Department of History, National Taiwan Normal UniversityPh.D 國立臺灣師範大學歷史學系 博士 吳彥儒 淡江大學歷史學系、中原大學通識教育中心兼任助理教授 Supervisors: 朱鴻 (Chu, Hung) Address: 162, Heping East Road Section 1, Taipei, Taiwan
Department of History, National Taiwan Normal University
〈老驥伏櫪—院藏嘉義匪拒圖與張丙事件中的王得祿〉Old yet Capable: The Depiction of Wang De-Lu in the Painting of Bandits Occupying the Village of Chiayi and in the Zhang Bing Incident, a Painting and Record in the Collection of the National Palace Museum, Oct 1, 2017
道光十二年(一八三二)十月,張丙率眾佔領嘉義縣城外各村莊,嘉義縣城岌岌可危。當距離嘉義數千里之遙,身居北京宮禁的道光皇帝看到〈嘉義縣境被匪拒守村莊簡明圖說〉後,即刻了解張丙事件的嚴重性,飭令... more 道光十二年(一八三二)十月,張丙率眾佔領嘉義縣城外各村莊,嘉義縣城岌岌可危。當距離嘉義數千里之遙,身居北京宮禁的道光皇帝看到〈嘉義縣境被匪拒守村莊簡明圖說〉後,即刻了解張丙事件的嚴重性,飭令官員早日平定匪亂。繪圖表面呈現的是匪亂形勢圖,背後則有王得祿保國衛家的史事,他更因此獲得道光皇帝賞賜「太子少保」宮銜。此圖現存本院,學者們在論及張丙事件的研究時,推論此圖為率先擒獲張丙的福建陸路提督馬濟勝的奏摺附圖,但事實真的如此嗎?
十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球的發展日益進步,但人們不以此滿足,進而發明能快速飛行的飛機,這不僅出於挑戰天空的雄心,更有高度軍事與商業價值的誘惑。是以世界各國競逐發展航空相關的科學知識與技術,如有機... more 十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球的發展日益進步,但人們不以此滿足,進而發明能快速飛行的飛機,這不僅出於挑戰天空的雄心,更有高度軍事與商業價值的誘惑。是以世界各國競逐發展航空相關的科學知識與技術,如有機化學、材料科學、流體力學、機械學等。當時中國對西方航空科技的認識,仰賴聘請外籍教員或翻譯書籍,但外籍教員未必盡心,翻譯書籍內容多有簡略、失真、過時的問題,這些二手資訊轉傳使中國學習的速度緩慢。因此,內容即時且充實的航空知識書籍,在當時更顯得彌足珍貴。高魯(1877-1947)是中國近代最知名的天文學家與外交官,他在1905-1909 年留學比利時布魯塞爾大學,課餘期間觀看飛行演示、蒐集航空書籍後編作為《空中航行術》,是第一手取得的航空知識。是書不僅收錄歐美各國發展航空的歷史與製作方法,亦收錄當時最新的各式航空器,為中國引介專業的航空科技。每種航空器都附上圖片,並附上中西文對譯表,讓讀者能深入理解相關知識及其來源。然而,或因高魯在天文學與外交工作的耀眼影響,此書鮮少受到航空史研究者的關注,實為航空史研究的遺珠。因此,本文擬運用清代檔案、民初航空書籍與報刊,考述作者的生平,再透過解析書中內容,了解近代中國如何透過科學書籍認識西方航空科技,尤其是航空氣球的運用,希冀藉此增補甲午戰後至民國建立前的中國航空史研究。
高魯、氣球、飛艇、半硬式飛艇、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
From the 19th century to early 20th century, aviation balloons were rapidly progressed. People were not satisfied and they wanted to develop even faster airplanes. The desire to fly was not just fueled by people's ambitions to challenge the skies, they also wanted to use the technology for military or commercial purposes. As a result, many countries tried to develop technologies and knowledge for aviation, such as organic chemistry, material science, fluid mechanics, and mechanical engineering. At the time, China depended on foreign teachers or translated books to introduce western aviation knowledge. However, these teachers might not be competent and translated books could be abridges, incorrect, or outdated. Lack of first-hand source of knowledge slowed down China's progress in aviation science. China desperately needed updated and detailed books about aviation. KAO Lu (1877-1947) was one of China's most famous astronomers and diplomats. He studied at Catholic University of Brussels, Belgium from 1905 to 1909. During his off hours, he would see airplane shows and study aviation books. The book Aeronautics (Kongzhong Hangxingshu 空中航行術) that he authored was full of first-hand aviation knowledge that he had learned. This book introduced the history and steps for the making of airplanes. It also introduced to the Chinese latest airplanes. Each aircraft had its pictures with a bilingual glossary so the readers could go deeper and access the sources of information. However, KAO's brilliant achievements in both astronomy and diplomacy probably eclipsed the book's deserved fame. This paper would review Qing archives and early-Republic aviation books and news coverage to learned more about KAO's life. Then by analyzing the book's contents, we shall know more about modern China's learning of aviation technologies, especially the use of balloon, through books. We hope this could enrich the study of China's aviation history from the end of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894) to the founding of the Republic of China (1912).
明天啟、崇禎二朝(1621-1644),明軍在宣府、遼東等戰場上屢屢失利,促使有志於國的士人亟思改良兵器來扭轉敗局。從當時刊行的兵書中,可呈現出二條兵器改良路線,一是由耶穌會士與奉教士人引進和仿... more 明天啟、崇禎二朝(1621-1644),明軍在宣府、遼東等戰場上屢屢失利,促使有志於國的士人亟思改良兵器來扭轉敗局。從當時刊行的兵書中,可呈現出二條兵器改良路線,一是由耶穌會士與奉教士人引進和仿製西洋火器,以西洋砲學來革新明軍的武備;一是優化現有兵器與戰術,提升原有武備的使用效能。因中西文化交流議題的活躍,以往學界較關注明人如何學習西洋新知,而較少注意明人對中國傳統兵學的深刻自省。畢懋康曾閱視延綏、固原二鎮,視察山東官兵操練火砲,提督軍務巡撫鄖陽,也和李之藻等奉教士人交善,是熟稔軍務與中西兵學知識的知兵文人。他在崇禎朝著錄的《軍器圖說》以明軍常用的火器與弩箭為改良焦點,篇幅雖僅五十六頁,卻能圖文並茂呈現十六種兵器的相應戰術與改良方式,為改良中國傳統兵學的代表兵書之一。本文擬以《畢司徒東郊先生年譜》配合官方史書、文集、地方志等考述作者生平與交遊網絡;並將《軍器圖說》與《神器譜》、《兵錄》、《武備志》等部分啟禎朝兵書進行文本分析。析論明季軍事技術的演進脈絡,以及畢懋康期望明軍以此快速、有效的刷振武備,來填補前線戰損造成的防禦空缺。其重點在聯合運用冷熱兵器,達到遠距、大量、持久的投射武力,以抵抗騎兵的運動戰。其書完成後,隨即在西苑觀德殿於崇禎帝御前試演武剛車、神飛砲等火器,證明其實用性。本文據此呈現明人在強大外患威脅下,不只有求助外來的西洋砲學知識,事實上仍有另一條重視改良傳統兵器與戰術的強軍路線。
關鍵詞:畢懋康、軍器圖說、兵書、軍事技術史
The Tianqi and Chongzhen reigns of China's Ming Dynasty(1621-1644) witnessed Ming Army's failures in the battlefields of Xuanfu (宣府), Liaodong (遼東) and many other places. Patriotic scholars began to promote the improvement and strengthening of military technologies. They published many books on the making and using of weapons. The military books of that period of time have shown two ways of improvement of weapons. One is to adopt firearms introduced by the Jesuits and Christians and use artillery to enhance Ming army's power. Another is to refine their available weapons and tactics to improve the effectiveness of their own weapons. Academics tend to focus on cultural exchange. As a result, they tend to focus on the adoption of western knowledge. They tend to overlook Ming's reflections to their own traditional military knowledge. This article focuses on the book Junqi Tushou (軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons) authored by BI Maokang during the Chongzhen reign. This book was only Fifty-six pages in length. It contains texts and illustrations on sixteen weapons and their uses. We investigated the author's life and the book and its relationship with other military books of the middle and late Ming. We concluded that this book is presented BI Maokang hopes Ming army's to achieve long-range, massive and sustainable projection of power, and improving their traditional weapons and tactics.
