Parthenon

Parthenon (Yunani Kuno: Παρθενώνcode: grc is deprecated ) merupakan kuil Yunani di dataran Akropolis Athenai dibina khas untuk dewi yang memberi nama kepada kota tersebut. Pembinaannya bermula pada 447 SM apabila Empayar Athen berada pada kekuasaan tertingginya. Ia disiapkan pada 438 SM, walaupun hiasan Parthenon berterusan sehingga 432 SM. Parthenon dianggap sebagai simbol demokrasi Yunani Kuno dan Athen, dan merupakan salah satu monumen budaya terhebat di dunia.

Seni bina

Pelan lantai Parthenon

Sejarah

Zaman Byzantin - penukaran menjadi gereja

Kuil ini ditukarkan menjadi suatu gereja yang didedikasikan kepada Maria si Perawan pada akhir abad ke-6 M^[1] Pembinaan ini menghalakan gereja baharu ini mengikut arah timur, begitu juga dengan altarnya menghadap arah ini bersebelahan apsis yang dibina pada pintu utama kuil (pronaos).^[2]^[3]^[4] Gambaran orang-orang suci dan nabi dicat pada dinding kuil sambil juga tulisan keimanan Kristian diukir pada tiang-tiang runtuhan.^[5] Sebarang patung yang terjumpa dikeluarkan dan dipindahkan dari pekarangan kuil.

Gereja yang baharu ini menjadi antara kawasan yang paling didambakan para penziarah Kristian dalam Empayar Byzantine selain Konstantinopolis, Ephesos, dan Thessaloniki.^[6]

Zaman Uthmaniyah - penukaran menjadi masjid

Kawasan sekitar Parthenon diserahkan kepada empayar Uthmaniyah pada 1456 setelah mereka berjaya mengalahkan askar-askar Republik Firenze yang melindungi pekarangan tersebut.^[7] Gereja itu pada awalnya dikekalkan penggunaannya,^[8] namun ia kemudiannya menjadi masjid pada akhir abad ke-15:^[9]^[10] ada sejarawan yang menyatakan penukaran ini hukuman Mehmed II terhadap percubaan warga kota Athenai pada ketika itu.^[11]

Apsis dan menara gereja ditukarkan menjadi mihrab dan manarah,^[12] ^[13] sambil suatu mimbar baru dibina.^[2] Altar turut dikeluarkan serta dinding-dinding gereja ditutup dari sebarang gambaran santo yang wujud sebelumnya.^[14]

Zaman merdeka dan moden Yunani, sejak abad ke-19

Pembinaan semula Akropolis dan Areus Pagus di Athens, Leo von Klenze, 1846

Rujukan

^ Freely 2004, p. 69 "Some modern writers maintain that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian sanctuary during the reign of Justinian (527–65)...But there is no evidence to support this in the ancient sources. The existing evidence suggests that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian basilica in the last decade of the sixth century."
^ ^a ^b Freely 2004, p. 70.
^ Hollis 2009, p. 21.
^ Hurwit 2000, p. 293.
^ Ralat petik: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tiada teks disediakan bagi rujukan yang bernama AcropolisRestoration
^ Kaldellis, Anthony (2007). "A Heretical (Orthodox) History of the Parthenon" (PDF). University of Michigan. m/s. 3. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 24 August 2009.
^ Babinger, Franz (1992). Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. m/s. 159–160. ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6.
^ Tomkinson, John L. "Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)". Anagnosis Books. Dicapai pada 14 August 2012. "In 1466 the Parthenon was referred to as a church, so it seems likely that for some time at least, it continued to function as a cathedral, being restored to the use of the Greek archbishop."
^ Tomkinson, John L. "Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)". Anagnosis Books. Dicapai pada 14 August 2012. "Some time later – we do not know exactly when – the Parthenon was itself converted into a mosque."
^ D'Ooge 1909, p. 317. "The conversion of the Parthenon into a mosque is first mentioned by another anonymous writer, the Paris Anonymous, whose manuscript dating from the latter half of the fifteenth century was discovered in the library of Paris in 1862."
^ Miller, Walter (1893). "A History of the Akropolis of Athens". The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts. 8 (4): 546–547. doi:10.2307/495887. JSTOR 495887.
^ Hollis 2009, p. 33.
^ Bruno, Vincent J. (1974). The Parthenon. W.W. Norton & Company. m/s. 172. ISBN 978-0-393-31440-3.
^ D'Ooge 1909, p. 317.

Pautan luar

The Acropolis of Athens: The Parthenon (official site with a schedule of its opening hours, tickets and contact information)
The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website)
The Athenian Acropolis by Livio C. Stecchini (Takes the heterodox view of the date of the proto-Parthenon, but a useful summary of the scholarship.)
UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Acropolis, Athens
Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County — The Parthenon
The Parthenon Marbles
Google Sketchup 3D Model of Parthenon (simplistic)
Parthenon virtual tour Interactive 360° panoramas in high resolution.
Parthenon 'The Golden Age of Pericles'
The Friends of the Acropolis
United Parthenon

[freely-1] Freely 2004, p. 69 "Some modern writers maintain that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian sanctuary during the reign of Justinian (527–65)...But there is no evidence to support this in the ancient sources. The existing evidence suggests that the Parthenon was converted into a Christian basilica in the last decade of the sixth century."

[Freely70-2] Freely 2004, p. 70.

[Hurwit293-3] Hollis 2009, p. 21.

[4] Hurwit 2000, p. 293.

[AcropolisRestoration-5] Ralat petik: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tiada teks disediakan bagi rujukan yang bernama AcropolisRestoration

[Kaldelis-6] Kaldellis, Anthony (2007). "A Heretical (Orthodox) History of the Parthenon" (PDF). University of Michigan. m/s. 3. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 24 August 2009.

[7] Babinger, Franz (1992). Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. m/s. 159–160. ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6.

[8] Tomkinson, John L. "Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)". Anagnosis Books. Dicapai pada 14 August 2012. "In 1466 the Parthenon was referred to as a church, so it seems likely that for some time at least, it continued to function as a cathedral, being restored to the use of the Greek archbishop."

[9] Tomkinson, John L. "Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)". Anagnosis Books. Dicapai pada 14 August 2012. "Some time later – we do not know exactly when – the Parthenon was itself converted into a mosque."

[10] D'Ooge 1909, p. 317. "The conversion of the Parthenon into a mosque is first mentioned by another anonymous writer, the Paris Anonymous, whose manuscript dating from the latter half of the fifteenth century was discovered in the library of Paris in 1862."

[Miller-11] Miller, Walter (1893). "A History of the Akropolis of Athens". The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts. 8 (4): 546–547. doi:10.2307/495887. JSTOR 495887.

[12] Hollis 2009, p. 33.

[13] Bruno, Vincent J. (1974). The Parthenon. W.W. Norton & Company. m/s. 172. ISBN 978-0-393-31440-3.

[14] D'Ooge 1909, p. 317.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]