故宮學術季刊 The National Palace Museum Research Quarterly, 2020
In 1747, the Qianlong emperor reflected on the regulations governing ritual vessels from the Ming... more In 1747, the Qianlong emperor reflected on the regulations governing ritual vessels from the Ming dynasty and continued to follow the Yongzheng emperor in presenting archaic-style ritual vessels to the Temple of Confucius in Qufu, in the process adapting Qing imperial ritual vessels to conform with those of antiquity. In examining related textual evidence, it becomes clearly evident that these ritual vessels reportedly based on Confucian ritual classics of the Zhou dynasty are much different from the Zhou dynasty bronzes we know today, archaistic ritual vessels of the Song dynasty, and even those found in illustrated catalogs of bronzes. This was coincidentally the time when the Qianlong emperor was examining the imperial collection of ancient bronzes and beginning to compile the Xiqing gujian catalog, though there is no clear indication that the forms of Zhou dynasty bronzes were consulted in the production of these ritual vessels. What was the source of the archaic style that Qianlong emperor adapted to his ritual vessels? Did the numerous ritual vessels from the “Three Dynasties” of high antiquity at the court influence ritual vessels or the rites? These are the questions that the present study seeks to address. The present research analyzes the ritual vessels presented by the Yongzheng emperor to the Temple of Confucius in Qufu and the ritual vessels adapted to conform to antiquity made in the reign of the Qianlong emperor. The study proposes that the antiquity upon which the latter was based actually followed the idea of the explanation provided in the Confucian classics, the imagery of ancient ritual vessels gained from the Confucius temple and school system, and some elements from Ming dynasty ritual vessels along with some new innovations of the time. Furthermore, focus on the Temple of Confucius in Qufu brought about changes in the placement of Zhou dynasty bronzes in the Temple of Confucius for the personal sacrifices of the emperor. The present study traces the production of three sets of bronzes gifted to the Temple of Confucius by the Qianlong emperor, demonstrating an appreciation and knowledge of ancient bronzes in the imperial collection as well as how the method of display influenced the choice and production of accessories for the three sets of bronzes. This in turn changed the appearance of displays for ritual vessels used in the Confucius Memorial Ceremony.
In 1749, the fourteenth year of the Qianlong reign (1735-1795), the emperor ordered high official... more In 1749, the fourteenth year of the Qianlong reign (1735-1795), the emperor ordered high officials to compile a catalog of the finest ancient bronzes in the collection of the Forbidden City. Entitled Xiqing gujian, it was completed two years later in forty juan and featured 1,529 bronzes along with an addendum in sixteen juan for “Catalog of Coins.” The Wuying Palace printed the compilation in 1755, representing the largest catalog of ancient bronzes up to that time and also an important event in Chinese cultural history. In the past, most research on the subject of “Xiqing sijian” took the form of general studies discussing the publication itself, the collection of bronzes, and the political implications thereof. However, many questions remain, such as...Why was the Qianlong emperor was so interested in ancient bronzes? Where did his particular interests lie? What was the specific context behind the compilation of this first Qing dynasty catalogue of bronzes? These questions and the different roles of the Qianlong emperor, his court officials, and workshops in the Imperial Household Department in organizing and using ancient bronzes have been less studied, leaving many background facets unexplored. For this reason, the present study takes as its focus the usage and appreciation of ancient bronzes, the background of participants involved in the project, and the cooperation between different workshops of the Imperial Household Department. In doing so, the period context behind the appearance of the Xiqing gujian catalog can be fleshed out and better understood. The present study points to the compilation of Xiqing gujian as a catalogue providing a foundation for the Qianlong emperor and his scholar-officials in appreciating antiquities, Confucian studies, and historical criticism. Studying the activities of those involved in the project and seeing how they took part in the cultural enterprise of the Qianlong emperor demonstrates how the compilation of Xiqing gujian was an effort culminating in the coordinated efforts of the Qianlong emperor, scholar-officials, workshops of the Imperial Household Department and even those recommended from outside the palace. Of special note is how artists in the Painting Academy and enamelware painters worked together in understanding how to depict antiquities, showing craftsmen from different backgrounds coming together and providing a better understanding of the relationship between various workshops and their management system.
