My research mainly relates to third language acquisition and cross-linguistic influence.Some of my research interests include:* how words are acquired and processed in the multilingual mental lexicon* how a shared conceptual base influences (post-L2) vocabulary acquisition* what different factors guide the quantity, quality, and direction of cross-linguistic influence* how subsequent language acquisition affects the languages we already knowMy PhD thesis, Snakes and Ladders: Developmental Aspects of Lexical-Conceptual Relationships in the Multilingual Mental Lexicon is now available.
One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CL... more One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is translation ambiguity (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). Translation ambiguity refers to a situation where word meanings are different in a speaker’s languages. To give an example, Swedish does not lexicalize any difference between TO LEND and TO BORROW, whereas this distinction is made in English. Jiang (2002) proposed that language learners depend on explicit rules to resolve translation ambiguity. That is, based on Jiang’s predictions, a Swedish learner of English would have to consciously remember this difference to use the two English words successfully. Research in this area has focused on speakers with two languages. This thesis extends the research into third language acquisition. In this thesis, four empirical investigations are presented. Studies 1 and 2 focus on the initial state in L2 and L3 learners, respectively, of a Finnish-based pseudolanguage Kontu. Study 3 explored L1 German and L2 English naturalistic learners of L3 Swedish with longitudinal data from a beginner’s level until advanced fluency in the L3. Study 4 is a cross-sectional replication of Study 3. The present thesis represents a unique constellation of studies on CLI in late foreign language learners’ multilingual mental lexicon (MML) in that it presents data covering the very initial state all the way up to a high (≥ CEFR C1) proficiency. Moreover, it presents data from all six potential directions of CLI in L3 acquisition, in both accuracy and processing. Finally, all four studies investigated both forward and reverse CLI in the MML. Taking the results of the four studies together, CLI in the MML appears to be multidirectional. Both forward and reverse CLI was observed. The forward effects align with the predictions of the Parasitic Model (Hall & Ecke, 2003) for the initial stages as well as the RHM-TA overall (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). No indications of independence from the previously acquired languages in the L3 lexical representations were found. Also, the results indicate that the effects of translation ambiguity primarily occur in forward CLI at the item level, while the ob-served effects in reverse CLI were more global in nature in line with the predictions of Higby and colleagues (2020). For reverse CLI, there were differences between immersed and non-immersed learners. Furthermore, CLI operates differently in accuracy and processing. That is, a lack of overt effects does not imply the absence of CLI, which corroborates Jiang’s hypothesis. Finally, cognitive control, working memory, and psychotypology were all found to affect the learners’ behavior. The findings highlight the importance of considering the lack of conceptual non-equivalence in modeling multi-lingual lexical processing as well the importance of separating the effects of attrition from the effects of reverse CLI
Speakers of two or more languages have several perhaps conflicting language systems to build upon... more Speakers of two or more languages have several perhaps conflicting language systems to build upon. Psychotypology, the perceived language similarity between the source and target languages, might guide the language learner in the degree of which features of the source languages are transferred to, or used in the target language. In order to explore whether psychotypology influences the degree of conceptual cross-linguistic influence, 15-year-old Finland-Swedish functional bilingual speakers of Finnish and Swedish (N=41) were tested using a word pair similarity perception task with items where a single translation equivalent in Finnish exists for two words in English.
Much of the current work on third language acquisition focuses on modeling the impact from the sp... more Much of the current work on third language acquisition focuses on modeling the impact from the speaker’s previous language(s). The Typological Primacy Model (Rothman, 2015), which covers holistic forward transfer at the initial state, and the L2 Status Factor (Bardel and Falk, 2012), which proposes forward transfer from a chronologically true L2, only predict effects on subsequently acquired languages.If we specifically focus on lexical knowledge, we should note that our mental lexicons are in a constant state of change through learning, forgetting, and consolidation throughout the lifespan. Hence, loss should be an integral part of acquisition studies (Sharwood Smith, 1989). To document these fluctuations across languages over time, we need to look beyond binary categorizations of lexical production as correct and incorrect in our analyses of cross- linguistic influence. For the early post-L1 acquisition processes, we could look at some of the subtle changes that take place in the ...
