
Huerta M, Pons T. Primary motor cortex receives input from area 3a in macaques. Brain Res. 1990;537(1):367–71.
Canedo A. Primary motor cortex influences on the descending and ascending systems. Progr Neurobiol. 1997;51(3):287–335.
Starr A, McKeon B, Skuse N, et al. Cerebral potentials evoked by muscle stretch in man. Brain. 1981;104(Pt 1):149–66.
Cohen LG, Starr A, Pratt H. Cerebral somatosensory potentials evoked by muscle stretch, cutaneous taps and electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves in the lower limbs in man. Brain. 1985;108(1):103–21.
Marconi B, Filippi GM, Koch G, et al. Long-term effects on motor cortical excitability induced by repeated muscle vibration during contraction in healthy subjects. J Neurol Sci. 2008;275(1):51–9.
Coxon JP, Stinear JW, Byblow WD. Amplitude of muscle stretch modulates corticomotor gain during passive movement. Brain Res. 2005;1031(1):109–17.
Veldman M, Maffiuletti N, Hallett M, et al. Direct and crossed effects of somatosensory stimulation on neuronal excitability and motor performance in humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;47:22–35.
Martin PG, Butler JE, Gandevia SC, et al. Noninvasive stimulation of human corticospinal axons innervating leg muscles. J Neurophysiol. 2008;100(2):1080–6.
Taylor JL. Stimulation at the cervicomedullary junction in human subjects. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2006;16(3):215–23.
Keenan KG, Farina D, Merletti R, et al. Amplitude cancellation reduces the size of motor unit potentials averaged from the surface EMG. J Appl Physiol. 2006;100(6):1928–37.
Keenan KG, Farina D, Maluf KS, et al. Influence of amplitude cancellation on the simulated surface electromyogram. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98(1):120–31.
Farina D, Cescon C, Negro F, et al. Amplitude cancellation of motor-unit action potentials in the surface electromyogram can be estimated with spike-triggered averaging. J Neurophysiol. 2008;100(1):431.
Yao W, Fuglevand RJ, Enoka RM. Motor-unit synchronization increases EMG amplitude and decreases force steadiness of simulated contractions. J Neurophysiol. 2000;83(1):441–52.
Farina D, Merletti R, Nazzaro M, et al. Effect of joint angle on EMG variables in leg and thigh muscles. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag. 2001;20(6):62–71.
Frigon A, Carroll TJ, Jones KE, et al. Ankle position and voluntary contraction alter maximal M waves in soleus and tibialis anterior. Muscle Nerve. 2007;35(6):756–66.
Merton PA. Voluntary strength and fatigue. J Physiol. 1954;123(3):553–64.
Shield A, Zhou S. Assessing voluntary muscle activation with the twitch interpolation technique. Sports Med. 2004;34(4):253–67.
De Luca C, Kline J. Influence of proprioceptive feedback on the firing rate and recruitment of motoneurons. J Neural Eng. 2011;9(1):016007.
Desmedt J, Godaux E. Ballistic contractions in man: characteristic recruitment pattern of single motor units of the tibialis anterior muscle. J Physiol. 1977;264(3):673–93.
Desmedt JE, Godaux E. Ballistic contractions in fast or slow human muscles; discharge patterns of single motor units. J Physiol. 1978;285(1):185–96.
Freund H-J, Büdingen H-J. The relationship between speed and amplitude of the fastest voluntary contractions of human arm muscles. Exp Brain Res. 1978;31(1):1–12.
Harwood B, Rice CL. Changes in motor unit recruitment thresholds of the human anconeus muscle during torque development preceding shortening elbow extensions. J Neurophysiol. 2012;107(10):2876–84.
Yoneda T, Oishi K, Fujikura S, et al. A. Recruitment threshold force and its changing type of motor units during voluntary contraction at various speeds in man. Brain Res. 1986;372(1):89–94.
Taylor JL. Last word on point: counterpoint: the interpolated twitch does/does not provide a valid measure of the voluntary activation of muscle. J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(1):367.
De Haan A, Gerrits K, de Ruiter C. Counterpoint: the interpolated twitch does not provide a valid measure of the voluntary activation of muscle. J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(1):355.
Millet GY, Lepers R. Alterations of neuromuscular function after prolonged running, cycling and skiing exercises. Sports Med. 2004;34(2):105–16.
Neyroud D, Cheng AJ, Bourdillon N, et al. Muscle fatigue affects the interpolated twitch technique when assessed using electrically-induced contractions in human and rat muscles. Front Physiol. 2016;7.
Contessa P, Puleo A, De Luca CJ. Is the notion of central fatigue based on a solid foundation? J Neurophysiol. 2016;115(2):967–77.