A considerable number of chariot-related items are discovered at a large Western Zhou elite cemet... more A considerable number of chariot-related items are discovered at a large Western Zhou elite cemetery at Yejiasan, Suizhou, Hubei. These finds not only show the earliest chariot remains known today at the Sui-Zao corridor but also indicate that chariots were introduced by the Zhou people for their military management in the south land. This study examines finds from Yejiashan cemetery dating to the first half of the Western Zhou period, Guojiamiao cemetery dating to the transition period from Western to Eastern Zhou, and chariot remains from Eastern Zhou Chu cemeteries to show the development of chariots in the southern area, and their later influence on the use of chariots in the Qin and Han dynasties.
The National Palace Museum Research Quarterly, 2017
The earliest known bronze mirrors in the Central Plain of China were discovered at Yinxu (“Ruins ... more The earliest known bronze mirrors in the Central Plain of China were discovered at Yinxu (“Ruins of Yin”), referring to the last capital of the Shang dynasty in what is now Anyang, Henan Province. Though scholars have reached a consensus that these bronze mirrors were not made in Anyang and bear strong stylistic features related to steppe culture, the exact origin of these mirrors remains a contentious issue. However, an abundant amount of material has been recovered from excavations, and the resulting archaeological information and studies on Inner Asia have become increasingly documented. The present study begins by examining the archaeological context from the second to the first century BCE through related studies from the past and sifting the archaeological information to clarify the emergence, usage, and understanding of bronze mirrors in the Central Plain as well as the innovations introduced there. The present study proposes that bronze mirrors appeared in the Central Plain in the late Shang to early Zhou period via various routes and finally became an iconic item of Central Plain culture by the Warring States period. After recognizing the traits and functions of Eurasian mirrors, they became the object of innovation in local crafts and were not brought from a particular area in Eurasia or following Shang or Western Zhou traditions.
Stags, tigers, and ibexes are lively motifs in crafts that trace their origins back to the Iron A... more Stags, tigers, and ibexes are lively motifs in crafts that trace their origins back to the Iron Age in the Altaic region of Central Asia. They exhibit a close relationship between people and the environment, their means of existence, and as a form of cultural expression, representing facets of life that continue down to the present day. These three motifs also were an important form of animal decoration on the chariots excavated from Majiayuan in Zhangjiachun at Tianshui, Gansu, which date to the late Warring States period. They point to the interaction of Xirong and steppe cultures, the background for which has profound implications. Therefore, this study builds on research done previously to explore and reexamine in detail the various theories about steppe elements found in remains from the Majiayuan site. Not only does the study confirm that Majiayuan inherited from the Pazyryk Culture in the Altaic region, it also makes a detailed comparison with “stag stone” monuments in Mongolia and objects excavated from the Ordos region. It is proposed that elements of Pazyryk culture came south to Majiayuan from the southern Altaic Mountains via Mongolia and Ordos. With a general comparison of the objects recovered from these regions, this study attempts to present the changes and stages in the transmission of elements from Pazyryk culture and how these features were used and reinterpreted by the nobility at Majiayuan.
A cultural biography of the Jue wine vessel
An article written for the exhibition "Tusu Wine: Th... more A cultural biography of the Jue wine vessel
An article written for the exhibition "Tusu Wine: The Emperor’s First Drink of the Chinese New Year"
This book concerns the ways in which the adaption of a steppe innovation, the horse-drawn chariot... more This book concerns the ways in which the adaption of a steppe innovation, the horse-drawn chariot, in Chinese society during the 12th – 3rd century BCE contributed profoundly to the development of Chinese political and social value. The importance of the steppe driving skill in warfare, and political and ritual ceremonies in Chinese society not only brought a number of steppe people to serve in Chinese states, but also largely transformed Chinese social, political, and burial practices, and value systems. These early uses were reinterpreted in later periods and still have their influence today.