It has often been the presumption that reverse cross-linguistic influence requires an advanced fl... more It has often been the presumption that reverse cross-linguistic influence requires an advanced fluency in the second language. This assumption has led to much of the research focusing on the impact of the speaker’s existing languages towards their second or third language. Our mental lexicons are, however, in a constant state of change through learning, forgetting, and consolidation, and we should hence consider the study of language loss as an integral part of language acquisition (Sharwood Smith, 1989). If we want to fully understand the process of language loss, we should start from the early stages of language acquisition. One example of an early change is from Bice and Kroll (2015), who found an emerging cognate effect already at the early changes of L2 learning.In the present experiment the participants were taught an artificial language in which a portion of the words do not conveniently map onto the participants’ native language (English). The purpose of the study was to fin...
An increasing number of students of various minority and immigrant backgrounds makes greater know... more An increasing number of students of various minority and immigrant backgrounds makes greater knowledge of the sources of cross-linguistic influence among bilingual students not only of theoretical value, but also beneficial for improving language teaching and instruction. The aim of this thesis has been to investigate conceptual cross-linguistic influence in functional bilinguals with a focus on investigating whether the context and frequency of the bilingual’s use of the two languages explain cross-linguistic influence towards an L3, and whether variation in acquisition could be explained by linguistic similarity, either factual or perceived. The present study replicated the results of Jiang (2002) regarding the effect of the L1 on the lexis of the L2 in terms of similarity evaluations, with the addition that this effect is also observable with two groups of language learners. Furthermore, the findings support the previous hypotheses that the lexical development in the L3 is not only guided by the mother tongue, but also by other previously acquired languages which is in line with the expectations of the L1 lemma mediation hypothesis (Jiang, 2000).
One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CL... more One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is translation ambiguity (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). Translation ambiguity refers to a situation where word meanings are different in a speaker’s languages. To give an example, Swedish does not lexicalize any difference between TO LEND and TO BORROW, whereas this distinction is made in English. Jiang (2002) proposed that language learners depend on explicit rules to resolve translation ambiguity. That is, based on Jiang’s predictions, a Swedish learner of English would have to consciously remember this difference to use the two English words successfully. Research in this area has focused on speakers with two languages. This thesis extends the research into third language acquisition. In this thesis, four empirical investigations are presented. Studies 1 and 2 focus on the initial state in L2 and L3 learners, respectively, of a Finnish-based pseudolanguage Kontu. Study 3 explored L1 German and L2 English naturalistic learners of L3 Swedish with longitudinal data from a beginner’s level until advanced fluency in the L3. Study 4 is a cross-sectional replication of Study 3. The present thesis represents a unique constellation of studies on CLI in late foreign language learners’ multilingual mental lexicon (MML) in that it presents data covering the very initial state all the way up to a high (≥ CEFR C1) proficiency. Moreover, it presents data from all six potential directions of CLI in L3 acquisition, in both accuracy and processing. Finally, all four studies investigated both forward and reverse CLI in the MML. Taking the results of the four studies together, CLI in the MML appears to be multidirectional. Both forward and reverse CLI was observed. The forward effects align with the predictions of the Parasitic Model (Hall & Ecke, 2003) for the initial stages as well as the RHM-TA overall (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). No indications of independence from the previously acquired languages in the L3 lexical representations were found. Also, the results indicate that the effects of translation ambiguity primarily occur in forward CLI at the item level, while the ob-served effects in reverse CLI were more global in nature in line with the predictions of Higby and colleagues (2020). For reverse CLI, there were differences between immersed and non-immersed learners. Furthermore, CLI operates differently in accuracy and processing. That is, a lack of overt effects does not imply the absence of CLI, which corroborates Jiang’s hypothesis. Finally, cognitive control, working memory, and psychotypology were all found to affect the learners’ behavior. The findings highlight the importance of considering the lack of conceptual non-equivalence in modeling multi-lingual lexical processing as well the importance of separating the effects of attrition from the effects of reverse CLI.