Keywords: BI Maokang, Junqi Tushuo(軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons), military manuals, military technology history
在清代海洋史舞臺上,同安船是相當耀眼的主角,它演出大清王朝海洋勢力最光輝的一幕。同安船分別飾演民、盜、官三方面的海上發展,最初是福建同安一帶所造的民間商船,主要活躍於閩浙海域,隨著商貿活動發展,... more 在清代海洋史舞臺上,同安船是相當耀眼的主角,它演出大清王朝海洋勢力最光輝的一幕。同安船分別飾演民、盜、官三方面的海上發展,最初是福建同安一帶所造的民間商船,主要活躍於閩浙海域,隨著商貿活動發展,海盜勢力使用同安船進行劫掠,清廷也使用同安船來剿捕海盜,直至輪船出現前,為大清外海水師的主力戰船之一。
同安船的樣貌與其豐富的歷史故事,過往未受到世人太多關注。2012年起,國立故宮博物院的專案團隊執行「再現‧同安船」計畫,將歷史學研究結合科技工藝與新媒體裝置,推出《再現.同安船》紀錄片、「順風相送:院藏清代海洋史料特展」和「同安.潮:新媒體藝術展」,讓社會大眾認識同安船與清代海洋社會發展的歷史風華。在製作紀錄片與策劃展覽的過程中,專案團隊更透過文章,進行教育推廣與深化的學術研究。而本文藉由從清代檔案出發,試分析海盜用同安船的情況,以說明海盜用同安船對清軍的威脅與影響。
清乾嘉時期,因海盜倚仗同安船的性能,劫掠沿海與挑戰清廷官兵,促使清廷逐步組織以同安船為主力船隻的水師艦隊。從清代官員剿捕海盜的奏報中,除發現海盜掠奪商貿中的同安船,也可看到海盜使用同安船的情況。要了解清廷水師的變革,則更應注意變革的觸發點,即海盜如何使用同安船。如橫行海上十餘年的大海盜蔡牽(1761-1809),就使用同安船與清軍作戰,威脅大清的海洋治安。但學界未曾關注海盜使用同安船的狀況,尤其清廷的海洋防務變化與海盜使用同安船有重大關係,海盜用同安船的問題,是同安船由商船變為海盜船,再成為水師戰船的歷史前因,實值得一探。
The Tong-an ship was a shining star in Qing Empire's Maritime History. It created Qing Empire's most glorious days on the seas. The Tong-an ship was used by merchants, pirates and the Empire's navy. In the beginning it was a civilian merchant ship used of the coast of Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces. It’s widely used by traders attracted pirates use of the same kind of ship. Finally, the Qing Empire also used Tong-an ships to hunt pirates. Until the emergence of modern steam ships, the Tong-an ship was Qing navy's main battle force.
However, very few people today know anything about the Tong-an ship and its rich history. Since
2012, the National Palace Museum formed a team to execute the "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" Project. This project tries to use high-tech and new media to tell historical stories. So far they have completed documentary "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships", "Voyage with the Tailwind: Qing Archival and Cartographical Materials on Maritime History in the National Palace Museum", and "Museum Without Walls: Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" special exhibit. These works introduced Tong-an ships and Qing's naval history to the general public. By making the documentary and exhibitions, the team also published articles to promote historical awareness and investigate deeper into this issue. This article examines Qing archive to find out how the pirates used Tong-an ships and how their use of Tong-an ships threatened the Qing navy.
During Emperor Qianlong and Jiaqing's reigns, using superior Tong-an ships, pirates found themselves capable of challenging the Qing navy. They could rob merchant ships more easily. As a result, the Qing navy began to build Tong-an fleets. From Qing officials' piracy hunting memorials, we can not only see the pirates' robbery of Tong-an merchant ships, but we can also see their use of Tong-an pirate ships. For example, Cai Qian (1761-1809), a very infamous pirate, used Tong-an ships to fight Qing navy and had become a major sea security threat for the Qing Empire for over a decade.
Despite the fact that the Qing Empire's coastal defense was changed dramatically because of the pirate's use of Tong-an ships, the academic world has never investigated issue before. The pirate's use of Tong-an ships was the cause of Tong-an ship's change from merchant ships to pirate ships and then to navy fighting ships. This topic is worth of further investigation.
The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art 《故宮文物月刊》, Aug 1, 2013
"From Exile to Surrender: the Rise and Fall of Pirates Zu Fen, Zhu Wo, and Their Army"
十九世紀前期,... more "From Exile to Surrender: the Rise and Fall of Pirates Zu Fen, Zhu Wo, and Their Army"
十九世紀前期,朱濆、朱渥海盜集團在中國東南沿海橫行劫掠,破壞社會秩序與安全。與一般海盜出身於社會下層不同,他們既是福建省漳州府的仕紳家族、乾隆朝文華殿大學士蔡新的遠房姻親,更是與蔡牽、張保仔齊名的海洋巨盜,具有多重社會身分。因此他們懂得見風使舵,利用大清剿捕政策與其他海盜集團勢力的變化,為自己獲取最大利益。最後,率領三千餘人集體降清,成為防衛大清海防的一份子。
Department of History and Geography, National Chiayi University, Jul 17, 2011
"The Strategic Planning and Defenses in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign: 1521-1566"
Since Min... more "The Strategic Planning and Defenses in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign: 1521-1566"
Since Ming Taitsu(明太祖), Zhu Yuanzhang(朱元璋) established Ming Dynasty, he sent his sons to garrison northern frontier, then gradually transformed to Regional Commanders(總兵官, Zongbingguan) defense system. From East to West, Liaotung to Gansu, Ming Empire has set up Nine Frontier fortifications(九邊軍鎮)to defense of Ming Empire. Xuanfu Zhen(宣府鎮) is one of Nine Frontier fortifications, it located northwest Beijing, without the Great Wall, a shortcut to the Mongolian tribes attack. Jiajing Reign (1521-1566), is a critical period of Ming Empire defense. Mongolian invaded of Ming Empire frequently, issued four alerts in Beijing. Xuanfu Zhen is the priority areas because its strategic position.
According to warfare in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign(1521-1566), we can find out Ming Empire how to operate strategic planning and defenses in Xuanfu Zhen. This thesis analyzes natural situation in Xuanfu Zhen, description Xuanfu Zhen how to defend Mongolian cavalry charge, and pointed out that Xuanfu Zhen has Xuanfu Datong Supreme Commander(宣大總督, Xuanfu Datong Zongdu)stationed, it become the command center to protect Beijing, and Xuanfu Zhen also deployment over forty thousand cavalry, and the most Assistant Regional Commanders(參將, Canjiang), Mobile Corps Commander(遊擊將軍, Youji) of Ming Empire. After 1544, Ming built another Great Wall at Xuanfu Zhen’s north frontier. Ming planning double Great Wall, enhance defense between Xuanfu Zhen and military region near to Xuanfu Zhen. This has resulted in Mongolian tribes hard to attack on Xuanfu Zhen, and turned to attack in the east of Jizhou Zhen(薊鎮). Therefore Ming's defense policy is adhere to defend Xuanfu Zhen is equal to defend Beijing.
This thesis focuses on history of warfare in Xuanfu Zhen, not only additional reasons for the military measures, but also prove it can safeguard Beijing in Ming’s national defense history. It also provides a different direction of the studies. It should be noted that all the causes of warfare and military defense objectives. Ming’s regard in any of a Zhen(軍鎮, one of Nine Frontier fortifications) will change from different warfare and political at different time.
