This article is based on preliminary research on the ways in which
three well-known constructed l... more This article is based on preliminary research on the ways in which three well-known constructed languages – Esperanto, Klingon and Toki Pona – are perceived by non-speakers. The main aim of this research was to estimate the degree to which the perceptions of non-speakers and the intentions of the creators of these languages match. To this end, two tests were conducted on a sample of students at the University of Malaya (Universiti Malaya) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Both tests were based on association of ideas, but one test focused on reactions to the sounds of the three languages, whereas the other test focused on reactions to the scripts (Latin characters with diacritics for Esperanto, sitelen pona for Toki Pona, and pIqaD for Klingon). The written responses provided by the participants after listening to short passages and viewing carefully selected script samples suggest that the orthographic and phonological aspects of the languages evoke the intended reactions in those exposed to them.
This paper discusses the use of lettering and typeface in the linguistic landscape in Italy durin... more This paper discusses the use of lettering and typeface in the linguistic landscape in Italy during the Fascist period (1922-1943), focusing on inscriptions on public buildings and the lettering used in propaganda posters and other materials. After a general introduction, some definitions, and an overview of Italian Fascism, the paper introduces the methodology employed, which consists first of an analysis of the lettering used in Fascist public writings and their link to ancient Rome on the one hand and modernity on the other, and second of a simple test carried out among a sample of students at Universiti Malaya (Malaysia) to investigate their perception of 'Fascist' fonts. There follows an analysis and discussion of the data, which leads to the conclusion that some of the ideas behind this right-wing movement seem to be portrayed by the specific lettering and fonts used. Finally, these conclusions are compared to those arrived at in previous research on fonts.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2023
Both among mainland China speakers and within the sizeable Chinese
minority that lives in Malaysi... more Both among mainland China speakers and within the sizeable Chinese minority that lives in Malaysia, language varieties are categorised into two main groups: ‘languages’ on the one hand, and ‘dialects’ on the other. ‘Languages’ often enjoy at least some degree of official protection, have a written form, are used in some high domains, etc., whereas ‘dialects’ are supposed to be mostly oral languages spoken in low domains. Many of the varieties considered ‘dialects’ are however more accurately described as full-fledged languages that only share common origins with Mandarin, in the same way as Romance languages share common origins with Latin. Among these, Cantonese and Hokkien, the most widely spoken heritage languages in Malaysia, are notable examples. After an outline of the terminology employed to refer to Cantonese and Hokkien, this study examines the linguistic situation in China and Malaysia and the language planning activities carried out to maintain these two Chinese varieties. The methodology used to collect the data is then introduced, i.e. a sociolinguistic survey on the respondents’ opinion on language planning strategies and on the use of the terms ‘language’ and ‘dialect’. There follow a presentation of the data, a discussion of the results and some general conclusions
This article looks at signs that have appeared in the linguistic landscape in Malaysia and in Ita... more This article looks at signs that have appeared in the linguistic landscape in Malaysia and in Italy since the lockdown implemented in both countries in March 2020. The research is divided into two main parts, one analyzing the signs collected, and the other analyzing the answers provided by a sample of Malaysian and Italian citizens to a survey on the languages used in these signs. After a general introduction to the Covid-19 crisis in the two countries, the article continues with a general overview of the linguistic landscape in Malaysia and Italy and the methodology employed. There follows an analysis of both the signs and the answers provided in the surveys and a discussion, where the signs and the respondents’ answers in the two countries are compared. Even though some of the signs analyzed are very similar in Malaysia and Italy, particularly the regulatory signs recommending the use of face masks, social distance, washing hands, etc., others have shown to be quite different. In Italy, for example, they are more visible and detailed, whereas in Malaysia they tend to be more colourful. In some cases, the colours used on some signs in Malaysia subtly recall the national flag (red, blue, white and yellow), whereas light green/cyan and white were found on many signs in Italy. With regard to the languages used, both countries only feature the national language (Malay in Malaysia and Italian in Italy) and English on their Covid signs, but English is much more visible in Malaysia than in Italy.
Most international academic journals are produced in Europe and United States, and no matter whet... more Most international academic journals are produced in Europe and United States, and no matter whether they portrait themselves as objective and inclusive forums for worldwide academic research, they are subtly imbued with elements of their own culture. First of all is the language, in most cases English, but not Outer Circle Englishes or English as a Lingua Franca, but specifically British and/or American English. And this obviously creates a big barrier for authors who are not fluent in these varieties, which partly explain the dearth of authors coming from areas outside Europe and more specifically the United Kingdom and North America. After the language itself, the problem is all the Western cultural elements that are found in the journals. The dates, for example, are always expressed in Western terms as Christian era. Or the names of the authors in the references, which follow the Western convention of the surname followed by the first name/s (or initials), which is at odd with patronymic systems normally used in Muslim countries where no family names exist, for example. This paper is going to discuss all these issues and try to offer some possible solutions.
This article aims at exploring the possibility that learning Toki Pona, a “minimalist” constructe... more This article aims at exploring the possibility that learning Toki Pona, a “minimalist” constructed language with a total lexicon of only 123 words, may help students to develop their skills in using communication strategies in the foreign or second language they are learning. After a general introduction on constructed languages, there follow three sections: one introducing Toki Pona, one presenting the research hypothesis and aim, and another outlining communications strategies. The article continues with the methodology employed and a discussion of the results obtained. These show that learning Toki Pona may indeed help the students to improve their communication strategies and particularly circumlocution, so that they can avoid breakdowns in communication when they do not know or do not remember a word or expression.