One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CL... more One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is translation ambiguity (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). Translation ambiguity refers to a situation where word meanings are different in a speaker’s languages. To give an example, Swedish does not lexicalize any difference between TO LEND and TO BORROW, whereas this distinction is made in English. Jiang (2002) proposed that language learners depend on explicit rules to resolve translation ambiguity. That is, based on Jiang’s predictions, a Swedish learner of English would have to consciously remember this difference to use the two English words successfully. Research in this area has focused on speakers with two languages. This thesis extends the research into third language acquisition. In this thesis, four empirical investigations are presented. Studies 1 and 2 focus on the initial state in L2 and L3 learners, respectively, of a Finnish-based pseudolanguage Kontu. Study 3 explored L1 German and L2 English naturalistic learners of L3 Swedish with longitudinal data from a beginner’s level until advanced fluency in the L3. Study 4 is a cross-sectional replication of Study 3. The present thesis represents a unique constellation of studies on CLI in late foreign language learners’ multilingual mental lexicon (MML) in that it presents data covering the very initial state all the way up to a high (≥ CEFR C1) proficiency. Moreover, it presents data from all six potential directions of CLI in L3 acquisition, in both accuracy and processing. Finally, all four studies investigated both forward and reverse CLI in the MML. Taking the results of the four studies together, CLI in the MML appears to be multidirectional. Both forward and reverse CLI was observed. The forward effects align with the predictions of the Parasitic Model (Hall & Ecke, 2003) for the initial stages as well as the RHM-TA overall (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). No indications of independence from the previously acquired languages in the L3 lexical representations were found. Also, the results indicate that the effects of translation ambiguity primarily occur in forward CLI at the item level, while the ob-served effects in reverse CLI were more global in nature in line with the predictions of Higby and colleagues (2020). For reverse CLI, there were differences between immersed and non-immersed learners. Furthermore, CLI operates differently in accuracy and processing. That is, a lack of overt effects does not imply the absence of CLI, which corroborates Jiang’s hypothesis. Finally, cognitive control, working memory, and psychotypology were all found to affect the learners’ behavior. The findings highlight the importance of considering the lack of conceptual non-equivalence in modeling multi-lingual lexical processing as well the importance of separating the effects of attrition from the effects of reverse CLI
Speakers of two or more languages have several perhaps conflicting language systems to build upon... more Speakers of two or more languages have several perhaps conflicting language systems to build upon. Psychotypology, the perceived language similarity between the source and target languages, might guide the language learner in the degree of which features of the source languages are transferred to, or used in the target language. In order to explore whether psychotypology influences the degree of conceptual cross-linguistic influence, 15-year-old Finland-Swedish functional bilingual speakers of Finnish and Swedish (N=41) were tested using a word pair similarity perception task with items where a single translation equivalent in Finnish exists for two words in English.
Much of the current work on third language acquisition focuses on modeling the impact from the sp... more Much of the current work on third language acquisition focuses on modeling the impact from the speaker’s previous language(s). The Typological Primacy Model (Rothman, 2015), which covers holistic forward transfer at the initial state, and the L2 Status Factor (Bardel and Falk, 2012), which proposes forward transfer from a chronologically true L2, only predict effects on subsequently acquired languages.If we specifically focus on lexical knowledge, we should note that our mental lexicons are in a constant state of change through learning, forgetting, and consolidation throughout the lifespan. Hence, loss should be an integral part of acquisition studies (Sharwood Smith, 1989). To document these fluctuations across languages over time, we need to look beyond binary categorizations of lexical production as correct and incorrect in our analyses of cross- linguistic influence. For the early post-L1 acquisition processes, we could look at some of the subtle changes that take place in the ...