嘉靖二十三年(1544),宣府鎮是唯一設防長城以北、孤懸塞外的九邊軍鎮,也是抵禦蒙古部族進攻北京城的最前線。是年,韃靼進攻宣府鎮西路,往南深入蔚州、廣昌,逼近紫荊關。明廷戒嚴京師,成功阻擋韃... more 嘉靖二十三年(1544),宣府鎮是唯一設防長城以北、孤懸塞外的九邊軍鎮,也是抵禦蒙古部族進攻北京城的最前線。是年,韃靼進攻宣府鎮西路,往南深入蔚州、廣昌,逼近紫荊關。明廷戒嚴京師,成功阻擋韃靼於保定之前,逼其北撤,京師解嚴。長城防線遭到突破,即使京師最終無虞,但這樣的戰果是明廷不可接受也不可再有的風險。如何阻截韃靼於宣府鎮甚至宣府鎮以北,是一大戰略難題。明廷詔令翁萬達(1498-1552)為兵部右侍郎兼右僉都御史總督宣、大、山西、保定軍務,在翁萬達以守為勝的政策下,宣府鎮西、北、東向開始築長城,並與大同鎮、薊州的長城接合,讓宣府鎮包覆在環狀長城之內。今人的明代邊鎮研究中,不乏提及翁萬達的長城興築。然應在何處興築長城、駐防,又如何在韃靼持續的攻擊中完成,當有完整探究。從翁萬達的設防成果,更可窺見日後韃靼為何繞過宣府鎮而造成庚戌之變。本文擬以《明世宗實錄》為主軸,輔以翁萬達及相關的明人奏議文集、明代邊鎮圖及GIS繪測地圖,析論翁萬達的以守為勝之道。
十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球與飛機的研發,讓人類不僅實現凌空的夢想,更能成就翱翔天際的挑戰。世界各國日逐雲霄,航空機具性能日益進步,除本於科學的進步與挑戰,更著重於軍事和商業的發展潛力價值。因此,... more 十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球與飛機的研發,讓人類不僅實現凌空的夢想,更能成就翱翔天際的挑戰。世界各國日逐雲霄,航空機具性能日益進步,除本於科學的進步與挑戰,更著重於軍事和商業的發展潛力價值。因此,世界各國競相發展航空相關的科學知識與技術,如化學、材料科學、流體力學、機械學等。而中國當時的科學技術與人才遠遜於外國,清廷深知不能只依賴翻譯書籍或聘請外國教師來閉門造車,故派遣眾多留學生出洋,藉此培養科學人才,並帶回最新的一手資訊。高魯(1877-1947)是中國近代最知名的天文學家與外交官,歷任中央觀象臺長、中央研究院天文研究所所長、中華民國駐法公使等職。然而,高魯在天文學與外交工作的耀眼成果,使世人忽略他在近代中國航空史上的重要貢獻。1905-1909年,他留學比利時布魯塞爾大學,以飛機翼的力學計算為題獲得工科博士學位,並參訪歐洲各國的飛行展示,將其見聞著錄為《空中航行術》。是書文說圖隨,共一百七十頁,著重解說各式氣球、飛機的發展歷史與技術知識,並附上完整的中西文對譯表。高魯及《空中航行術》為中國帶來最新的西方航空知識,如氣球、飛機的造型演變緣由,因應氣流飛行的力學計算程式等,是培育中國航空人才的重要根基。因此,本文擬運用清代檔案、民初航空書籍與《申報》、《述報》、《大公報》等報刊,考述作者的生平、交遊網絡與航空知識淵源,以呈現清末民初之際中國知識分子對西方航空科技的追求。
關鍵詞:高魯、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
Kao Lu、Blimp、Aircraft、Air navigation technique(Kong zhong hang xing
shu 空中航行術)、Aviation history
氣球是讓人類實現翱翔天際的重大發明,它不僅激發人類對航空發展的無限想像,深入市井小民的生活文化之中,更有軍事、氣象、娛樂等高度實用價值。清道光二十三年(1843),魏源的《海國圖志》已載錄西方使... more 氣球是讓人類實現翱翔天際的重大發明,它不僅激發人類對航空發展的無限想像,深入市井小民的生活文化之中,更有軍事、氣象、娛樂等高度實用價值。清道光二十三年(1843),魏源的《海國圖志》已載錄西方使用氣球航行的「飛船」,而後《博物新編》、《申報》、《點石齋畫報》、《時報》等報刊陸續報導西方航空氣球的發展。時人從文字敘述中,發起對航空氣球各種用途的想像,其中的技術發展與中西文化衝擊,值得深入探究。在氣球引入中國後,有識之士注意到氣球是中國必須掌握的航空技術,積極投入研發。而後在中法戰爭、甲午戰爭與日俄戰爭中,西方列強用行動驗證氣球在戰場上的軍事價值,促使清朝政府在天津武備學堂培養氣球技術人才,陸軍部更設立氣球隊與陸軍進行聯合操演。然而,航空氣球在晚清航空發展的歷程中,到底為近代中國帶來多少科技新知與想像?清朝政府又是如何從認識、理解到應用這項航空技能?本文將試以清代檔案與報刊,探查晚清的官方與民間對西方航空氣球認知印象的演變,及對此項航空 技術的學習與發展。
Air balloon is for men to achieve important inventions of flying, which not only stimulate the human imagination on development of aviation, culture of life of ordinary citizens, military, weather, entertainment, and high utility value. In 1843, Wei Yuan's “Illustrated Treatise on Nations Across the Sea”(Hai-kuo t'u-chih 海國圖志) has recorded Air balloons used in the West. Then the “Natural philosophy” (Bowu xinbian 博物新編), “Shun Pao”(申報), “Dianshizhai Pictorial”(點石齋畫報), “Eastern Times”(時報) and other newspapers and periodicals have been reported in the West develop air balloons. People through narratives, imagine air balloons of various uses, the technical development and Sino-Western cultural shock, worthy of further investigation. After the air balloon into China, People recognize the importance of this aviation technology. Western countries verify that the air balloon with the action at the Sino-French War, Sino-Japanese War, and Russo-Japanese War battlefield in military value, it prompted the Government of the Qing dynasty training air balloon troops in Tianjin Military academy, and Department of the army in military exercise drills use the air balloon troops. However, the air balloon in the late Qing dynasty in the aviation history of the development of, and exactly how much technology and imagination in modern China? How is the Qing government understanding it how to apply the aviation? This article will use the archival documents of the Qing dynasty and the press, probe in late Qing dynasty official and popular impression of Western air balloon cognitive evolution, and the learning and development of aviation technology.
從明太祖時期,北京城就是明代北方邊防體系中的軍事重鎮,後因明太宗遷都北京城、北邊防線內縮,北京城更是緊臨長城邊境的戰地前線。為鞏固明朝京師,明太宗宣示天子守邊,北京城因而提升為北邊國防的戰略... more 從明太祖時期,北京城就是明代北方邊防體系中的軍事重鎮,後因明太宗遷都北京城、北邊防線內縮,北京城更是緊臨長城邊境的戰地前線。為鞏固明朝京師,明太宗宣示天子守邊,北京城因而提升為北邊國防的戰略核心。在明朝天子守邊的體制中,天子是最高的軍事指揮官,負責統籌戰略、調度兵馬糧餉。隨著土木堡之變與庚戌之變的發生,凸顯天子親臨戰場的高度風險,以及後代天子的將才武略不及明太祖、明太宗的問題。為不再重蹈覆轍,明世宗以恢復祖制為政治正統宣告,再從文臣督撫的經驗中,創置協理京營戎政一職,以兵部尚書或侍郎出任,做為代理天子統帥六師、肩負北京防禦的最高軍事指揮官。明廷令其督導京營整訓、規劃北京防禦戰略,在戰時能調度入衛兵馬,集中外軍政大權於一身。 從史料層面而言,正史、政書史料僅記載職官制度變化,並將協理京營戎政分類為兵部的增設官員,歷任者的個人奏議文集存佚豐寡不一,史料的載述分散導致不易看出其特殊性。因此,明清史家與近代學者多未特別注意協理京營戎政在明代政治、軍事史中的歷史價值。本文以《明實錄》為核心,輔以奏議、文集、總集、方志、檔案等史料建立「協理京營戎政年表」,據此為論述時間、人物主軸。對比協理京營戎政的創制淵源與其他軍事文臣的異同,逐步析論協理京營戎政如何執行代理天子守邊,以及置廢興替、權位起落的轉折。最後從明代國防的視野,說明北京防禦如何軍鎮化,而協理京營戎政就是政治上不能明言,實務上的「北京鎮總督」。
〈老驥伏櫪—院藏嘉義匪拒圖與張丙事件中的王得祿〉Old yet Capable: The Depiction of Wang De-Lu in the Painting of Bandits Occupying the Village of Chiayi and in the Zhang Bing Incident, a Painting and Record in the Collection of the National Palace Museum, Oct 1, 2017
道光十二年(一八三二)十月,張丙率眾佔領嘉義縣城外各村莊,嘉義縣城岌岌可危。當距離嘉義數千里之遙,身居北京宮禁的道光皇帝看到〈嘉義縣境被匪拒守村莊簡明圖說〉後,即刻了解張丙事件的嚴重性,飭令... more 道光十二年(一八三二)十月,張丙率眾佔領嘉義縣城外各村莊,嘉義縣城岌岌可危。當距離嘉義數千里之遙,身居北京宮禁的道光皇帝看到〈嘉義縣境被匪拒守村莊簡明圖說〉後,即刻了解張丙事件的嚴重性,飭令官員早日平定匪亂。繪圖表面呈現的是匪亂形勢圖,背後則有王得祿保國衛家的史事,他更因此獲得道光皇帝賞賜「太子少保」宮銜。此圖現存本院,學者們在論及張丙事件的研究時,推論此圖為率先擒獲張丙的福建陸路提督馬濟勝的奏摺附圖,但事實真的如此嗎?