Arampatzis A, Mademli L, De Monte G, et al. Changes in fascicle length from rest to maximal voluntary contraction affect the assessment of voluntary activation. J Biomech. 2007;40(14):3193–200.
Taylor JL. Point: counterpoint: the interpolated twitch does/does not provide a valid measure of the voluntary activation of muscle. J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(1):354–5.
Place N, Yamada T, Bruton JD, et al. Interpolated twitches in fatiguing single mouse muscle fibres: implications for the assessment of central fatigue. J Physiol. 2008;586(11):2799–805.
Upton AR, McComas AJ, Sica RE. Potentiation of “late” responses evoked in muscles during effort. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1971;34(6):699–711.
Pierrot-Deseilligny E. Assessing changes in presynaptic inhibition of Ia afferents during movement in humans. J Neurosci Methods. 1997;74(2):189–99.
Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Andersen JL, et al. Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skeletal muscle following resistance training. J Appl Physiol. 2002;93(4):1318–26.
Knikou M. The H-reflex as a probe: pathways and pitfalls. J Neurosci Methods. 2008;171(1):1–12.
Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Burke D. The circuitry of the human spinal cord: its role in motor control and movement disorders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2005.
Aagaard P. Training-induced changes in neural function. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2003;31(2):61–7.
Solstad GM, Fimland MS, Helgerud J, et al. Test-retest reliability of V-wave responses in the soleus and gastrocnemius medialis. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2011;28(2):217–21.
Gondin J, Duclay J, Martin A. Soleus- and gastrocnemii-evoked V-wave responses increase after neuromuscular electrical stimulation training. J Neurophysiol. 2006;95(6):3328–35.
Duclay J, Martin A. Evoked H-reflex and V-wave responses during maximal isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle contraction. J Neurophysiol. 2005;94(5):3555–62.
Pensini M, Martin A. Effect of voluntary contraction intensity on the H-reflex and V-wave responses. Neurosci Lett. 2004;367(3):369–74.
Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Andersen JL, et al. Neural adaptation to resistance training: changes in evoked V-wave and H-reflex responses. J Appl Physiol. 2002;92(6):2309–18.
Ryan ED, Herda TJ, Costa PB, et al. Acute effects of passive stretching of the plantarflexor muscles on neuromuscular function: the influence of age. Age. 2014;36(4):1–12.
Avela J, Finni T, Liikavainio T, et al. Neural and mechanical responses of the triceps surae muscle group after 1 h of repeated fast passive stretches. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(6):2325.
Nelson AG, Guillory IK, Cornwell C, et al. Inhibition of maximal voluntary isokinetic torque production following stretching is velocity-specific. J Strength Cond Res. 2001;15(2):241–6.
Avela J, Kyrolainen H, Komi PV, et al. Reduced reflex sensitivity persists several days after long-lasting stretch-shortening cycle exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1999;86(4):1292–300.
Matthews BH. The response of a muscle spindle during active contraction of a muscle. J Physiol. 1931;72(2):153–74.
Prochazka A, Ellaway P. Sensory systems in the control of movement. Compr Physiol. 2012;2:2615–27.
Heckman C, Binder MD. Analysis of effective synaptic currents generated by homonymous Ia afferent fibers in motoneurons of the cat. J Neurophysiol. 1988;60(6):1946–66.
Heckmann CJ, Gorassini MA, Bennett DJ. Persistent inward currents in motoneuron dendrites: implications for motor output. Muscle Nerve. 2005;31(2):135–56.
Hultborn H, Denton ME, Wienecke J, et al. Variable amplification of synaptic input to cat spinal motoneurones by dendritic persistent inward current. J Physiol. 2003;552(Pt 3):945–52.
Rosenbaum D, Hennig EM. The influence of stretching and warm-up exercises on Achilles tendon reflex activity. J Sports Sci. 1995;13(6):481–90.
Weir DE, Tingley J, Elder GC. Acute passive stretching alters the mechanical properties of human plantar flexors and the optimal angle for maximal voluntary contraction. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005;93(5–6):614–23.
Opplert J, Genty J-B, Babault N. Do stretch durations affect muscle mechanical and neurophysiological properties? Int J Sports Med. 2016;37(9):673–9.
Herda TJ, Ryan ED, Smith AE, et al. Acute effects of passive stretching vs vibration on the neuromuscular function of the plantar flexors. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009;19(5):703–13.
Trajano GS, Seitz LB, Nosaka K, et al. Can passive stretch inhibit motoneuron facilitation in the human plantar flexors? J Appl Physiol. 2014;117(12):1486–92.
McNeil CJ, Butler JE, Taylor JL, et al. Testing the excitability of human motoneurons. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7.