故宮學術季刊 The National Palace Museum Research Quarterly, 2020
In 1747, the Qianlong emperor reflected on the regulations governing ritual vessels from the Ming... more In 1747, the Qianlong emperor reflected on the regulations governing ritual vessels from the Ming dynasty and continued to follow the Yongzheng emperor in presenting archaic-style ritual vessels to the Temple of Confucius in Qufu, in the process adapting Qing imperial ritual vessels to conform with those of antiquity. In examining related textual evidence, it becomes clearly evident that these ritual vessels reportedly based on Confucian ritual classics of the Zhou dynasty are much different from the Zhou dynasty bronzes we know today, archaistic ritual vessels of the Song dynasty, and even those found in illustrated catalogs of bronzes. This was coincidentally the time when the Qianlong emperor was examining the imperial collection of ancient bronzes and beginning to compile the Xiqing gujian catalog, though there is no clear indication that the forms of Zhou dynasty bronzes were consulted in the production of these ritual vessels. What was the source of the archaic style that Qianlong emperor adapted to his ritual vessels? Did the numerous ritual vessels from the “Three Dynasties” of high antiquity at the court influence ritual vessels or the rites? These are the questions that the present study seeks to address. The present research analyzes the ritual vessels presented by the Yongzheng emperor to the Temple of Confucius in Qufu and the ritual vessels adapted to conform to antiquity made in the reign of the Qianlong emperor. The study proposes that the antiquity upon which the latter was based actually followed the idea of the explanation provided in the Confucian classics, the imagery of ancient ritual vessels gained from the Confucius temple and school system, and some elements from Ming dynasty ritual vessels along with some new innovations of the time. Furthermore, focus on the Temple of Confucius in Qufu brought about changes in the placement of Zhou dynasty bronzes in the Temple of Confucius for the personal sacrifices of the emperor. The present study traces the production of three sets of bronzes gifted to the Temple of Confucius by the Qianlong emperor, demonstrating an appreciation and knowledge of ancient bronzes in the imperial collection as well as how the method of display influenced the choice and production of accessories for the three sets of bronzes. This in turn changed the appearance of displays for ritual vessels used in the Confucius Memorial Ceremony.
In 1749, the fourteenth year of the Qianlong reign (1735-1795), the emperor ordered high official... more In 1749, the fourteenth year of the Qianlong reign (1735-1795), the emperor ordered high officials to compile a catalog of the finest ancient bronzes in the collection of the Forbidden City. Entitled Xiqing gujian, it was completed two years later in forty juan and featured 1,529 bronzes along with an addendum in sixteen juan for “Catalog of Coins.” The Wuying Palace printed the compilation in 1755, representing the largest catalog of ancient bronzes up to that time and also an important event in Chinese cultural history. In the past, most research on the subject of “Xiqing sijian” took the form of general studies discussing the publication itself, the collection of bronzes, and the political implications thereof. However, many questions remain, such as...Why was the Qianlong emperor was so interested in ancient bronzes? Where did his particular interests lie? What was the specific context behind the compilation of this first Qing dynasty catalogue of bronzes? These questions and the different roles of the Qianlong emperor, his court officials, and workshops in the Imperial Household Department in organizing and using ancient bronzes have been less studied, leaving many background facets unexplored. For this reason, the present study takes as its focus the usage and appreciation of ancient bronzes, the background of participants involved in the project, and the cooperation between different workshops of the Imperial Household Department. In doing so, the period context behind the appearance of the Xiqing gujian catalog can be fleshed out and better understood. The present study points to the compilation of Xiqing gujian as a catalogue providing a foundation for the Qianlong emperor and his scholar-officials in appreciating antiquities, Confucian studies, and historical criticism. Studying the activities of those involved in the project and seeing how they took part in the cultural enterprise of the Qianlong emperor demonstrates how the compilation of Xiqing gujian was an effort culminating in the coordinated efforts of the Qianlong emperor, scholar-officials, workshops of the Imperial Household Department and even those recommended from outside the palace. Of special note is how artists in the Painting Academy and enamelware painters worked together in understanding how to depict antiquities, showing craftsmen from different backgrounds coming together and providing a better understanding of the relationship between various workshops and their management system.