This paper presents the results of research on the vitality of Bidayuh and Mah Meri (Besisi), two... more This paper presents the results of research on the vitality of Bidayuh and Mah Meri (Besisi), two indigenous languages spoken in Malaysia. The main aim of the research is to gain a picture of the sociolinguistic situation of these two languages in their rural homelands and to assess their ethnolinguistic vitality. For this paper, however, only the overall results of a selected number of questions are presented and compared. Having shown the relatively high vitality of these two languages and positive language attitudes that are found in the two communities, the second part of the paper sets out to analyze the reasons that may account for such vitality and, most importantly, to look at how knowledge of these factors might help to improve our understanding of language revitalization. The factors that seem to help in the maintenance of minority heritage languages include encouraging endogamy largely by means of ensuring the community does not become too dispersed, upholding traditional...
This article looks at the use of letterings and typefaces in the linguistic landscape through a c... more This article looks at the use of letterings and typefaces in the linguistic landscape through a comparison of hippie and punk concert posters. After a general introduction, some definitions and an overview on the hippie and punk movements and the posters they produced, the article introduces the methodology employed, which consisted of both an analysis of the lettering used in hippie and punk posters and a survey carried out among a sample of students at Universiti Malaya (Kuala Lumpur). This is followed by an analysis and a discussion of the data, which have led to two main findings: not only were the antithetical ideas behind these two youth movements portrayed through the specific lettering and fonts used, but the latter feature specific traits that may be linked to our mental processes and possibly our limbic system, the most primordial part of our brain.
Whereas the geography of a certain area is certainly linked in many ways to the ethnic group occu... more Whereas the geography of a certain area is certainly linked in many ways to the ethnic group occupying it (or who used to occupy it), the link between the land and the language/s spoken (or that used to be spoken) can only become visible through the linguistic landscape, which not only asserts identity and ownership, but can also help to reinforce prestige and vitality of the languages employed. The problem is that if the local heritage language is a minority or regional one, only in few cases can it be used to affirm the identity and ownership of its speakers. There are two sine qua non conditions for the local language to appear in the linguistic landscape: 1) The language must have gone beyond the ‘threshold of literacy’, i.e. it must have developed as a written language, with its own orthography and literature; 2) The language must be allowed to be used in the linguistic landscape and /or enjoy a degree of official recognition. This article presents five case studies on the presence of local minority/regional languages in the linguistic landscape based on the author’s research: two in Italy (Udine and Milan) and two in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur and Bandar Seri Begawan, the capitals of Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam respectively). The very interesting situation in Macao will be also touched on, where the colonial language, Portuguese, has been given prominence in the linguistic landscape in spite of the fact that only a tiny percentage of the population can speak it. In this case Portuguese is portrayed as a kind of heritage language (as well as an international language) that does not need to be mastered as its main function is symbolic, i.e. to help Macao retain its special status as a Special Administration Region of China.
Jawi is the orthography in which Malay has been written since the Middle Ages, when it was adapte... more Jawi is the orthography in which Malay has been written since the Middle Ages, when it was adapted from the Arabic script. Introduced by Muslim traders, it was adapted to Malay phonology using diacritics that modified six letters. It was used until the Roman script (Rumi) brought in by European traders and colonisers began to supplant it in the nineteenth century. In spite of that, Jawi still appears in the linguistic landscape of Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia and Pattani (Thailand). For this article snapshots have been taken of different shop signs using Jawi in Kuala Lumpur, Malacca and Kota Bharu (Malaysia). After an introduction to the structure and use of Jawi and the multilingual and ‘multiscriptal’ linguistic landscape in Malaysia, the significance of Jawi in the Malay Archipelago and its mainly symbolic use in the linguistic landscape are discussed. To complement the analysis, a quantitative survey carried out among a sample of Malaysian undergraduate students and a qualitative one among a small sample of teachers and lecturers in one Malaysian university on their attitudes towards the use of Jawi are also discussed. The article closes with some considerations and suggestions for the possible revival of Jawi.
Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multilingual country where over 130 languages are spoken by a popu... more Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multilingual country where over 130 languages are spoken by a population of around 32 million people. In spite of such diversity, only one language is official: Malay. English and Mandarin are very widespread, and in many cases, they are slowly replacing the local ethnic languages. This paper attempts to gauge the extent of language shift and displacement of the family heritage language (the language(s) spoken by parents or grandparents) among 189 students from the Faculty of Languages and Linguistics at the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. The ethnolinguistic vitality of these languages within this particular population was determined through a sociolinguistic survey on language use and attitudes. The article closes with some thoughts on the factors that might explain the results obtained, and what could be done to improve the situation.
Multilingua. Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 2019
Lombard is one of the 12-15 non-recognized regional languages spoken in Italy. This article focus... more Lombard is one of the 12-15 non-recognized regional languages spoken in Italy. This article focuses on the new speakers of Lombard, i. e. people who have learned or are learning Lombard as a second language. Through an open questionnaire the author has probed into various aspects concerning these new speakers' competence and learning trajectories, situations and opportunities for using the language, motivations, aims, commitment, metalinguistic awareness and the difficulties encountered in acquiring the language. Issues of authenticity, legitimacy and especially of identity and political allegiances have also been looked at. After a brief outline of the Lombard language and the research on new speakers that has been carried out so far, the article presents the methodology employed, followed by an analysis of the answers provided, which show that new speakers are very different from native speakers in sociolinguistic terms. A discussion of the results and some conclusions close the article.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2019
Devising a writing system, or graphisation, is a fundamental aspect of corpus planning that no la... more Devising a writing system, or graphisation, is a fundamental aspect of corpus planning that no language can take too lightly. This paper begins with a general introduction to graphisation and to Italian regional languages, followed by an analysis of the different orthographies in use so far or proposed for the main regional languages in Italy, with reference also to the three Romance languages already accorded official recognition as minority languages: Sardinian, Friulian and Ladin. The practical aspect and the symbolic aspect of graphisation are discussed and the problems and difficulties that are being encountered in this process are highlighted, especially with regard to two Northern varieties that are presented as case studies: Lombard and Piedmontese. The paper closes with some general considerations and recommendations, particularly on the adoption of a polynomic approach to graphisation if at all possible, and of a digraphic regime as a transitional strategy for cases where a common orthography cannot be decided upon, or to help the spread of the language among new speakers.