十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球的發展日益進步,但人們不以此滿足,進而發明能快速飛行的飛機,這不僅出於挑戰天空的雄心,更有高度軍事與商業價值的誘惑。是以世界各國競逐發展航空相關的科學知識與技術,如有機... more 十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球的發展日益進步,但人們不以此滿足,進而發明能快速飛行的飛機,這不僅出於挑戰天空的雄心,更有高度軍事與商業價值的誘惑。是以世界各國競逐發展航空相關的科學知識與技術,如有機化學、材料科學、流體力學、機械學等。當時中國對西方航空科技的認識,仰賴聘請外籍教員或翻譯書籍,但外籍教員未必盡心,翻譯書籍內容多有簡略、失真、過時的問題,這些二手資訊轉傳使中國學習的速度緩慢。因此,內容即時且充實的航空知識書籍,在當時更顯得彌足珍貴。高魯(1877-1947)是中國近代最知名的天文學家與外交官,他在1905-1909 年留學比利時布魯塞爾大學,課餘期間觀看飛行演示、蒐集航空書籍後編作為《空中航行術》,是第一手取得的航空知識。是書不僅收錄歐美各國發展航空的歷史與製作方法,亦收錄當時最新的各式航空器,為中國引介專業的航空科技。每種航空器都附上圖片,並附上中西文對譯表,讓讀者能深入理解相關知識及其來源。然而,或因高魯在天文學與外交工作的耀眼影響,此書鮮少受到航空史研究者的關注,實為航空史研究的遺珠。因此,本文擬運用清代檔案、民初航空書籍與報刊,考述作者的生平,再透過解析書中內容,了解近代中國如何透過科學書籍認識西方航空科技,尤其是航空氣球的運用,希冀藉此增補甲午戰後至民國建立前的中國航空史研究。
高魯、氣球、飛艇、半硬式飛艇、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
From the 19th century to early 20th century, aviation balloons were rapidly progressed. People were not satisfied and they wanted to develop even faster airplanes. The desire to fly was not just fueled by people's ambitions to challenge the skies, they also wanted to use the technology for military or commercial purposes. As a result, many countries tried to develop technologies and knowledge for aviation, such as organic chemistry, material science, fluid mechanics, and mechanical engineering. At the time, China depended on foreign teachers or translated books to introduce western aviation knowledge. However, these teachers might not be competent and translated books could be abridges, incorrect, or outdated. Lack of first-hand source of knowledge slowed down China's progress in aviation science. China desperately needed updated and detailed books about aviation. KAO Lu (1877-1947) was one of China's most famous astronomers and diplomats. He studied at Catholic University of Brussels, Belgium from 1905 to 1909. During his off hours, he would see airplane shows and study aviation books. The book Aeronautics (Kongzhong Hangxingshu 空中航行術) that he authored was full of first-hand aviation knowledge that he had learned. This book introduced the history and steps for the making of airplanes. It also introduced to the Chinese latest airplanes. Each aircraft had its pictures with a bilingual glossary so the readers could go deeper and access the sources of information. However, KAO's brilliant achievements in both astronomy and diplomacy probably eclipsed the book's deserved fame. This paper would review Qing archives and early-Republic aviation books and news coverage to learned more about KAO's life. Then by analyzing the book's contents, we shall know more about modern China's learning of aviation technologies, especially the use of balloon, through books. We hope this could enrich the study of China's aviation history from the end of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894) to the founding of the Republic of China (1912).
明天啟、崇禎二朝(1621-1644),明軍在宣府、遼東等戰場上屢屢失利,促使有志於國的士人亟思改良兵器來扭轉敗局。從當時刊行的兵書中,可呈現出二條兵器改良路線,一是由耶穌會士與奉教士人引進和仿... more 明天啟、崇禎二朝(1621-1644),明軍在宣府、遼東等戰場上屢屢失利,促使有志於國的士人亟思改良兵器來扭轉敗局。從當時刊行的兵書中,可呈現出二條兵器改良路線,一是由耶穌會士與奉教士人引進和仿製西洋火器,以西洋砲學來革新明軍的武備;一是優化現有兵器與戰術,提升原有武備的使用效能。因中西文化交流議題的活躍,以往學界較關注明人如何學習西洋新知,而較少注意明人對中國傳統兵學的深刻自省。畢懋康曾閱視延綏、固原二鎮,視察山東官兵操練火砲,提督軍務巡撫鄖陽,也和李之藻等奉教士人交善,是熟稔軍務與中西兵學知識的知兵文人。他在崇禎朝著錄的《軍器圖說》以明軍常用的火器與弩箭為改良焦點,篇幅雖僅五十六頁,卻能圖文並茂呈現十六種兵器的相應戰術與改良方式,為改良中國傳統兵學的代表兵書之一。本文擬以《畢司徒東郊先生年譜》配合官方史書、文集、地方志等考述作者生平與交遊網絡;並將《軍器圖說》與《神器譜》、《兵錄》、《武備志》等部分啟禎朝兵書進行文本分析。析論明季軍事技術的演進脈絡,以及畢懋康期望明軍以此快速、有效的刷振武備,來填補前線戰損造成的防禦空缺。其重點在聯合運用冷熱兵器,達到遠距、大量、持久的投射武力,以抵抗騎兵的運動戰。其書完成後,隨即在西苑觀德殿於崇禎帝御前試演武剛車、神飛砲等火器,證明其實用性。本文據此呈現明人在強大外患威脅下,不只有求助外來的西洋砲學知識,事實上仍有另一條重視改良傳統兵器與戰術的強軍路線。
關鍵詞:畢懋康、軍器圖說、兵書、軍事技術史
The Tianqi and Chongzhen reigns of China's Ming Dynasty(1621-1644) witnessed Ming Army's failures in the battlefields of Xuanfu (宣府), Liaodong (遼東) and many other places. Patriotic scholars began to promote the improvement and strengthening of military technologies. They published many books on the making and using of weapons. The military books of that period of time have shown two ways of improvement of weapons. One is to adopt firearms introduced by the Jesuits and Christians and use artillery to enhance Ming army's power. Another is to refine their available weapons and tactics to improve the effectiveness of their own weapons. Academics tend to focus on cultural exchange. As a result, they tend to focus on the adoption of western knowledge. They tend to overlook Ming's reflections to their own traditional military knowledge. This article focuses on the book Junqi Tushou (軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons) authored by BI Maokang during the Chongzhen reign. This book was only Fifty-six pages in length. It contains texts and illustrations on sixteen weapons and their uses. We investigated the author's life and the book and its relationship with other military books of the middle and late Ming. We concluded that this book is presented BI Maokang hopes Ming army's to achieve long-range, massive and sustainable projection of power, and improving their traditional weapons and tactics.
Keywords: BI Maokang, Junqi Tushuo(軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons), military manuals, military technology history
在清代海洋史舞臺上,同安船是相當耀眼的主角,它演出大清王朝海洋勢力最光輝的一幕。同安船分別飾演民、盜、官三方面的海上發展,最初是福建同安一帶所造的民間商船,主要活躍於閩浙海域,隨著商貿活動發展,... more 在清代海洋史舞臺上,同安船是相當耀眼的主角,它演出大清王朝海洋勢力最光輝的一幕。同安船分別飾演民、盜、官三方面的海上發展,最初是福建同安一帶所造的民間商船,主要活躍於閩浙海域,隨著商貿活動發展,海盜勢力使用同安船進行劫掠,清廷也使用同安船來剿捕海盜,直至輪船出現前,為大清外海水師的主力戰船之一。
同安船的樣貌與其豐富的歷史故事,過往未受到世人太多關注。2012年起,國立故宮博物院的專案團隊執行「再現‧同安船」計畫,將歷史學研究結合科技工藝與新媒體裝置,推出《再現.同安船》紀錄片、「順風相送:院藏清代海洋史料特展」和「同安.潮:新媒體藝術展」,讓社會大眾認識同安船與清代海洋社會發展的歷史風華。在製作紀錄片與策劃展覽的過程中,專案團隊更透過文章,進行教育推廣與深化的學術研究。而本文藉由從清代檔案出發,試分析海盜用同安船的情況,以說明海盜用同安船對清軍的威脅與影響。
清乾嘉時期,因海盜倚仗同安船的性能,劫掠沿海與挑戰清廷官兵,促使清廷逐步組織以同安船為主力船隻的水師艦隊。從清代官員剿捕海盜的奏報中,除發現海盜掠奪商貿中的同安船,也可看到海盜使用同安船的情況。要了解清廷水師的變革,則更應注意變革的觸發點,即海盜如何使用同安船。如橫行海上十餘年的大海盜蔡牽(1761-1809),就使用同安船與清軍作戰,威脅大清的海洋治安。但學界未曾關注海盜使用同安船的狀況,尤其清廷的海洋防務變化與海盜使用同安船有重大關係,海盜用同安船的問題,是同安船由商船變為海盜船,再成為水師戰船的歷史前因,實值得一探。
The Tong-an ship was a shining star in Qing Empire's Maritime History. It created Qing Empire's most glorious days on the seas. The Tong-an ship was used by merchants, pirates and the Empire's navy. In the beginning it was a civilian merchant ship used of the coast of Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces. It’s widely used by traders attracted pirates use of the same kind of ship. Finally, the Qing Empire also used Tong-an ships to hunt pirates. Until the emergence of modern steam ships, the Tong-an ship was Qing navy's main battle force.
However, very few people today know anything about the Tong-an ship and its rich history. Since
2012, the National Palace Museum formed a team to execute the "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" Project. This project tries to use high-tech and new media to tell historical stories. So far they have completed documentary "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships", "Voyage with the Tailwind: Qing Archival and Cartographical Materials on Maritime History in the National Palace Museum", and "Museum Without Walls: Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" special exhibit. These works introduced Tong-an ships and Qing's naval history to the general public. By making the documentary and exhibitions, the team also published articles to promote historical awareness and investigate deeper into this issue. This article examines Qing archive to find out how the pirates used Tong-an ships and how their use of Tong-an ships threatened the Qing navy.
During Emperor Qianlong and Jiaqing's reigns, using superior Tong-an ships, pirates found themselves capable of challenging the Qing navy. They could rob merchant ships more easily. As a result, the Qing navy began to build Tong-an fleets. From Qing officials' piracy hunting memorials, we can not only see the pirates' robbery of Tong-an merchant ships, but we can also see their use of Tong-an pirate ships. For example, Cai Qian (1761-1809), a very infamous pirate, used Tong-an ships to fight Qing navy and had become a major sea security threat for the Qing Empire for over a decade.