A considerable number of chariot-related items are discovered at a large Western Zhou elite cemet... more A considerable number of chariot-related items are discovered at a large Western Zhou elite cemetery at Yejiasan, Suizhou, Hubei. These finds not only show the earliest chariot remains known today at the Sui-Zao corridor but also indicate that chariots were introduced by the Zhou people for their military management in the south land. This study examines finds from Yejiashan cemetery dating to the first half of the Western Zhou period, Guojiamiao cemetery dating to the transition period from Western to Eastern Zhou, and chariot remains from Eastern Zhou Chu cemeteries to show the development of chariots in the southern area, and their later influence on the use of chariots in the Qin and Han dynasties.
The National Palace Museum Research Quarterly, 2017
The earliest known bronze mirrors in the Central Plain of China were discovered at Yinxu (“Ruins ... more The earliest known bronze mirrors in the Central Plain of China were discovered at Yinxu (“Ruins of Yin”), referring to the last capital of the Shang dynasty in what is now Anyang, Henan Province. Though scholars have reached a consensus that these bronze mirrors were not made in Anyang and bear strong stylistic features related to steppe culture, the exact origin of these mirrors remains a contentious issue. However, an abundant amount of material has been recovered from excavations, and the resulting archaeological information and studies on Inner Asia have become increasingly documented. The present study begins by examining the archaeological context from the second to the first century BCE through related studies from the past and sifting the archaeological information to clarify the emergence, usage, and understanding of bronze mirrors in the Central Plain as well as the innovations introduced there. The present study proposes that bronze mirrors appeared in the Central Plain in the late Shang to early Zhou period via various routes and finally became an iconic item of Central Plain culture by the Warring States period. After recognizing the traits and functions of Eurasian mirrors, they became the object of innovation in local crafts and were not brought from a particular area in Eurasia or following Shang or Western Zhou traditions.
Stags, tigers, and ibexes are lively motifs in crafts that trace their origins back to the Iron A... more Stags, tigers, and ibexes are lively motifs in crafts that trace their origins back to the Iron Age in the Altaic region of Central Asia. They exhibit a close relationship between people and the environment, their means of existence, and as a form of cultural expression, representing facets of life that continue down to the present day. These three motifs also were an important form of animal decoration on the chariots excavated from Majiayuan in Zhangjiachun at Tianshui, Gansu, which date to the late Warring States period. They point to the interaction of Xirong and steppe cultures, the background for which has profound implications. Therefore, this study builds on research done previously to explore and reexamine in detail the various theories about steppe elements found in remains from the Majiayuan site. Not only does the study confirm that Majiayuan inherited from the Pazyryk Culture in the Altaic region, it also makes a detailed comparison with “stag stone” monuments in Mongolia and objects excavated from the Ordos region. It is proposed that elements of Pazyryk culture came south to Majiayuan from the southern Altaic Mountains via Mongolia and Ordos. With a general comparison of the objects recovered from these regions, this study attempts to present the changes and stages in the transmission of elements from Pazyryk culture and how these features were used and reinterpreted by the nobility at Majiayuan.
A cultural biography of the Jue wine vessel
An article written for the exhibition "Tusu Wine: Th... more A cultural biography of the Jue wine vessel
An article written for the exhibition "Tusu Wine: The Emperor’s First Drink of the Chinese New Year"
This book concerns the ways in which the adaption of a steppe innovation, the horse-drawn chariot... more This book concerns the ways in which the adaption of a steppe innovation, the horse-drawn chariot, in Chinese society during the 12th – 3rd century BCE contributed profoundly to the development of Chinese political and social value. The importance of the steppe driving skill in warfare, and political and ritual ceremonies in Chinese society not only brought a number of steppe people to serve in Chinese states, but also largely transformed Chinese social, political, and burial practices, and value systems. These early uses were reinterpreted in later periods and still have their influence today.