The main aim of this article is to assess the present level of language vitality for Baba Malay, ... more The main aim of this article is to assess the present level of language vitality for Baba Malay, a Malay variety spoken by Melaka's Baba Nyonyas (also known as Peranakan Chinese or Straits Chinese), the oldest Chinese community in Malaysia. This has been done through a survey on language use and attitudes where the answers provided by the younger and older respondents have been compared (apparent time), and through the parameter of ethnolinguistic vitality known as EGIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale). After an introduction and a short outline of language vitality in Malaysia and of the Baba Nyonyas and their heritage language, the article describes in detail the methodology employed followed by an analysis of the results obtained and a discussion on the Baba Nyo-nyas's linguistic repertoire and the endangered status of their heritage language. In the conclusion, some general considerations and some advice are offered for the maintenance of Baba Malay.
This article looks at the ethnolinguistic vitality of some of the most important language
variet... more This article looks at the ethnolinguistic vitality of some of the most important language
varieties spoken in Malaysia, focusing on two languages as case studies:
Bidayuh and Mah Meri, respectively the language of one of the indigenous groups in
East Malaysia and the language of one of the indigenous groups of peninsular
Malaysia. After a general introduction to the sociolinguistic situation in Malaysia
and to the scales used to measure ethnolinguistic vitality with a focus on EGIDS, the
one used in this article, there follows an analysis of the factors accounting for the
high vitality of the languages chosen as case studies. The article closes with a discussion of how these factors could be used to help maintain other minority languages.
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2017
After a general introduction to the aboriginals of Peninsular Malaysia, the so-called Orang Asli,... more After a general introduction to the aboriginals of Peninsular Malaysia, the so-called Orang Asli, this article introduces the ethnic group upon which the research focused: the Mah Meri, a Senoi group living in the state of Selangor, not far from Kuala Lumpur. The research is based on a survey on language use and attitudes carried out in four different Mah Meri villages on Carey Island. The results are then analysed in general terms and compared with those provided by similar research carried out among the Bidayuh, a Dayak ethnic group in Borneo, showing a rather high degree of vitality for the Mah Meri language, even though lower than in the case of the Bidayuh. In contrast, when the answers given by the younger speakers of the language are compared with those provided by older speakers, a pattern of slow but steady ongoing language shift clearly emerges. The article closes with some general considerations on the state of linguistic and cultural endangerment Orang Asli are facing, including further comparisons between the results of this research and those of another study conducted in a different Mah Meri village and some suggestions on possible revitalization strategies. The evidence seems to show a relatively high degree of endangerment for the languages spoken by the Orang Asli in general, and for the Mah Meri in particular.
This article is based on preliminary research on the ways in which
three well-known constructed l... more This article is based on preliminary research on the ways in which three well-known constructed languages – Esperanto, Klingon and Toki Pona – are perceived by non-speakers. The main aim of this research was to estimate the degree to which the perceptions of non-speakers and the intentions of the creators of these languages match. To this end, two tests were conducted on a sample of students at the University of Malaya (Universiti Malaya) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Both tests were based on association of ideas, but one test focused on reactions to the sounds of the three languages, whereas the other test focused on reactions to the scripts (Latin characters with diacritics for Esperanto, sitelen pona for Toki Pona, and pIqaD for Klingon). The written responses provided by the participants after listening to short passages and viewing carefully selected script samples suggest that the orthographic and phonological aspects of the languages evoke the intended reactions in those exposed to them.