Despite the fact that the Qing Empire's coastal defense was changed dramatically because of the pirate's use of Tong-an ships, the academic world has never investigated issue before. The pirate's use of Tong-an ships was the cause of Tong-an ship's change from merchant ships to pirate ships and then to navy fighting ships. This topic is worth of further investigation.
The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art 《故宮文物月刊》, Aug 1, 2013
"From Exile to Surrender: the Rise and Fall of Pirates Zu Fen, Zhu Wo, and Their Army"
十九世紀前期,... more "From Exile to Surrender: the Rise and Fall of Pirates Zu Fen, Zhu Wo, and Their Army"
十九世紀前期,朱濆、朱渥海盜集團在中國東南沿海橫行劫掠,破壞社會秩序與安全。與一般海盜出身於社會下層不同,他們既是福建省漳州府的仕紳家族、乾隆朝文華殿大學士蔡新的遠房姻親,更是與蔡牽、張保仔齊名的海洋巨盜,具有多重社會身分。因此他們懂得見風使舵,利用大清剿捕政策與其他海盜集團勢力的變化,為自己獲取最大利益。最後,率領三千餘人集體降清,成為防衛大清海防的一份子。
Department of History and Geography, National Chiayi University, Jul 17, 2011
"The Strategic Planning and Defenses in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign: 1521-1566"
Since Min... more "The Strategic Planning and Defenses in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign: 1521-1566"
Since Ming Taitsu(明太祖), Zhu Yuanzhang(朱元璋) established Ming Dynasty, he sent his sons to garrison northern frontier, then gradually transformed to Regional Commanders(總兵官, Zongbingguan) defense system. From East to West, Liaotung to Gansu, Ming Empire has set up Nine Frontier fortifications(九邊軍鎮)to defense of Ming Empire. Xuanfu Zhen(宣府鎮) is one of Nine Frontier fortifications, it located northwest Beijing, without the Great Wall, a shortcut to the Mongolian tribes attack. Jiajing Reign (1521-1566), is a critical period of Ming Empire defense. Mongolian invaded of Ming Empire frequently, issued four alerts in Beijing. Xuanfu Zhen is the priority areas because its strategic position.
According to warfare in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign(1521-1566), we can find out Ming Empire how to operate strategic planning and defenses in Xuanfu Zhen. This thesis analyzes natural situation in Xuanfu Zhen, description Xuanfu Zhen how to defend Mongolian cavalry charge, and pointed out that Xuanfu Zhen has Xuanfu Datong Supreme Commander(宣大總督, Xuanfu Datong Zongdu)stationed, it become the command center to protect Beijing, and Xuanfu Zhen also deployment over forty thousand cavalry, and the most Assistant Regional Commanders(參將, Canjiang), Mobile Corps Commander(遊擊將軍, Youji) of Ming Empire. After 1544, Ming built another Great Wall at Xuanfu Zhen’s north frontier. Ming planning double Great Wall, enhance defense between Xuanfu Zhen and military region near to Xuanfu Zhen. This has resulted in Mongolian tribes hard to attack on Xuanfu Zhen, and turned to attack in the east of Jizhou Zhen(薊鎮). Therefore Ming's defense policy is adhere to defend Xuanfu Zhen is equal to defend Beijing.
This thesis focuses on history of warfare in Xuanfu Zhen, not only additional reasons for the military measures, but also prove it can safeguard Beijing in Ming’s national defense history. It also provides a different direction of the studies. It should be noted that all the causes of warfare and military defense objectives. Ming’s regard in any of a Zhen(軍鎮, one of Nine Frontier fortifications) will change from different warfare and political at different time.
嘉靖二十三年(1544),宣府鎮是唯一設防長城以北、孤懸塞外的九邊軍鎮,也是抵禦蒙古部族進攻北京城的最前線。是年,韃靼進攻宣府鎮西路,往南深入蔚州、廣昌,逼近紫荊關。明廷戒嚴京師,成功阻擋韃... more 嘉靖二十三年(1544),宣府鎮是唯一設防長城以北、孤懸塞外的九邊軍鎮,也是抵禦蒙古部族進攻北京城的最前線。是年,韃靼進攻宣府鎮西路,往南深入蔚州、廣昌,逼近紫荊關。明廷戒嚴京師,成功阻擋韃靼於保定之前,逼其北撤,京師解嚴。長城防線遭到突破,即使京師最終無虞,但這樣的戰果是明廷不可接受也不可再有的風險。如何阻截韃靼於宣府鎮甚至宣府鎮以北,是一大戰略難題。明廷詔令翁萬達(1498-1552)為兵部右侍郎兼右僉都御史總督宣、大、山西、保定軍務,在翁萬達以守為勝的政策下,宣府鎮西、北、東向開始築長城,並與大同鎮、薊州的長城接合,讓宣府鎮包覆在環狀長城之內。今人的明代邊鎮研究中,不乏提及翁萬達的長城興築。然應在何處興築長城、駐防,又如何在韃靼持續的攻擊中完成,當有完整探究。從翁萬達的設防成果,更可窺見日後韃靼為何繞過宣府鎮而造成庚戌之變。本文擬以《明世宗實錄》為主軸,輔以翁萬達及相關的明人奏議文集、明代邊鎮圖及GIS繪測地圖,析論翁萬達的以守為勝之道。
十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球與飛機的研發,讓人類不僅實現凌空的夢想,更能成就翱翔天際的挑戰。世界各國日逐雲霄,航空機具性能日益進步,除本於科學的進步與挑戰,更著重於軍事和商業的發展潛力價值。因此,... more 十九至二十世紀初,航空氣球與飛機的研發,讓人類不僅實現凌空的夢想,更能成就翱翔天際的挑戰。世界各國日逐雲霄,航空機具性能日益進步,除本於科學的進步與挑戰,更著重於軍事和商業的發展潛力價值。因此,世界各國競相發展航空相關的科學知識與技術,如化學、材料科學、流體力學、機械學等。而中國當時的科學技術與人才遠遜於外國,清廷深知不能只依賴翻譯書籍或聘請外國教師來閉門造車,故派遣眾多留學生出洋,藉此培養科學人才,並帶回最新的一手資訊。高魯(1877-1947)是中國近代最知名的天文學家與外交官,歷任中央觀象臺長、中央研究院天文研究所所長、中華民國駐法公使等職。然而,高魯在天文學與外交工作的耀眼成果,使世人忽略他在近代中國航空史上的重要貢獻。1905-1909年,他留學比利時布魯塞爾大學,以飛機翼的力學計算為題獲得工科博士學位,並參訪歐洲各國的飛行展示,將其見聞著錄為《空中航行術》。是書文說圖隨,共一百七十頁,著重解說各式氣球、飛機的發展歷史與技術知識,並附上完整的中西文對譯表。高魯及《空中航行術》為中國帶來最新的西方航空知識,如氣球、飛機的造型演變緣由,因應氣流飛行的力學計算程式等,是培育中國航空人才的重要根基。因此,本文擬運用清代檔案、民初航空書籍與《申報》、《述報》、《大公報》等報刊,考述作者的生平、交遊網絡與航空知識淵源,以呈現清末民初之際中國知識分子對西方航空科技的追求。
關鍵詞:高魯、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
Kao Lu、Blimp、Aircraft、Air navigation technique(Kong zhong hang xing
shu 空中航行術)、Aviation history
氣球是讓人類實現翱翔天際的重大發明,它不僅激發人類對航空發展的無限想像,深入市井小民的生活文化之中,更有軍事、氣象、娛樂等高度實用價值。清道光二十三年(1843),魏源的《海國圖志》已載錄西方使... more 氣球是讓人類實現翱翔天際的重大發明,它不僅激發人類對航空發展的無限想像,深入市井小民的生活文化之中,更有軍事、氣象、娛樂等高度實用價值。清道光二十三年(1843),魏源的《海國圖志》已載錄西方使用氣球航行的「飛船」,而後《博物新編》、《申報》、《點石齋畫報》、《時報》等報刊陸續報導西方航空氣球的發展。時人從文字敘述中,發起對航空氣球各種用途的想像,其中的技術發展與中西文化衝擊,值得深入探究。在氣球引入中國後,有識之士注意到氣球是中國必須掌握的航空技術,積極投入研發。而後在中法戰爭、甲午戰爭與日俄戰爭中,西方列強用行動驗證氣球在戰場上的軍事價值,促使清朝政府在天津武備學堂培養氣球技術人才,陸軍部更設立氣球隊與陸軍進行聯合操演。然而,航空氣球在晚清航空發展的歷程中,到底為近代中國帶來多少科技新知與想像?清朝政府又是如何從認識、理解到應用這項航空技能?本文將試以清代檔案與報刊,探查晚清的官方與民間對西方航空氣球認知印象的演變,及對此項航空 技術的學習與發展。
Air balloon is for men to achieve important inventions of flying, which not only stimulate the human imagination on development of aviation, culture of life of ordinary citizens, military, weather, entertainment, and high utility value. In 1843, Wei Yuan's “Illustrated Treatise on Nations Across the Sea”(Hai-kuo t'u-chih 海國圖志) has recorded Air balloons used in the West. Then the “Natural philosophy” (Bowu xinbian 博物新編), “Shun Pao”(申報), “Dianshizhai Pictorial”(點石齋畫報), “Eastern Times”(時報) and other newspapers and periodicals have been reported in the West develop air balloons. People through narratives, imagine air balloons of various uses, the technical development and Sino-Western cultural shock, worthy of further investigation. After the air balloon into China, People recognize the importance of this aviation technology. Western countries verify that the air balloon with the action at the Sino-French War, Sino-Japanese War, and Russo-Japanese War battlefield in military value, it prompted the Government of the Qing dynasty training air balloon troops in Tianjin Military academy, and Department of the army in military exercise drills use the air balloon troops. However, the air balloon in the late Qing dynasty in the aviation history of the development of, and exactly how much technology and imagination in modern China? How is the Qing government understanding it how to apply the aviation? This article will use the archival documents of the Qing dynasty and the press, probe in late Qing dynasty official and popular impression of Western air balloon cognitive evolution, and the learning and development of aviation technology.
