Parthenon: Perbezaan antara semakan
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'''Parthenon''' ([[bahasa Yunani Kuno]]: {{polytonic|Παρθενών}}, nama moden: Παρθενώνας ''Parthenonas'') merupakan kuil terletak di [[Akropolis Athens|dataran Akropolis]] [[Athens|Athenai]], [[Yunani]] dibina khas untuk dewi yang memberi nama kepada kota tersebut, [[Athena]]. Pembinaannya bermula pada 447 SM apabila Empayar Athen berada pada kekuasaan tertingginya. Ia disiapkan pada 438 SM, walaupun hiasan Parthenon berterusan sehingga 432 SM. Parthenon dianggap sebagai simbol demokrasi [[Yunani Kuno]] dan Athen, dan merupakan salah satu monumen budaya terhebat di dunia.
==Seni bina==
[[Fail:Parthenon-top-view.svg|thumb|Pelan lantai Parthenon]]
{{bahagian kosong|date=Jun 2020}}
==Sejarah==
=== Zaman Byzantin - penukaran menjadi gereja ===
Kuil ini ditukarkan menjadi suatu [[gereja]] yang didedikasikan kepada [[Maryam|Maria si Perawan]] pada akhir abad ke-6 M<ref name="freely">[https://books.google.com/books?id=QME9WXUnookC&pg=PA69 Freely 2004, p. 69] "Some modern writers maintain that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian sanctuary during the reign of [[Justinian]] (527–65)...But there is no evidence to support this in the ancient sources. The existing evidence suggests that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian [[basilica]] in the last decade of the sixth century."</ref> Pembinaan ini menghalakan gereja baharu ini mengikut arah timur, begitu juga dengan [[altar]]<nowiki/>nya menghadap arah ini bersebelahan [[apsis gereja|apsis]] yang dibina pada pintu utama kuil (''[[pronaos]]'').<ref name="Freely70">[https://books.google.com/books?id=QME9WXUnookC&pg=PA70 Freely 2004, p. 70].</ref><ref name="Hurwit293">[[iarchive:secretlivesofbui0000holl/page/21|Hollis 2009, p. 21]].</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0pQ4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA293 Hurwit 2000, p. 293].</ref> [[Ikon (Kristian)|Gambaran orang-orang suci dan nabi]] dicat pada dinding kuil sambil juga tulisan keimanan Kristian diukir pada tiang-tiang runtuhan.<ref name = "AcropolisRestoration">{{cite web |title=The Parthenon |publisher=Acropolis Restoration Service |url=http://www.ysma.gr/en/parthenon |access-date=14 Ogos 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828211740/http://www.ysma.gr/en/parthenon |archive-date=28 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sebarang patung yang terjumpa dikeluarkan dan dipindahkan dari pekarangan kuil.
Gereja yang baharu ini menjadi antara kawasan yang paling didambakan para [[Ziarah Kristian|penziarah Kristian]] dalam [[Empayar Byzantium]] selain [[Kustantiniyah|Konstantinopolis]], [[Ephesos]], dan [[Thessaloniki]].<ref name="Kaldelis">{{cite web|url=http://www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/modgreek/Home/_TOPNAV_WTGC/Lectures%20at%20U-M/ParthenonKaldellis.pdf|title=A Heretical (Orthodox) History of the Parthenon|last=Kaldellis|first=Anthony|date=2007|publisher=University of Michigan|page=3|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090824170528/http://www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/modgreek/Home/_TOPNAV_WTGC/Lectures%20at%20U-M/ParthenonKaldellis.pdf|archivedate=24 August 2009}}</ref>
=== Zaman Uthmaniyah - penukaran menjadi masjid ===
Kawasan sekitar Parthenon diserahkan kepada [[empayar Uthmaniyah]] pada 1456 setelah mereka berjaya mengalahkan askar-askar [[Republik Firenze]] yang melindungi pekarangan tersebut.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=PA159|title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time|last=Babinger|first=Franz|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-691-01078-6|pages=159–160}}</ref> Gereja itu pada awalnya dikekalkan penggunaannya,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?la=eng&pageID=216|title=Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)|last=Tomkinson|first=John L.|publisher=Anagnosis Books|accessdate=14 August 2012}} "In 1466 the Parthenon was referred to as a church, so it seems likely that for some time at least, it continued to function as a cathedral, being restored to the use of the Greek archbishop."</ref> namun ia kemudiannya menjadi [[masjid]] pada akhir abad ke-15:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?la=eng&pageID=216|title=Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)|last=Tomkinson|first=John L.|publisher=Anagnosis Books|accessdate=14 August 2012}} "Some time later – we do not know exactly when – the Parthenon was itself converted into a mosque."