This paper discusses the use of lettering and typeface in the linguistic landscape in Italy durin... more This paper discusses the use of lettering and typeface in the linguistic landscape in Italy during the Fascist period (1922-1943), focusing on inscriptions on public buildings and the lettering used in propaganda posters and other materials. After a general introduction, some definitions, and an overview of Italian Fascism, the paper introduces the methodology employed, which consists first of an analysis of the lettering used in Fascist public writings and their link to ancient Rome on the one hand and modernity on the other, and second of a simple test carried out among a sample of students at Universiti Malaya (Malaysia) to investigate their perception of 'Fascist' fonts. There follows an analysis and discussion of the data, which leads to the conclusion that some of the ideas behind this right-wing movement seem to be portrayed by the specific lettering and fonts used. Finally, these conclusions are compared to those arrived at in previous research on fonts.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2023
Both among mainland China speakers and within the sizeable Chinese
minority that lives in Malaysi... more Both among mainland China speakers and within the sizeable Chinese minority that lives in Malaysia, language varieties are categorised into two main groups: ‘languages’ on the one hand, and ‘dialects’ on the other. ‘Languages’ often enjoy at least some degree of official protection, have a written form, are used in some high domains, etc., whereas ‘dialects’ are supposed to be mostly oral languages spoken in low domains. Many of the varieties considered ‘dialects’ are however more accurately described as full-fledged languages that only share common origins with Mandarin, in the same way as Romance languages share common origins with Latin. Among these, Cantonese and Hokkien, the most widely spoken heritage languages in Malaysia, are notable examples. After an outline of the terminology employed to refer to Cantonese and Hokkien, this study examines the linguistic situation in China and Malaysia and the language planning activities carried out to maintain these two Chinese varieties. The methodology used to collect the data is then introduced, i.e. a sociolinguistic survey on the respondents’ opinion on language planning strategies and on the use of the terms ‘language’ and ‘dialect’. There follow a presentation of the data, a discussion of the results and some general conclusions
This article looks at signs that have appeared in the linguistic landscape in Malaysia and in Ita... more This article looks at signs that have appeared in the linguistic landscape in Malaysia and in Italy since the lockdown implemented in both countries in March 2020. The research is divided into two main parts, one analyzing the signs collected, and the other analyzing the answers provided by a sample of Malaysian and Italian citizens to a survey on the languages used in these signs. After a general introduction to the Covid-19 crisis in the two countries, the article continues with a general overview of the linguistic landscape in Malaysia and Italy and the methodology employed. There follows an analysis of both the signs and the answers provided in the surveys and a discussion, where the signs and the respondents’ answers in the two countries are compared. Even though some of the signs analyzed are very similar in Malaysia and Italy, particularly the regulatory signs recommending the use of face masks, social distance, washing hands, etc., others have shown to be quite different. In Italy, for example, they are more visible and detailed, whereas in Malaysia they tend to be more colourful. In some cases, the colours used on some signs in Malaysia subtly recall the national flag (red, blue, white and yellow), whereas light green/cyan and white were found on many signs in Italy. With regard to the languages used, both countries only feature the national language (Malay in Malaysia and Italian in Italy) and English on their Covid signs, but English is much more visible in Malaysia than in Italy.
Most international academic journals are produced in Europe and United States, and no matter whet... more Most international academic journals are produced in Europe and United States, and no matter whether they portrait themselves as objective and inclusive forums for worldwide academic research, they are subtly imbued with elements of their own culture. First of all is the language, in most cases English, but not Outer Circle Englishes or English as a Lingua Franca, but specifically British and/or American English. And this obviously creates a big barrier for authors who are not fluent in these varieties, which partly explain the dearth of authors coming from areas outside Europe and more specifically the United Kingdom and North America. After the language itself, the problem is all the Western cultural elements that are found in the journals. The dates, for example, are always expressed in Western terms as Christian era. Or the names of the authors in the references, which follow the Western convention of the surname followed by the first name/s (or initials), which is at odd with patronymic systems normally used in Muslim countries where no family names exist, for example. This paper is going to discuss all these issues and try to offer some possible solutions.
This article aims at exploring the possibility that learning Toki Pona, a “minimalist” constructe... more This article aims at exploring the possibility that learning Toki Pona, a “minimalist” constructed language with a total lexicon of only 123 words, may help students to develop their skills in using communication strategies in the foreign or second language they are learning. After a general introduction on constructed languages, there follow three sections: one introducing Toki Pona, one presenting the research hypothesis and aim, and another outlining communications strategies. The article continues with the methodology employed and a discussion of the results obtained. These show that learning Toki Pona may indeed help the students to improve their communication strategies and particularly circumlocution, so that they can avoid breakdowns in communication when they do not know or do not remember a word or expression.
This paper presents the results of research on the vitality of Bidayuh and Mah Meri (Besisi), two... more This paper presents the results of research on the vitality of Bidayuh and Mah Meri (Besisi), two indigenous languages spoken in Malaysia. The main aim of the research is to gain a picture of the sociolinguistic situation of these two languages in their rural homelands and to assess their ethnolinguistic vitality. For this paper, however, only the overall results of a selected number of questions are presented and compared. Having shown the relatively high vitality of these two languages and positive language attitudes that are found in the two communities, the second part of the paper sets out to analyze the reasons that may account for such vitality and, most importantly, to look at how knowledge of these factors might help to improve our understanding of language revitalization. The factors that seem to help in the maintenance of minority heritage languages include encouraging endogamy largely by means of ensuring the community does not become too dispersed, upholding traditional...
This article looks at the use of letterings and typefaces in the linguistic landscape through a c... more This article looks at the use of letterings and typefaces in the linguistic landscape through a comparison of hippie and punk concert posters. After a general introduction, some definitions and an overview on the hippie and punk movements and the posters they produced, the article introduces the methodology employed, which consisted of both an analysis of the lettering used in hippie and punk posters and a survey carried out among a sample of students at Universiti Malaya (Kuala Lumpur). This is followed by an analysis and a discussion of the data, which have led to two main findings: not only were the antithetical ideas behind these two youth movements portrayed through the specific lettering and fonts used, but the latter feature specific traits that may be linked to our mental processes and possibly our limbic system, the most primordial part of our brain.
Whereas the geography of a certain area is certainly linked in many ways to the ethnic group occu... more Whereas the geography of a certain area is certainly linked in many ways to the ethnic group occupying it (or who used to occupy it), the link between the land and the language/s spoken (or that used to be spoken) can only become visible through the linguistic landscape, which not only asserts identity and ownership, but can also help to reinforce prestige and vitality of the languages employed. The problem is that if the local heritage language is a minority or regional one, only in few cases can it be used to affirm the identity and ownership of its speakers. There are two sine qua non conditions for the local language to appear in the linguistic landscape: 1) The language must have gone beyond the ‘threshold of literacy’, i.e. it must have developed as a written language, with its own orthography and literature; 2) The language must be allowed to be used in the linguistic landscape and /or enjoy a degree of official recognition. This article presents five case studies on the presence of local minority/regional languages in the linguistic landscape based on the author’s research: two in Italy (Udine and Milan) and two in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur and Bandar Seri Begawan, the capitals of Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam respectively). The very interesting situation in Macao will be also touched on, where the colonial language, Portuguese, has been given prominence in the linguistic landscape in spite of the fact that only a tiny percentage of the population can speak it. In this case Portuguese is portrayed as a kind of heritage language (as well as an international language) that does not need to be mastered as its main function is symbolic, i.e. to help Macao retain its special status as a Special Administration Region of China.