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The present research analyzes the ritual vessels presented by the Yongzheng emperor to the Temple of Confucius in Qufu and the ritual vessels adapted to conform to antiquity made in the reign of the Qianlong emperor. The study proposes that the antiquity upon which the latter was based actually followed the idea of the explanation provided in the Confucian classics, the imagery of ancient ritual vessels gained from the Confucius temple and school system, and some elements from Ming dynasty ritual vessels along with some new innovations of the time. Furthermore, focus on the Temple of Confucius in Qufu brought about changes in the placement of Zhou dynasty bronzes in the Temple of Confucius for the personal sacrifices of the emperor. The present study traces the production of three sets of bronzes gifted to the Temple of Confucius by the Qianlong emperor, demonstrating an appreciation and knowledge of ancient bronzes in the imperial collection as well as how the method of display influenced the choice and production of accessories for the three sets of bronzes. This in turn changed the appearance of displays for ritual vessels used in the Confucius Memorial Ceremony.
In the past, most research on the subject of “Xiqing sijian” took the form of general studies discussing the publication itself, the collection of bronzes, and the political implications thereof. However, many questions remain, such as...Why was the Qianlong emperor was so interested in ancient bronzes? Where did his particular interests lie? What was the specific context behind the compilation of this first Qing dynasty catalogue of bronzes? These questions and the different roles of the Qianlong emperor, his court officials, and workshops in the Imperial Household Department in organizing and using ancient bronzes have been less studied, leaving many background facets unexplored. For this reason, the present study takes as its focus the usage and appreciation of ancient bronzes, the background of participants involved in the project, and the cooperation between different workshops of the Imperial Household Department. In doing so, the period context behind the appearance of the Xiqing gujian catalog can be fleshed out and better understood.
The present study points to the compilation of Xiqing gujian as a catalogue providing a foundation for the Qianlong emperor and his scholar-officials in appreciating antiquities, Confucian studies, and historical criticism. Studying the activities of those involved in the project and seeing how they took part in the cultural enterprise of the Qianlong emperor demonstrates how the compilation of Xiqing gujian was an effort culminating in the coordinated efforts of the Qianlong emperor, scholar-officials, workshops of the Imperial Household Department and even those recommended from outside the palace. Of special note is how artists in the Painting Academy and enamelware painters worked together in understanding how to depict antiquities, showing craftsmen from different backgrounds coming together and providing a better understanding of the relationship between various workshops and their management system.
an abundant amount of material has been recovered from excavations, and the resulting archaeological information and studies on Inner Asia have become increasingly documented.
The present study begins by examining the archaeological context from the second to the first century BCE through related studies from the past and sifting the archaeological information to clarify the emergence, usage, and understanding of bronze mirrors in the Central Plain as well as the innovations introduced there. The present study proposes that bronze mirrors appeared in the Central Plain in the late Shang to early Zhou period via various routes and finally became an iconic item of Central Plain culture by the Warring States period. After recognizing the traits and functions of Eurasian mirrors, they became the object of innovation in local crafts and were not brought from a particular area
in Eurasia or following Shang or Western Zhou traditions.
motifs also were an important form of animal decoration on the chariots excavated from Majiayuan in Zhangjiachun at Tianshui, Gansu, which date to the late Warring States period. They point to the interaction of Xirong and steppe cultures, the background for which has profound implications. Therefore, this study builds on research done previously to explore and reexamine in detail the various theories about steppe elements found in remains from the Majiayuan site. Not only does the study confirm that Majiayuan inherited from the Pazyryk Culture in the Altaic region, it also makes a detailed comparison with “stag stone” monuments in Mongolia and objects excavated from the Ordos region. It is proposed that elements of Pazyryk culture came south to Majiayuan from the southern Altaic Mountains via Mongolia and Ordos. With a general comparison of the objects recovered from these regions, this study attempts to present the changes and stages in the transmission of elements from Pazyryk culture and how these features were used and reinterpreted by the nobility at Majiayuan.