It has often been the presumption that reverse cross-linguistic influence requires an advanced fl... more It has often been the presumption that reverse cross-linguistic influence requires an advanced fluency in the second language. This assumption has led to much of the research focusing on the impact of the speaker’s existing languages towards their second or third language. Our mental lexicons are, however, in a constant state of change through learning, forgetting, and consolidation, and we should hence consider the study of language loss as an integral part of language acquisition (Sharwood Smith, 1989). If we want to fully understand the process of language loss, we should start from the early stages of language acquisition. One example of an early change is from Bice and Kroll (2015), who found an emerging cognate effect already at the early changes of L2 learning.In the present experiment the participants were taught an artificial language in which a portion of the words do not conveniently map onto the participants’ native language (English). The purpose of the study was to fin...
An increasing number of students of various minority and immigrant backgrounds makes greater know... more An increasing number of students of various minority and immigrant backgrounds makes greater knowledge of the sources of cross-linguistic influence among bilingual students not only of theoretical value, but also beneficial for improving language teaching and instruction. The aim of this thesis has been to investigate conceptual cross-linguistic influence in functional bilinguals with a focus on investigating whether the context and frequency of the bilingual’s use of the two languages explain cross-linguistic influence towards an L3, and whether variation in acquisition could be explained by linguistic similarity, either factual or perceived. The present study replicated the results of Jiang (2002) regarding the effect of the L1 on the lexis of the L2 in terms of similarity evaluations, with the addition that this effect is also observable with two groups of language learners. Furthermore, the findings support the previous hypotheses that the lexical development in the L3 is not only guided by the mother tongue, but also by other previously acquired languages which is in line with the expectations of the L1 lemma mediation hypothesis (Jiang, 2000).
One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CL... more One phenomenon causing issues for language learners in the form of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is translation ambiguity (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). Translation ambiguity refers to a situation where word meanings are different in a speaker’s languages. To give an example, Swedish does not lexicalize any difference between TO LEND and TO BORROW, whereas this distinction is made in English. Jiang (2002) proposed that language learners depend on explicit rules to resolve translation ambiguity. That is, based on Jiang’s predictions, a Swedish learner of English would have to consciously remember this difference to use the two English words successfully. Research in this area has focused on speakers with two languages. This thesis extends the research into third language acquisition. In this thesis, four empirical investigations are presented. Studies 1 and 2 focus on the initial state in L2 and L3 learners, respectively, of a Finnish-based pseudolanguage Kontu. Study 3 explored L1 German and L2 English naturalistic learners of L3 Swedish with longitudinal data from a beginner’s level until advanced fluency in the L3. Study 4 is a cross-sectional replication of Study 3. The present thesis represents a unique constellation of studies on CLI in late foreign language learners’ multilingual mental lexicon (MML) in that it presents data covering the very initial state all the way up to a high (≥ CEFR C1) proficiency. Moreover, it presents data from all six potential directions of CLI in L3 acquisition, in both accuracy and processing. Finally, all four studies investigated both forward and reverse CLI in the MML. Taking the results of the four studies together, CLI in the MML appears to be multidirectional. Both forward and reverse CLI was observed. The forward effects align with the predictions of the Parasitic Model (Hall & Ecke, 2003) for the initial stages as well as the RHM-TA overall (Eddington & Tokowicz, 2013). No indications of independence from the previously acquired languages in the L3 lexical representations were found. Also, the results indicate that the effects of translation ambiguity primarily occur in forward CLI at the item level, while the ob-served effects in reverse CLI were more global in nature in line with the predictions of Higby and colleagues (2020). For reverse CLI, there were differences between immersed and non-immersed learners. Furthermore, CLI operates differently in accuracy and processing. That is, a lack of overt effects does not imply the absence of CLI, which corroborates Jiang’s hypothesis. Finally, cognitive control, working memory, and psychotypology were all found to affect the learners’ behavior. The findings highlight the importance of considering the lack of conceptual non-equivalence in modeling multi-lingual lexical processing as well the importance of separating the effects of attrition from the effects of reverse CLI.
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