Jawi is the orthography in which Malay has been written since the Middle Ages, when it was adapte... more Jawi is the orthography in which Malay has been written since the Middle Ages, when it was adapted from the Arabic script. Introduced by Muslim traders, it was adapted to Malay phonology using diacritics that modified six letters. It was used until the Roman script (Rumi) brought in by European traders and colonisers began to supplant it in the nineteenth century. In spite of that, Jawi still appears in the linguistic landscape of Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia and Pattani (Thailand). For this article snapshots have been taken of different shop signs using Jawi in Kuala Lumpur, Malacca and Kota Bharu (Malaysia). After an introduction to the structure and use of Jawi and the multilingual and ‘multiscriptal’ linguistic landscape in Malaysia, the significance of Jawi in the Malay Archipelago and its mainly symbolic use in the linguistic landscape are discussed. To complement the analysis, a quantitative survey carried out among a sample of Malaysian undergraduate students and a qualitative one among a small sample of teachers and lecturers in one Malaysian university on their attitudes towards the use of Jawi are also discussed. The article closes with some considerations and suggestions for the possible revival of Jawi.
Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multilingual country where over 130 languages are spoken by a popu... more Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multilingual country where over 130 languages are spoken by a population of around 32 million people. In spite of such diversity, only one language is official: Malay. English and Mandarin are very widespread, and in many cases, they are slowly replacing the local ethnic languages. This paper attempts to gauge the extent of language shift and displacement of the family heritage language (the language(s) spoken by parents or grandparents) among 189 students from the Faculty of Languages and Linguistics at the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. The ethnolinguistic vitality of these languages within this particular population was determined through a sociolinguistic survey on language use and attitudes. The article closes with some thoughts on the factors that might explain the results obtained, and what could be done to improve the situation.
Multilingua. Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 2019
Lombard is one of the 12-15 non-recognized regional languages spoken in Italy. This article focus... more Lombard is one of the 12-15 non-recognized regional languages spoken in Italy. This article focuses on the new speakers of Lombard, i. e. people who have learned or are learning Lombard as a second language. Through an open questionnaire the author has probed into various aspects concerning these new speakers' competence and learning trajectories, situations and opportunities for using the language, motivations, aims, commitment, metalinguistic awareness and the difficulties encountered in acquiring the language. Issues of authenticity, legitimacy and especially of identity and political allegiances have also been looked at. After a brief outline of the Lombard language and the research on new speakers that has been carried out so far, the article presents the methodology employed, followed by an analysis of the answers provided, which show that new speakers are very different from native speakers in sociolinguistic terms. A discussion of the results and some conclusions close the article.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2019
Devising a writing system, or graphisation, is a fundamental aspect of corpus planning that no la... more Devising a writing system, or graphisation, is a fundamental aspect of corpus planning that no language can take too lightly. This paper begins with a general introduction to graphisation and to Italian regional languages, followed by an analysis of the different orthographies in use so far or proposed for the main regional languages in Italy, with reference also to the three Romance languages already accorded official recognition as minority languages: Sardinian, Friulian and Ladin. The practical aspect and the symbolic aspect of graphisation are discussed and the problems and difficulties that are being encountered in this process are highlighted, especially with regard to two Northern varieties that are presented as case studies: Lombard and Piedmontese. The paper closes with some general considerations and recommendations, particularly on the adoption of a polynomic approach to graphisation if at all possible, and of a digraphic regime as a transitional strategy for cases where a common orthography cannot be decided upon, or to help the spread of the language among new speakers.
The main aim of this article is to assess the present level of language vitality for Baba Malay, ... more The main aim of this article is to assess the present level of language vitality for Baba Malay, a Malay variety spoken by Melaka's Baba Nyonyas (also known as Peranakan Chinese or Straits Chinese), the oldest Chinese community in Malaysia. This has been done through a survey on language use and attitudes where the answers provided by the younger and older respondents have been compared (apparent time), and through the parameter of ethnolinguistic vitality known as EGIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale). After an introduction and a short outline of language vitality in Malaysia and of the Baba Nyonyas and their heritage language, the article describes in detail the methodology employed followed by an analysis of the results obtained and a discussion on the Baba Nyo-nyas's linguistic repertoire and the endangered status of their heritage language. In the conclusion, some general considerations and some advice are offered for the maintenance of Baba Malay.
This article looks at the ethnolinguistic vitality of some of the most important language
variet... more This article looks at the ethnolinguistic vitality of some of the most important language
varieties spoken in Malaysia, focusing on two languages as case studies:
Bidayuh and Mah Meri, respectively the language of one of the indigenous groups in
East Malaysia and the language of one of the indigenous groups of peninsular
Malaysia. After a general introduction to the sociolinguistic situation in Malaysia
and to the scales used to measure ethnolinguistic vitality with a focus on EGIDS, the
one used in this article, there follows an analysis of the factors accounting for the
high vitality of the languages chosen as case studies. The article closes with a discussion of how these factors could be used to help maintain other minority languages.