An article written for the exhibition "Tusu Wine: The Emperor’s First Drink of the Chinese New Year"
The present research analyzes the ritual vessels presented by the Yongzheng emperor to the Temple of Confucius in Qufu and the ritual vessels adapted to conform to antiquity made in the reign of the Qianlong emperor. The study proposes that the antiquity upon which the latter was based actually followed the idea of the explanation provided in the Confucian classics, the imagery of ancient ritual vessels gained from the Confucius temple and school system, and some elements from Ming dynasty ritual vessels along with some new innovations of the time. Furthermore, focus on the Temple of Confucius in Qufu brought about changes in the placement of Zhou dynasty bronzes in the Temple of Confucius for the personal sacrifices of the emperor. The present study traces the production of three sets of bronzes gifted to the Temple of Confucius by the Qianlong emperor, demonstrating an appreciation and knowledge of ancient bronzes in the imperial collection as well as how the method of display influenced the choice and production of accessories for the three sets of bronzes. This in turn changed the appearance of displays for ritual vessels used in the Confucius Memorial Ceremony.
In the past, most research on the subject of “Xiqing sijian” took the form of general studies discussing the publication itself, the collection of bronzes, and the political implications thereof. However, many questions remain, such as...Why was the Qianlong emperor was so interested in ancient bronzes? Where did his particular interests lie? What was the specific context behind the compilation of this first Qing dynasty catalogue of bronzes? These questions and the different roles of the Qianlong emperor, his court officials, and workshops in the Imperial Household Department in organizing and using ancient bronzes have been less studied, leaving many background facets unexplored. For this reason, the present study takes as its focus the usage and appreciation of ancient bronzes, the background of participants involved in the project, and the cooperation between different workshops of the Imperial Household Department. In doing so, the period context behind the appearance of the Xiqing gujian catalog can be fleshed out and better understood.
The present study points to the compilation of Xiqing gujian as a catalogue providing a foundation for the Qianlong emperor and his scholar-officials in appreciating antiquities, Confucian studies, and historical criticism. Studying the activities of those involved in the project and seeing how they took part in the cultural enterprise of the Qianlong emperor demonstrates how the compilation of Xiqing gujian was an effort culminating in the coordinated efforts of the Qianlong emperor, scholar-officials, workshops of the Imperial Household Department and even those recommended from outside the palace. Of special note is how artists in the Painting Academy and enamelware painters worked together in understanding how to depict antiquities, showing craftsmen from different backgrounds coming together and providing a better understanding of the relationship between various workshops and their management system.
an abundant amount of material has been recovered from excavations, and the resulting archaeological information and studies on Inner Asia have become increasingly documented.
The present study begins by examining the archaeological context from the second to the first century BCE through related studies from the past and sifting the archaeological information to clarify the emergence, usage, and understanding of bronze mirrors in the Central Plain as well as the innovations introduced there. The present study proposes that bronze mirrors appeared in the Central Plain in the late Shang to early Zhou period via various routes and finally became an iconic item of Central Plain culture by the Warring States period. After recognizing the traits and functions of Eurasian mirrors, they became the object of innovation in local crafts and were not brought from a particular area
in Eurasia or following Shang or Western Zhou traditions.
motifs also were an important form of animal decoration on the chariots excavated from Majiayuan in Zhangjiachun at Tianshui, Gansu, which date to the late Warring States period. They point to the interaction of Xirong and steppe cultures, the background for which has profound implications. Therefore, this study builds on research done previously to explore and reexamine in detail the various theories about steppe elements found in remains from the Majiayuan site. Not only does the study confirm that Majiayuan inherited from the Pazyryk Culture in the Altaic region, it also makes a detailed comparison with “stag stone” monuments in Mongolia and objects excavated from the Ordos region. It is proposed that elements of Pazyryk culture came south to Majiayuan from the southern Altaic Mountains via Mongolia and Ordos. With a general comparison of the objects recovered from these regions, this study attempts to present the changes and stages in the transmission of elements from Pazyryk culture and how these features were used and reinterpreted by the nobility at Majiayuan.
An article written for the exhibition "Tusu Wine: The Emperor’s First Drink of the Chinese New Year"