從明太祖時期,北京城就是明代北方邊防體系中的軍事重鎮,後因明太宗遷都北京城、北邊防線內縮,北京城更是緊臨長城邊境的戰地前線。為鞏固明朝京師,明太宗宣示天子守邊,北京城因而提升為北邊國防的戰略... more 從明太祖時期,北京城就是明代北方邊防體系中的軍事重鎮,後因明太宗遷都北京城、北邊防線內縮,北京城更是緊臨長城邊境的戰地前線。為鞏固明朝京師,明太宗宣示天子守邊,北京城因而提升為北邊國防的戰略核心。在明朝天子守邊的體制中,天子是最高的軍事指揮官,負責統籌戰略、調度兵馬糧餉。隨著土木堡之變與庚戌之變的發生,凸顯天子親臨戰場的高度風險,以及後代天子的將才武略不及明太祖、明太宗的問題。為不再重蹈覆轍,明世宗以恢復祖制為政治正統宣告,再從文臣督撫的經驗中,創置協理京營戎政一職,以兵部尚書或侍郎出任,做為代理天子統帥六師、肩負北京防禦的最高軍事指揮官。明廷令其督導京營整訓、規劃北京防禦戰略,在戰時能調度入衛兵馬,集中外軍政大權於一身。 從史料層面而言,正史、政書史料僅記載職官制度變化,並將協理京營戎政分類為兵部的增設官員,歷任者的個人奏議文集存佚豐寡不一,史料的載述分散導致不易看出其特殊性。因此,明清史家與近代學者多未特別注意協理京營戎政在明代政治、軍事史中的歷史價值。本文以《明實錄》為核心,輔以奏議、文集、總集、方志、檔案等史料建立「協理京營戎政年表」,據此為論述時間、人物主軸。對比協理京營戎政的創制淵源與其他軍事文臣的異同,逐步析論協理京營戎政如何執行代理天子守邊,以及置廢興替、權位起落的轉折。最後從明代國防的視野,說明北京防禦如何軍鎮化,而協理京營戎政就是政治上不能明言,實務上的「北京鎮總督」。
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高魯、氣球、飛艇、半硬式飛艇、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
From the 19th century to early 20th century, aviation balloons were rapidly progressed. People were not satisfied and they wanted to develop even faster airplanes. The desire to fly was not just fueled by people's ambitions to challenge the skies, they also wanted to use the technology for military or commercial purposes. As a result, many countries tried to develop technologies and knowledge for aviation, such as organic chemistry, material science, fluid mechanics, and mechanical engineering. At the time, China depended on foreign teachers or translated books to introduce western aviation knowledge. However, these teachers might not be competent and translated books could be abridges, incorrect, or outdated. Lack of first-hand source of knowledge slowed down China's progress in aviation science. China desperately needed updated and detailed books about aviation. KAO Lu (1877-1947) was one of China's most famous astronomers and diplomats. He studied at Catholic University of Brussels, Belgium from 1905 to 1909. During his off hours, he would see airplane shows and study aviation books. The book Aeronautics (Kongzhong Hangxingshu 空中航行術) that he authored was full of first-hand aviation knowledge that he had learned. This book introduced the history and steps for the making of airplanes. It also introduced to the Chinese latest airplanes. Each aircraft had its pictures with a bilingual glossary so the readers could go deeper and access the sources of information. However, KAO's brilliant achievements in both astronomy and diplomacy probably eclipsed the book's deserved fame. This paper would review Qing archives and early-Republic aviation books and news coverage to learned more about KAO's life. Then by analyzing the book's contents, we shall know more about modern China's learning of aviation technologies, especially the use of balloon, through books. We hope this could enrich the study of China's aviation history from the end of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894) to the founding of the Republic of China (1912).
關鍵詞:畢懋康、軍器圖說、兵書、軍事技術史
The Tianqi and Chongzhen reigns of China's Ming Dynasty(1621-1644) witnessed Ming Army's failures in the battlefields of Xuanfu (宣府), Liaodong (遼東) and many other places. Patriotic scholars began to promote the improvement and strengthening of military technologies. They published many books on the making and using of weapons. The military books of that period of time have shown two ways of improvement of weapons. One is to adopt firearms introduced by the Jesuits and Christians and use artillery to enhance Ming army's power. Another is to refine their available weapons and tactics to improve the effectiveness of their own weapons. Academics tend to focus on cultural exchange. As a result, they tend to focus on the adoption of western knowledge. They tend to overlook Ming's reflections to their own traditional military knowledge. This article focuses on the book Junqi Tushou (軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons) authored by BI Maokang during the Chongzhen reign. This book was only Fifty-six pages in length. It contains texts and illustrations on sixteen weapons and their uses. We investigated the author's life and the book and its relationship with other military books of the middle and late Ming. We concluded that this book is presented BI Maokang hopes Ming army's to achieve long-range, massive and sustainable projection of power, and improving their traditional weapons and tactics.
Keywords: BI Maokang, Junqi Tushuo(軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons), military manuals, military technology history
同安船的樣貌與其豐富的歷史故事,過往未受到世人太多關注。2012年起,國立故宮博物院的專案團隊執行「再現‧同安船」計畫,將歷史學研究結合科技工藝與新媒體裝置,推出《再現.同安船》紀錄片、「順風相送:院藏清代海洋史料特展」和「同安.潮:新媒體藝術展」,讓社會大眾認識同安船與清代海洋社會發展的歷史風華。在製作紀錄片與策劃展覽的過程中,專案團隊更透過文章,進行教育推廣與深化的學術研究。而本文藉由從清代檔案出發,試分析海盜用同安船的情況,以說明海盜用同安船對清軍的威脅與影響。
清乾嘉時期,因海盜倚仗同安船的性能,劫掠沿海與挑戰清廷官兵,促使清廷逐步組織以同安船為主力船隻的水師艦隊。從清代官員剿捕海盜的奏報中,除發現海盜掠奪商貿中的同安船,也可看到海盜使用同安船的情況。要了解清廷水師的變革,則更應注意變革的觸發點,即海盜如何使用同安船。如橫行海上十餘年的大海盜蔡牽(1761-1809),就使用同安船與清軍作戰,威脅大清的海洋治安。但學界未曾關注海盜使用同安船的狀況,尤其清廷的海洋防務變化與海盜使用同安船有重大關係,海盜用同安船的問題,是同安船由商船變為海盜船,再成為水師戰船的歷史前因,實值得一探。
The Tong-an ship was a shining star in Qing Empire's Maritime History. It created Qing Empire's most glorious days on the seas. The Tong-an ship was used by merchants, pirates and the Empire's navy. In the beginning it was a civilian merchant ship used of the coast of Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces. It’s widely used by traders attracted pirates use of the same kind of ship. Finally, the Qing Empire also used Tong-an ships to hunt pirates. Until the emergence of modern steam ships, the Tong-an ship was Qing navy's main battle force.
However, very few people today know anything about the Tong-an ship and its rich history. Since
2012, the National Palace Museum formed a team to execute the "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" Project. This project tries to use high-tech and new media to tell historical stories. So far they have completed documentary "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships", "Voyage with the Tailwind: Qing Archival and Cartographical Materials on Maritime History in the National Palace Museum", and "Museum Without Walls: Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" special exhibit. These works introduced Tong-an ships and Qing's naval history to the general public. By making the documentary and exhibitions, the team also published articles to promote historical awareness and investigate deeper into this issue. This article examines Qing archive to find out how the pirates used Tong-an ships and how their use of Tong-an ships threatened the Qing navy.
During Emperor Qianlong and Jiaqing's reigns, using superior Tong-an ships, pirates found themselves capable of challenging the Qing navy. They could rob merchant ships more easily. As a result, the Qing navy began to build Tong-an fleets. From Qing officials' piracy hunting memorials, we can not only see the pirates' robbery of Tong-an merchant ships, but we can also see their use of Tong-an pirate ships. For example, Cai Qian (1761-1809), a very infamous pirate, used Tong-an ships to fight Qing navy and had become a major sea security threat for the Qing Empire for over a decade.