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2017
After a general introduction to the aboriginals of Peninsular Malaysia, the so-called Orang Asli,... more After a general introduction to the aboriginals of Peninsular Malaysia, the so-called Orang Asli, this article introduces the ethnic group upon which the research focused: the Mah Meri, a Senoi group living in the state of Selangor, not far from Kuala Lumpur. The research is based on a survey on language use and attitudes carried out in four different Mah Meri villages on Carey Island. The results are then analysed in general terms and compared with those provided by similar research carried out among the Bidayuh, a Dayak ethnic group in Borneo, showing a rather high degree of vitality for the Mah Meri language, even though lower than in the case of the Bidayuh. In contrast, when the answers given by the younger speakers of the language are compared with those provided by older speakers, a pattern of slow but steady ongoing language shift clearly emerges. The article closes with some general considerations on the state of linguistic and cultural endangerment Orang Asli are facing, including further comparisons between the results of this research and those of another study conducted in a different Mah Meri village and some suggestions on possible revitalization strategies. The evidence seems to show a relatively high degree of endangerment for the languages spoken by the Orang Asli in general, and for the Mah Meri in particular.
Issues of language planning and minority nationalism or “micronationalism” are becoming increasin... more Issues of language planning and minority nationalism or “micronationalism” are becoming increasingly important in a globalized world. Yet minority language planning in Italy and its relation to minority nationalism has so far attracted relatively limited academic attention, despite the particularly interesting changes that have taken place since Law 482 on the protection of minority languages was passed in 1999. This book presents the situation in Italy in three case studies and compares them with similar cases in Spain: Friulian (compared with Galician), Cimbrian (compared with Aranese) and Western Lombard (compared with Asturian). Analysis of these case studies is preceded by a clear
and thorough introduction to terminology, legislation in the two countries, nationalism, the discipline of language planning and bilingual education, both in general terms and with specific reference to the Italian and Spanish cases. This first part introduces and defines the crucial distinction between minority and regional languages, between macro and micronationalism, both in their conservative and progressive strands, and between majority and minority language planning, among other things.
Grapholinguistics in the 21st century 2022. Proceedings, 2023
This paper discusses the ideology of monographism and its possible overcoming through digraphia, ... more This paper discusses the ideology of monographism and its possible overcoming through digraphia, i.e. the use of two or more writing systems for the same language. After a general introduction, the specific case of Lombard will be discussed as an example. Lombard, a regional language spoken in Northern Italy, is written using different writing systems, more specifically three main ones for the Western variety. As each of these writing systems has advantages and disadvantages, the author sees digraphia as a possible and workable solution, not only for Lombard but also for many other minority or regional languages in the world that find themselves in a similar situation.
Endangered languages and diaspora (proceedings of the 25th FEL Conference, Tirana, Albania, 16-19 December 2021), 2021
Even when some form of language revitalization or language planning for minority and regional lan... more Even when some form of language revitalization or language planning for minority and regional languages is carried out, it seems as if the successful cases are not many. The problem seems to lie in the various ideologies/myths that dominate our society, which are sometimes common even within academia and among the activists. Nine ideologies and myths will be looked at in this paper, some more common among the general public and the public institutions, others among academics, still others among activists, and some are shared among these groups. They are: the ideology of modernity/new, the ideology of standard (language), the ideology of monolingualism, the ideology of purism, the ideology of nationalism, the ideology of “monographism”, the myth of dialect fragmentation, the myth of academic neutrality and objectivity, the myth that having a small group of very active and committed activists may be enough to stop or slow down language shift. After a short introduction to the linguistic situation in Italy, all these ideologies/myths will examined, one by one. Examples will be drawn from the author’s own research and experience, with a special focus on one of Italy’s regional languages, Lombard, and on one officially recognized minority language, Cimbrian, a diasporic Bavarian variety, in which the negative influence of all these ideologies seems to be particularly evident. The aim of this paper is to show that if the ideologies listed above are not tackled and deconstructed, the purpose of language planning is unlikely to be realized.
This paper shows the results of the author’s research on the vitality of Bidayuh and Mah Meri (Be... more This paper shows the results of the author’s research on the vitality of Bidayuh and Mah Meri (Besisi), two of the indigenous languages spoken in Malaysia out of around 140 languages which include Malay, the national official language, Tamil and Mandarin Chinese. The main aim of the research was to get a picture of the sociolinguistic situation of these two languages in their rural ‘homelands’ and to assess their ethnolinguistic vitality. For this paper, however, only the overall results of a selected number of questions are presented and compared. Having shown the relatively high vitality of these two languages and positive language attitudes, the second part of the paper sets out to analyze the reasons that may account for such vitality and, most importantly, to look at how the knowledge of these factors could help to improve our understanding of language revitalization. These reasons include widespread endogamy, the upholding of traditional thinking and values, widespread multilingualism and possessing religious beliefs different from the dominant one. For each of these factors, suggestions are provided as for how the positive effects that they seem to provide for the maintenance of the local languages may be ‘transferred’ to other minority situations.
Language Colonization and Endangerment: Long-term Effects, Echoes and Reactions (proceedings of the 20th FEL Conference, University of Hyderabad, India, 9-12 December 2016). , 2016
Italy and Malaysia are two very different realities. The first is a so-called ‘developed’ country... more Italy and Malaysia are two very different realities. The first is a so-called ‘developed’ country located in the Southern part of the European continent, the second is a ‘developing’ country located in Southeast Asia. The first was colonized several times over the centuries by external powers, but since its unification in 1861 it slowly became a colonizing country itself. Malaysia on the other hand was ‘colonized’ by Indonesia-based empires in the distant past, and then in more recent times by Portugal, the Netherlands, Thailand and finally Great Britain, which gave independence to the country in 1957. However, both countries have one thing in common: a history of what can be referred to as internal colonialism that took the form of a strong linguistic colonialism; this process started in the second half of the 19th century in Italy and at the end of the 1960s in Malaysia. This paper aims to analyze how this form of internal colonialism developed in both countries, with Italian slowly replacing the over 40 languages that were widely spoken before Unification, and Malay having become the only official language in Malaysia in spite of the 140 languages currently spoken. This paper will also look at how English, from being a colonial language in Malaysia, has now become a language perceived as ‘neutral’, with very high prestige.