Heckman CJ, Enoka RM. Motor unit. Compr Physiol. 2012;2:2629–82.
D’Amico JM, Murray KC, Li Y, et al. Constitutively active 5-HT2/α1 receptors facilitate muscle spasms after human spinal cord injury. J Neurophysiol. 2013;109(6):1473–84.
Wei K, Glaser JI, Deng L, et al. Serotonin affects movement gain control in the spinal cord. J Neurosci. 2014;34(38):12690–700.
Jami L. Golgi tendon organs in mammalian skeletal muscle: functional properties and central actions. Phys Rev. 1992;72(3):623–66.
Petit J, Scott J, Reynolds K. Tendon organ sensitivity to steady-state isotonic contraction of in-series motor units in feline peroneus tertius muscle. J Physiol. 1997;500(Pt 1):227–33.
Gregory J, Proske U. The responses of Golgi tendon organs to stimulation of different combinations of motor units. J Physiol. 1979;295(1):251–62.
Stuart D, Mosher C, Gerlach R, et al. Mechanical arrangement and transducing properties of Golgi tendon organs. Exp Brain Res. 1972;14(3):274–92.
Houk J, Henneman E. Responses of Golgi tendon organs to active contractions of the soleus muscle of the cat. J Neurophysiol. 1967;30(3):466–81.
Khan SI, Burne JA. Afferents contributing to autogenic inhibition of gastrocnemius following electrical stimulation of its tendon. Brain Res. 2009;1282:28–37.
Stephens JA, Reinking RM, Stuart DG. Tendon organs of cat medial gastrocnemius: responses to active and passive forces as a function of muscle length. J Neurophysiol. 1975;38(12):17–123.
Houk J. A viscoelastic interaction which produces one component of adaptation in responses of Golgi tendon organs. J Neurophysiol. 1967;30:1482–93.
Hagbarth K-E, Vallbo Å. Discharge characteristics of human muscle afferents during muscle stretch and contraction. Exp Neurol. 1968;22(4):674–94.
Granit R. Reflex self-regulation of muscle contraction and autogenetic inhibition. J Neurophysiol. 1950;13(5):351–72.
Gossard J-P, Brownstone R, Barajon I, et al. Transmission in a locomotor-related group Ib pathway from hindlimb extensor muscles in the cat. Exp Brain Res. 1994;98(2):213–28.
Hultborn H. State-dependent modulation of sensory feedback. J Physiol. 2001;533(1):5–13.
Quevedo J, Fedirchuk B, Gosgnach S, et al. Group I disynaptic excitation of cat hindlimb flexor and bifunctional motoneurones during fictive locomotion. J Physiol. 2000;525(2):549–64.
Zytnicki D, Lafleur J, Horcholle-Bossavit G, et al. Reduction of Ib autogenetic inhibition in motoneurons during contractions of an ankle extensor muscle in the cat. J Neurophysiol. 1990;64(5):1380–9.
Khan SI, Burne JA. Reflex inhibition of normal cramp following electrical stimulation of the muscle tendon. J Neurophysiol. 2007;98(3):1102–7.
Fournier E, Karz R, Pierrot-Deseilligny E. Descending control of reflex pathways in the production of voluntary isolated movements in man. Brain Res. 1983;288(1):375–7.
Rogasch NC, Burne JA, Binboğa E, et al. Synaptic potentials contributing to reflex inhibition in gastrocnemius following tendon electrical stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol. 2011;122(6):1190–6.
Khan SI, Burne JA. Inhibitory mechanisms following electrical stimulation of tendon and cutaneous afferents in the lower limb. Brain Res. 2010;1308:47–57.
Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Katz R, Morin C. Evidence for lb inhibition in human subjects. Brain Res. 1979;166(1):176–9.
Cleland CL, Hayward L, Rymer W. Neural mechanisms underlying the clasp-knife reflex in the cat. II. Stretch-sensitive muscular-free nerve endings. J Neurophysiol. 1990;64(4):1319–30.
Cleland CL, Rymer W. Functional properties of spinal interneurons activated by muscular free nerve endings and their potential contributions to the clasp-knife reflex. J Neurophysiol. 1993;69(4):1181–91.
Cleland CL, Rymer W. Neural mechanisms underlying the clasp-knife reflex in the cat. I. Characteristics of the reflex. J Neurophysiol. 1990;64(4):1303–18.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Funding
No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this manuscript.
Conflict of interest
Gabriel Trajano, Kazunori Nosaka and Anthony Blazevich declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Trajano, G.S., Nosaka, K. & Blazevich, A.J. Neurophysiological Mechanisms Underpinning Stretch-Induced Force Loss. Sports Med 47, 1531–1541 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0682-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0682-6