Despite the fact that the Qing Empire's coastal defense was changed dramatically because of the pirate's use of Tong-an ships, the academic world has never investigated issue before. The pirate's use of Tong-an ships was the cause of Tong-an ship's change from merchant ships to pirate ships and then to navy fighting ships. This topic is worth of further investigation.
十九世紀前期,朱濆、朱渥海盜集團在中國東南沿海橫行劫掠,破壞社會秩序與安全。與一般海盜出身於社會下層不同,他們既是福建省漳州府的仕紳家族、乾隆朝文華殿大學士蔡新的遠房姻親,更是與蔡牽、張保仔齊名的海洋巨盜,具有多重社會身分。因此他們懂得見風使舵,利用大清剿捕政策與其他海盜集團勢力的變化,為自己獲取最大利益。最後,率領三千餘人集體降清,成為防衛大清海防的一份子。
Since Ming Taitsu(明太祖), Zhu Yuanzhang(朱元璋) established Ming Dynasty, he sent his sons to garrison northern frontier, then gradually transformed to Regional Commanders(總兵官, Zongbingguan) defense system. From East to West, Liaotung to Gansu, Ming Empire has set up Nine Frontier fortifications(九邊軍鎮)to defense of Ming Empire. Xuanfu Zhen(宣府鎮) is one of Nine Frontier fortifications, it located northwest Beijing, without the Great Wall, a shortcut to the Mongolian tribes attack. Jiajing Reign (1521-1566), is a critical period of Ming Empire defense. Mongolian invaded of Ming Empire frequently, issued four alerts in Beijing. Xuanfu Zhen is the priority areas because its strategic position.
According to warfare in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign(1521-1566), we can find out Ming Empire how to operate strategic planning and defenses in Xuanfu Zhen. This thesis analyzes natural situation in Xuanfu Zhen, description Xuanfu Zhen how to defend Mongolian cavalry charge, and pointed out that Xuanfu Zhen has Xuanfu Datong Supreme Commander(宣大總督, Xuanfu Datong Zongdu)stationed, it become the command center to protect Beijing, and Xuanfu Zhen also deployment over forty thousand cavalry, and the most Assistant Regional Commanders(參將, Canjiang), Mobile Corps Commander(遊擊將軍, Youji) of Ming Empire. After 1544, Ming built another Great Wall at Xuanfu Zhen’s north frontier. Ming planning double Great Wall, enhance defense between Xuanfu Zhen and military region near to Xuanfu Zhen. This has resulted in Mongolian tribes hard to attack on Xuanfu Zhen, and turned to attack in the east of Jizhou Zhen(薊鎮). Therefore Ming's defense policy is adhere to defend Xuanfu Zhen is equal to defend Beijing.
This thesis focuses on history of warfare in Xuanfu Zhen, not only additional reasons for the military measures, but also prove it can safeguard Beijing in Ming’s national defense history. It also provides a different direction of the studies. It should be noted that all the causes of warfare and military defense objectives. Ming’s regard in any of a Zhen(軍鎮, one of Nine Frontier fortifications) will change from different warfare and political at different time.
明朝肇建後,為防範北元勢力反撲,明太祖朱元璋在北方邊境分封諸子並設重兵守邊,其後逐漸轉為總兵官鎮守。為防禦帝國北境,東至遼東,西迤甘肅,共設立九個軍事重鎮,史稱「九邊」。其中,宣府鎮位於明朝京師北京城的西北,孤懸塞外,是蒙古部族進攻京師的捷徑。嘉靖時期(1521-1566)是明朝國防之關鍵時期,蒙古部族屢屢入犯,京師甚至四度戒嚴,宣府鎮不僅是拱衛京師的北防核心,更是明朝最重視的北邊軍鎮。
本文藉由明嘉靖時期宣府鎮遭受的戰爭衝擊,探討明朝對宣府鎮之戰略規劃與防禦措施。本文分析宣府鎮的自然形勢,說明宣府鎮抵禦蒙古騎兵衝鋒的困難處,並指出明朝以宣大總督駐防宣府鎮,作為京師外衛的指揮中心,宣府鎮編制內的參將、遊擊將軍與超過四萬名的騎兵部隊數量冠於帝國各軍鎮。嘉靖二十三年(1544)後,明朝於宣府鎮北境增築長城,形成包圍宣府鎮的二道長城防線,並強化宣府鎮與鄰近防區之間的防務,令蒙古部族無法經由宣府鎮逼近京師,遂改由東側的薊鎮一帶南侵。但不論蒙古部族由何處進攻京師,明朝仍堅持「重宣府者,重京師也」的國防政策。
本文專注於宣府鎮的戰爭史事與明朝對宣府鎮執行的軍事措施,不僅補充宣府鎮防務改變的歷程與影響,更說明宣府鎮擁有屏翰京師的堅實戰力,及其在明朝國防歷史上是維繫帝國存亡的門戶重鎮。並提供明代邊防研究的另一個面向,即應注意各個北邊軍鎮的戰爭原因與防禦目標,及其受明朝的重視程度,會受到不同時期的朝政與戰爭威脅而改變。
關鍵詞:翁萬達、宣府鎮、九邊、長城、明代軍事史
關鍵詞:高魯、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
Kao Lu、Blimp、Aircraft、Air navigation technique(Kong zhong hang xing
shu 空中航行術)、Aviation history
Air balloon is for men to achieve important inventions of flying, which not only stimulate the human imagination on development of aviation, culture of life of ordinary citizens, military, weather, entertainment, and high utility value. In 1843, Wei Yuan's “Illustrated Treatise on Nations Across the Sea”(Hai-kuo t'u-chih 海國圖志) has recorded Air balloons used in the West. Then the “Natural philosophy” (Bowu xinbian 博物新編), “Shun Pao”(申報), “Dianshizhai Pictorial”(點石齋畫報), “Eastern Times”(時報) and other newspapers and periodicals have been reported in the West develop air balloons. People through narratives, imagine air balloons of various uses, the technical development and Sino-Western cultural shock, worthy of further investigation. After the air balloon into China, People recognize the importance of this aviation technology. Western countries verify that the air balloon with the action at the Sino-French War, Sino-Japanese War, and Russo-Japanese War battlefield in military value, it prompted the Government of the Qing dynasty training air balloon troops in Tianjin Military academy, and Department of the army in military exercise drills use the air balloon troops. However, the air balloon in the late Qing dynasty in the aviation history of the development of, and exactly how much technology and imagination in modern China? How is the Qing government understanding it how to apply the aviation? This article will use the archival documents of the Qing dynasty and the press, probe in late Qing dynasty official and popular impression of Western air balloon cognitive evolution, and the learning and development of aviation technology.
氣球、飛舟、飛球、飛艇、航空史
air balloon、blimp、airship、aviation history
從史料層面而言,正史、政書史料僅記載職官制度變化,並將協理京營戎政分類為兵部的增設官員,歷任者的個人奏議文集存佚豐寡不一,史料的載述分散導致不易看出其特殊性。因此,明清史家與近代學者多未特別注意協理京營戎政在明代政治、軍事史中的歷史價值。本文以《明實錄》為核心,輔以奏議、文集、總集、方志、檔案等史料建立「協理京營戎政年表」,據此為論述時間、人物主軸。對比協理京營戎政的創制淵源與其他軍事文臣的異同,逐步析論協理京營戎政如何執行代理天子守邊,以及置廢興替、權位起落的轉折。最後從明代國防的視野,說明北京防禦如何軍鎮化,而協理京營戎政就是政治上不能明言,實務上的「北京鎮總督」。
高魯、氣球、飛艇、半硬式飛艇、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
From the 19th century to early 20th century, aviation balloons were rapidly progressed. People were not satisfied and they wanted to develop even faster airplanes. The desire to fly was not just fueled by people's ambitions to challenge the skies, they also wanted to use the technology for military or commercial purposes. As a result, many countries tried to develop technologies and knowledge for aviation, such as organic chemistry, material science, fluid mechanics, and mechanical engineering. At the time, China depended on foreign teachers or translated books to introduce western aviation knowledge. However, these teachers might not be competent and translated books could be abridges, incorrect, or outdated. Lack of first-hand source of knowledge slowed down China's progress in aviation science. China desperately needed updated and detailed books about aviation. KAO Lu (1877-1947) was one of China's most famous astronomers and diplomats. He studied at Catholic University of Brussels, Belgium from 1905 to 1909. During his off hours, he would see airplane shows and study aviation books. The book Aeronautics (Kongzhong Hangxingshu 空中航行術) that he authored was full of first-hand aviation knowledge that he had learned. This book introduced the history and steps for the making of airplanes. It also introduced to the Chinese latest airplanes. Each aircraft had its pictures with a bilingual glossary so the readers could go deeper and access the sources of information. However, KAO's brilliant achievements in both astronomy and diplomacy probably eclipsed the book's deserved fame. This paper would review Qing archives and early-Republic aviation books and news coverage to learned more about KAO's life. Then by analyzing the book's contents, we shall know more about modern China's learning of aviation technologies, especially the use of balloon, through books. We hope this could enrich the study of China's aviation history from the end of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894) to the founding of the Republic of China (1912).