In questo capitolo la situazione del friulano viene messa a confronto con quella di altre
lingue... more In questo capitolo la situazione del friulano viene messa a confronto con quella di altre
lingue minoritarie e regionali europee. I parametri utilizzati per questo confronto sono la
vitalità linguistica, gli usi e gli atteggiamenti linguistici dei parlanti, la pianificazione
linguistica e il paesaggio linguistico. Per quel che riguarda la vitalità linguistica vengono
utilizzate le scale EGIDS e UNESCO, confrontando il friulano con tre varietà presenti in
Spagna (galiziano, asturiano e aranese) e due varietà presenti in Italia (cimbro e lombardo
occidentale). Per gli usi e atteggiamenti linguistici vengono qui utilizzati i dati forniti
dall’inchiesta Euromosaic che mette direttamente a confronto il friulano e il galiziano.
Della pianificazione linguistica viene qui presa in esame la fase conosciuta come
normalizzazione linguistica, facendo un confronto in prima analisi con il galiziano, ma
anche con le altre lingue previamente analizzate. Prima delle conclusioni, chiude il
capitolo un confronto tra la presenza del friulano nel paesaggio linguistico di Udine, quella
del lombardo occidentale a Milano, il basco a San Sebastián (Spagna) e il frisone a
Leeuwarden (Paesi Bassi).
This is a short overview on the use of Italian 'dialects' in Italian cinema, a presentation I gav... more This is a short overview on the use of Italian 'dialects' in Italian cinema, a presentation I gave at the University of Malaya (Kuala Lumpur) on the occasion of the 17th edition of the Italian Language Week in the World.
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Papers by Paolo Coluzzi
three well-known constructed languages – Esperanto, Klingon
and Toki Pona – are perceived by non-speakers. The main aim of
this research was to estimate the degree to which the
perceptions of non-speakers and the intentions of the creators of
these languages match. To this end, two tests were conducted on
a sample of students at the University of Malaya (Universiti
Malaya) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Both tests were based on
association of ideas, but one test focused on reactions to the
sounds of the three languages, whereas the other test focused on
reactions to the scripts (Latin characters with diacritics for
Esperanto, sitelen pona for Toki Pona, and pIqaD for Klingon). The
written responses provided by the participants after listening to
short passages and viewing carefully selected script samples
suggest that the orthographic and phonological aspects of the
languages evoke the intended reactions in those exposed to them.
minority that lives in Malaysia, language varieties are categorised into
two main groups: ‘languages’ on the one hand, and ‘dialects’ on the
other. ‘Languages’ often enjoy at least some degree of official
protection, have a written form, are used in some high domains, etc.,
whereas ‘dialects’ are supposed to be mostly oral languages spoken in
low domains. Many of the varieties considered ‘dialects’ are however
more accurately described as full-fledged languages that only share
common origins with Mandarin, in the same way as Romance
languages share common origins with Latin. Among these, Cantonese
and Hokkien, the most widely spoken heritage languages in Malaysia,
are notable examples. After an outline of the terminology employed to
refer to Cantonese and Hokkien, this study examines the linguistic
situation in China and Malaysia and the language planning activities
carried out to maintain these two Chinese varieties. The methodology
used to collect the data is then introduced, i.e. a sociolinguistic survey
on the respondents’ opinion on language planning strategies and on
the use of the terms ‘language’ and ‘dialect’. There follow a
presentation of the data, a discussion of the results and some general
conclusions
This article presents five case studies on the presence of local minority/regional languages in the linguistic landscape based on the author’s research: two in Italy (Udine and Milan) and two in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur and Bandar Seri Begawan, the capitals of Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam respectively). The very interesting situation in Macao will be also touched on, where the colonial language, Portuguese, has been given prominence in the linguistic landscape in spite of the fact that only a tiny percentage of the population can speak it. In this case Portuguese is portrayed as a kind of heritage language (as well as an international language) that does not need to be mastered as its main function is symbolic, i.e. to help Macao retain its special status as a Special Administration Region of China.
varieties spoken in Malaysia, focusing on two languages as case studies:
Bidayuh and Mah Meri, respectively the language of one of the indigenous groups in
East Malaysia and the language of one of the indigenous groups of peninsular
Malaysia. After a general introduction to the sociolinguistic situation in Malaysia
and to the scales used to measure ethnolinguistic vitality with a focus on EGIDS, the
one used in this article, there follows an analysis of the factors accounting for the
high vitality of the languages chosen as case studies. The article closes with a discussion of how these factors could be used to help maintain other minority languages.