</ref><ref>[[iarchive:acropolisofathen00dooguoft/page/317|D'Ooge 1909, p. 317]]. "The conversion of the Parthenon into a mosque is first mentioned by another anonymous writer, the ''Paris Anonymous'', whose manuscript dating from the latter half of the fifteenth century was discovered in the library of Paris in 1862."</ref> ada sejarawan yang menyatakan penukaran ini hukuman [[Mehmed II]] terhadap percubaan warga kota Athenai pada ketika itu.<ref name="Miller">{{cite journal|last=Miller|first=Walter|year=1893|title=A History of the Akropolis of Athens|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aMrAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA547|journal=The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts|volume=8|issue=4|pages=546–547|doi=10.2307/495887|jstor=495887}}</ref>
Apsis dan menara gereja ditukarkan menjadi [[mihrab]] dan [[Menara masjid|manarah]],<ref>[[iarchive:secretlivesofbui0000holl/page/33|Hollis 2009, p. 33]].</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNItkhYRrc0C&pg=PA172|title=The Parthenon|last=Bruno|first=Vincent J.|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1974|isbn=978-0-393-31440-3|page=172}}</ref> sambil suatu [[Minbar|mimbar]] baru dibina.<ref name="Freely70" /> Altar turut dikeluarkan serta dinding-dinding gereja ditutup dari sebarang gambaran santo yang wujud sebelumnya.<ref>[[iarchive:acropolisofathen00dooguoft/page/317|D'Ooge 1909, p. 317]].</ref>
[[Perang Morea]] yang meletus antara pihak [[Republik Venezia]] dan kerajaan Uthmaniyah menyaksikan bangunan ini dijadikan suatu gedung senjata api dan tempat berlindung masyarakat Turki setempat.<ref name="Tomkinson2">{{cite web|url=http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?la=eng&pageID=217|title=Venetian Athens: Venetian Interlude (1684–1689)|last=Tomkinson|first=John L.|publisher=Anagnosis Books|access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref> Kekacauan ini mencapai kemuncaknya apabila suatu bedilan ditembak mengena gedung tersebut dari Bukit Philopappos pada 26 September 1687 mengakibatkan suatu letupan meranapkan sebahagian tengah bangunan ini.<ref>Theodor E. Mommsen, ''The Venetians in Athens and the Destruction of the Parthenon in 1687'', American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 45, No. 4 (October – December 1941), pp. 544–556</ref><ref name="Rathus">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JPlYOG52w2UC&pg=PT324|title=Understanding Art|last=Fichner-Rathus|first=Lois|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2012|isbn=978-1-111-83695-5|edition=10|page=305}}</ref> Sebanyak 300 orang terkorban dalam letupan ini baik secara langsung mahupun dari serpihan melayang kena askar-askar Uthmaniyah berdekatan;<ref name="Tomkinson22">{{cite web|url=http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?la=eng&pageID=217|title=Venetian Athens: Venetian Interlude (1684–1689)|last=Tomkinson|first=John L.|publisher=Anagnosis Books|access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref> letupan ini turut menyebabkan kebakaran besar yang memusnahkan banyak rumah berlanjutan ke esok harinya.<ref name="Chatziaslani">{{cite web|url=http://www.eie.gr/archaeologia/En/chapter_more_8.aspx|title=Morosini in Athens|last=Chatziaslani|first=Kornilia|publisher=Archaeology of the City of Athens|access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref> Pihak Turki yang berjaya mendapatkan kembali Akropolis tidak lama selepas ini mengambil batu runtuhan pekarangan Akropolis dijadikan bahan binaan suatu masjid lebih kecil dalam tapak Parthenon.<ref name="Tomkinson3">{{cite web|url=http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?la=eng&pageID=218|title=Ottoman Athens II: Later Ottoman Athens (1689–1821)|last=Tomkinson|first=John L.|publisher=Anagnosis Books|access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref> Malah, banyak khazanah dan batuan dari tapak bersejarah ini dicuri bertahun-tahun.<ref name="Grafton">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbqF8z2bq3sC&pg=PA693|title=The Classical Tradition|last=Grafton|first=Anthony|author2=Glenn W. Most|author3=Salvatore Settis|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-674-03572-0|page=693}}</ref>
Keadaan daulah kerajaan Uthmaniyah yang lemah pada kurun ke-18 memudahkan orang Barat melawat dan mengamati tapak bersejarah ini. Catatan dan lakaran dilakukan para wisatawan ini menarik [[Filhelenisme|minat ramai kepada budaya Yunani]] yang [[Baharian klasik|baharian]] serta perjuangan orang Yunani memerdekakan diri dari cengkaman kuasa Uthmaniyah.
===Zaman merdeka dan moden Yunani, sejak abad ke-19===
Kesemua bahagian kecuali tapak dan tangga manarah diruntuhkan tidak lama selepas pihak Yunani berjaya menawan kembali Athens dalam [[Perang Kemerdekaan Yunani|perang kemerdekaan]] tahun 1832.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ac4GAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA317|title=Handbook for travellers in Greece, Volume 2|last=Murray|first=John|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1884|page=317}}</ref> Pada lewat kurun zaman ini pula, ia mula menjadi tarikan banyak orang Barat yang menganggapnya suatu pencapaian tinggi seni ketamadunan mereka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.121547.html|title=Collection: Ruins of the Parthenon|website=National Gallery of Art|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728071050/https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.121547.html|archive-date=July 28, 2020|access-date=May 28, 2020}}</ref>[[Fail:Akropolis by Leo von Klenze.jpg|thumb|Pembinaan semula Akropolis dan Areus Pagus di Athens, [[Leo von Klenze]], 1846]]
== Rujukan ==
{{Reflist|2}}
===Sumber utama===
* {{cite book | last = D'Ooge | first = Martin Luther | title = The Acropolis of Athens | url = https://archive.org/details/acropolisofathen00dooguoft | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1909}}
* {{cite book | last = Freely | first = John | title = Strolling Through Athens: Fourteen Unforgettable Walks through Europe's Oldest City | publisher = Tauris Parke Paperbacks | year = 2004 | edition=2 |isbn = 978-1-85043-595-2}}
* {{cite book | last = Hollis | first = Edward | title = The Secret Lives of Buildings: From the Ruins of the Parthenon to the Vegas Strip in Thirteen Stories | publisher = Macmillan | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-0-8050-8785-7 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/secretlivesofbui0000holl }}
* {{cite book |last=Hurwit |first=Jeffrey M. |title=The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present |year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-42834-7}}
== Pautan luar ==
{{commons|Parthenon}}
* [http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=912 The Acropolis of Athens: The Parthenon] (official site with a schedule of its opening hours, tickets and contact information)
* [http://ysma.culture.gr/english/index.html The Acropolis Restoration Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050723233026/http://ysma.culture.gr/english/index.html |date=2005-07-23 }} (Greek Government website)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160622161447/http://www.metrum.org/key/athens/index.htm The Athenian Acropolis by Livio C. Stecchini] (Takes the heterodox view of the date of the proto-Parthenon, but a useful summary of the scholarship.) (Internet Archive)
* [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404 UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Acropolis, Athens]
* [http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/index.htm Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County — The Parthenon]
* [http://www.mistral.co.uk/hammerwood/elgin.htm The Parthenon Marbles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041120090612/http://www.mistral.co.uk/hammerwood/elgin.htm |date=2004-11-20 }}
* [http://sketchup.google.com/3dwarehouse/details?mid=8174b921338882e8816a3771436c8474 Google Sketchup 3D Model of Parthenon (simplistic)]
* [http://www.vgreece.com/index.php?entry=entry050714-163859 Parthenon virtual tour] Interactive 360° panoramas in high resolution.
* [http://numberonestars.com/travel/parthenon_vacation_greece.htm Parthenon 'The Golden Age of Pericles'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012145058/http://numberonestars.com/travel/parthenon_vacation_greece.htm |date=2007-10-12 }}
* [http://www.acropolisfriends.gr/index.php?lang=en The Friends of the Acropolis]
* [http://www.parthenon.webnode.com United Parthenon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015213439/http://parthenon.webnode.com/ |date=2012-10-15 }}
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