Borneo, showing a rather high degree of vitality for the Mah Meri language, even though lower than in the case of the Bidayuh. In contrast, when the answers given by the younger speakers of the language are compared with
those provided by older speakers, a pattern of slow but steady ongoing language shift clearly emerges. The article closes with some general considerations on the
state of linguistic and cultural endangerment Orang Asli are facing, including further comparisons between the results of this research and those of another
study conducted in a different Mah Meri village and some suggestions on possible revitalization strategies. The evidence seems to show a relatively high
degree of endangerment for the languages spoken by the Orang Asli in general, and for the Mah Meri in particular.
three well-known constructed languages – Esperanto, Klingon
and Toki Pona – are perceived by non-speakers. The main aim of
this research was to estimate the degree to which the
perceptions of non-speakers and the intentions of the creators of
these languages match. To this end, two tests were conducted on
a sample of students at the University of Malaya (Universiti
Malaya) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Both tests were based on
association of ideas, but one test focused on reactions to the
sounds of the three languages, whereas the other test focused on
reactions to the scripts (Latin characters with diacritics for
Esperanto, sitelen pona for Toki Pona, and pIqaD for Klingon). The
written responses provided by the participants after listening to
short passages and viewing carefully selected script samples
suggest that the orthographic and phonological aspects of the
languages evoke the intended reactions in those exposed to them.
minority that lives in Malaysia, language varieties are categorised into
two main groups: ‘languages’ on the one hand, and ‘dialects’ on the
other. ‘Languages’ often enjoy at least some degree of official
protection, have a written form, are used in some high domains, etc.,
whereas ‘dialects’ are supposed to be mostly oral languages spoken in
low domains. Many of the varieties considered ‘dialects’ are however
more accurately described as full-fledged languages that only share
common origins with Mandarin, in the same way as Romance
languages share common origins with Latin. Among these, Cantonese
and Hokkien, the most widely spoken heritage languages in Malaysia,
are notable examples. After an outline of the terminology employed to
refer to Cantonese and Hokkien, this study examines the linguistic
situation in China and Malaysia and the language planning activities
carried out to maintain these two Chinese varieties. The methodology
used to collect the data is then introduced, i.e. a sociolinguistic survey
on the respondents’ opinion on language planning strategies and on
the use of the terms ‘language’ and ‘dialect’. There follow a
presentation of the data, a discussion of the results and some general
conclusions
This article presents five case studies on the presence of local minority/regional languages in the linguistic landscape based on the author’s research: two in Italy (Udine and Milan) and two in Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur and Bandar Seri Begawan, the capitals of Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam respectively). The very interesting situation in Macao will be also touched on, where the colonial language, Portuguese, has been given prominence in the linguistic landscape in spite of the fact that only a tiny percentage of the population can speak it. In this case Portuguese is portrayed as a kind of heritage language (as well as an international language) that does not need to be mastered as its main function is symbolic, i.e. to help Macao retain its special status as a Special Administration Region of China.
varieties spoken in Malaysia, focusing on two languages as case studies:
Bidayuh and Mah Meri, respectively the language of one of the indigenous groups in
East Malaysia and the language of one of the indigenous groups of peninsular
Malaysia. After a general introduction to the sociolinguistic situation in Malaysia
and to the scales used to measure ethnolinguistic vitality with a focus on EGIDS, the
one used in this article, there follows an analysis of the factors accounting for the
high vitality of the languages chosen as case studies. The article closes with a discussion of how these factors could be used to help maintain other minority languages.
Borneo, showing a rather high degree of vitality for the Mah Meri language, even though lower than in the case of the Bidayuh. In contrast, when the answers given by the younger speakers of the language are compared with
those provided by older speakers, a pattern of slow but steady ongoing language shift clearly emerges. The article closes with some general considerations on the
state of linguistic and cultural endangerment Orang Asli are facing, including further comparisons between the results of this research and those of another
study conducted in a different Mah Meri village and some suggestions on possible revitalization strategies. The evidence seems to show a relatively high
degree of endangerment for the languages spoken by the Orang Asli in general, and for the Mah Meri in particular.
and thorough introduction to terminology, legislation in the two countries, nationalism, the discipline of language planning and bilingual education, both in general terms and with specific reference to the Italian and Spanish cases. This first part introduces and defines the crucial distinction between minority and regional languages, between macro and micronationalism, both in their conservative and progressive strands, and between majority and minority language planning, among other things.
The main aim of the research was to get a picture of the sociolinguistic situation of these two languages in their rural ‘homelands’ and to assess their ethnolinguistic vitality. For this paper, however, only the overall results of a selected number of questions are presented and compared.
Having shown the relatively high vitality of these two languages and positive language attitudes, the second part of the paper sets out to analyze the reasons that may account for such vitality and, most importantly, to look at how the knowledge of these factors could help to improve our understanding of language revitalization. These reasons include widespread endogamy, the upholding of traditional thinking and values, widespread multilingualism and possessing religious beliefs different from the dominant one. For each of these factors, suggestions are provided as for how the positive effects that they seem to provide for the maintenance of the local languages may be ‘transferred’ to other minority situations.
lingue minoritarie e regionali europee. I parametri utilizzati per questo confronto sono la
vitalità linguistica, gli usi e gli atteggiamenti linguistici dei parlanti, la pianificazione
linguistica e il paesaggio linguistico. Per quel che riguarda la vitalità linguistica vengono
utilizzate le scale EGIDS e UNESCO, confrontando il friulano con tre varietà presenti in
Spagna (galiziano, asturiano e aranese) e due varietà presenti in Italia (cimbro e lombardo
occidentale). Per gli usi e atteggiamenti linguistici vengono qui utilizzati i dati forniti
dall’inchiesta Euromosaic che mette direttamente a confronto il friulano e il galiziano.
Della pianificazione linguistica viene qui presa in esame la fase conosciuta come
normalizzazione linguistica, facendo un confronto in prima analisi con il galiziano, ma
anche con le altre lingue previamente analizzate. Prima delle conclusioni, chiude il
capitolo un confronto tra la presenza del friulano nel paesaggio linguistico di Udine, quella
del lombardo occidentale a Milano, il basco a San Sebastián (Spagna) e il frisone a
Leeuwarden (Paesi Bassi).