關鍵詞:畢懋康、軍器圖說、兵書、軍事技術史
The Tianqi and Chongzhen reigns of China's Ming Dynasty(1621-1644) witnessed Ming Army's failures in the battlefields of Xuanfu (宣府), Liaodong (遼東) and many other places. Patriotic scholars began to promote the improvement and strengthening of military technologies. They published many books on the making and using of weapons. The military books of that period of time have shown two ways of improvement of weapons. One is to adopt firearms introduced by the Jesuits and Christians and use artillery to enhance Ming army's power. Another is to refine their available weapons and tactics to improve the effectiveness of their own weapons. Academics tend to focus on cultural exchange. As a result, they tend to focus on the adoption of western knowledge. They tend to overlook Ming's reflections to their own traditional military knowledge. This article focuses on the book Junqi Tushou (軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons) authored by BI Maokang during the Chongzhen reign. This book was only Fifty-six pages in length. It contains texts and illustrations on sixteen weapons and their uses. We investigated the author's life and the book and its relationship with other military books of the middle and late Ming. We concluded that this book is presented BI Maokang hopes Ming army's to achieve long-range, massive and sustainable projection of power, and improving their traditional weapons and tactics.
Keywords: BI Maokang, Junqi Tushuo(軍器圖說, Illustrations of Military Weapons), military manuals, military technology history
同安船的樣貌與其豐富的歷史故事,過往未受到世人太多關注。2012年起,國立故宮博物院的專案團隊執行「再現‧同安船」計畫,將歷史學研究結合科技工藝與新媒體裝置,推出《再現.同安船》紀錄片、「順風相送:院藏清代海洋史料特展」和「同安.潮:新媒體藝術展」,讓社會大眾認識同安船與清代海洋社會發展的歷史風華。在製作紀錄片與策劃展覽的過程中,專案團隊更透過文章,進行教育推廣與深化的學術研究。而本文藉由從清代檔案出發,試分析海盜用同安船的情況,以說明海盜用同安船對清軍的威脅與影響。
清乾嘉時期,因海盜倚仗同安船的性能,劫掠沿海與挑戰清廷官兵,促使清廷逐步組織以同安船為主力船隻的水師艦隊。從清代官員剿捕海盜的奏報中,除發現海盜掠奪商貿中的同安船,也可看到海盜使用同安船的情況。要了解清廷水師的變革,則更應注意變革的觸發點,即海盜如何使用同安船。如橫行海上十餘年的大海盜蔡牽(1761-1809),就使用同安船與清軍作戰,威脅大清的海洋治安。但學界未曾關注海盜使用同安船的狀況,尤其清廷的海洋防務變化與海盜使用同安船有重大關係,海盜用同安船的問題,是同安船由商船變為海盜船,再成為水師戰船的歷史前因,實值得一探。
The Tong-an ship was a shining star in Qing Empire's Maritime History. It created Qing Empire's most glorious days on the seas. The Tong-an ship was used by merchants, pirates and the Empire's navy. In the beginning it was a civilian merchant ship used of the coast of Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces. It’s widely used by traders attracted pirates use of the same kind of ship. Finally, the Qing Empire also used Tong-an ships to hunt pirates. Until the emergence of modern steam ships, the Tong-an ship was Qing navy's main battle force.
However, very few people today know anything about the Tong-an ship and its rich history. Since
2012, the National Palace Museum formed a team to execute the "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" Project. This project tries to use high-tech and new media to tell historical stories. So far they have completed documentary "Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships", "Voyage with the Tailwind: Qing Archival and Cartographical Materials on Maritime History in the National Palace Museum", and "Museum Without Walls: Rebuilding the Tong-an Ships" special exhibit. These works introduced Tong-an ships and Qing's naval history to the general public. By making the documentary and exhibitions, the team also published articles to promote historical awareness and investigate deeper into this issue. This article examines Qing archive to find out how the pirates used Tong-an ships and how their use of Tong-an ships threatened the Qing navy.
During Emperor Qianlong and Jiaqing's reigns, using superior Tong-an ships, pirates found themselves capable of challenging the Qing navy. They could rob merchant ships more easily. As a result, the Qing navy began to build Tong-an fleets. From Qing officials' piracy hunting memorials, we can not only see the pirates' robbery of Tong-an merchant ships, but we can also see their use of Tong-an pirate ships. For example, Cai Qian (1761-1809), a very infamous pirate, used Tong-an ships to fight Qing navy and had become a major sea security threat for the Qing Empire for over a decade.
Despite the fact that the Qing Empire's coastal defense was changed dramatically because of the pirate's use of Tong-an ships, the academic world has never investigated issue before. The pirate's use of Tong-an ships was the cause of Tong-an ship's change from merchant ships to pirate ships and then to navy fighting ships. This topic is worth of further investigation.
十九世紀前期,朱濆、朱渥海盜集團在中國東南沿海橫行劫掠,破壞社會秩序與安全。與一般海盜出身於社會下層不同,他們既是福建省漳州府的仕紳家族、乾隆朝文華殿大學士蔡新的遠房姻親,更是與蔡牽、張保仔齊名的海洋巨盜,具有多重社會身分。因此他們懂得見風使舵,利用大清剿捕政策與其他海盜集團勢力的變化,為自己獲取最大利益。最後,率領三千餘人集體降清,成為防衛大清海防的一份子。
Since Ming Taitsu(明太祖), Zhu Yuanzhang(朱元璋) established Ming Dynasty, he sent his sons to garrison northern frontier, then gradually transformed to Regional Commanders(總兵官, Zongbingguan) defense system. From East to West, Liaotung to Gansu, Ming Empire has set up Nine Frontier fortifications(九邊軍鎮)to defense of Ming Empire. Xuanfu Zhen(宣府鎮) is one of Nine Frontier fortifications, it located northwest Beijing, without the Great Wall, a shortcut to the Mongolian tribes attack. Jiajing Reign (1521-1566), is a critical period of Ming Empire defense. Mongolian invaded of Ming Empire frequently, issued four alerts in Beijing. Xuanfu Zhen is the priority areas because its strategic position.
According to warfare in Xuanfu Zhen during Jiajing Reign(1521-1566), we can find out Ming Empire how to operate strategic planning and defenses in Xuanfu Zhen. This thesis analyzes natural situation in Xuanfu Zhen, description Xuanfu Zhen how to defend Mongolian cavalry charge, and pointed out that Xuanfu Zhen has Xuanfu Datong Supreme Commander(宣大總督, Xuanfu Datong Zongdu)stationed, it become the command center to protect Beijing, and Xuanfu Zhen also deployment over forty thousand cavalry, and the most Assistant Regional Commanders(參將, Canjiang), Mobile Corps Commander(遊擊將軍, Youji) of Ming Empire. After 1544, Ming built another Great Wall at Xuanfu Zhen’s north frontier. Ming planning double Great Wall, enhance defense between Xuanfu Zhen and military region near to Xuanfu Zhen. This has resulted in Mongolian tribes hard to attack on Xuanfu Zhen, and turned to attack in the east of Jizhou Zhen(薊鎮). Therefore Ming's defense policy is adhere to defend Xuanfu Zhen is equal to defend Beijing.
This thesis focuses on history of warfare in Xuanfu Zhen, not only additional reasons for the military measures, but also prove it can safeguard Beijing in Ming’s national defense history. It also provides a different direction of the studies. It should be noted that all the causes of warfare and military defense objectives. Ming’s regard in any of a Zhen(軍鎮, one of Nine Frontier fortifications) will change from different warfare and political at different time.
明朝肇建後,為防範北元勢力反撲,明太祖朱元璋在北方邊境分封諸子並設重兵守邊,其後逐漸轉為總兵官鎮守。為防禦帝國北境,東至遼東,西迤甘肅,共設立九個軍事重鎮,史稱「九邊」。其中,宣府鎮位於明朝京師北京城的西北,孤懸塞外,是蒙古部族進攻京師的捷徑。嘉靖時期(1521-1566)是明朝國防之關鍵時期,蒙古部族屢屢入犯,京師甚至四度戒嚴,宣府鎮不僅是拱衛京師的北防核心,更是明朝最重視的北邊軍鎮。
本文藉由明嘉靖時期宣府鎮遭受的戰爭衝擊,探討明朝對宣府鎮之戰略規劃與防禦措施。本文分析宣府鎮的自然形勢,說明宣府鎮抵禦蒙古騎兵衝鋒的困難處,並指出明朝以宣大總督駐防宣府鎮,作為京師外衛的指揮中心,宣府鎮編制內的參將、遊擊將軍與超過四萬名的騎兵部隊數量冠於帝國各軍鎮。嘉靖二十三年(1544)後,明朝於宣府鎮北境增築長城,形成包圍宣府鎮的二道長城防線,並強化宣府鎮與鄰近防區之間的防務,令蒙古部族無法經由宣府鎮逼近京師,遂改由東側的薊鎮一帶南侵。但不論蒙古部族由何處進攻京師,明朝仍堅持「重宣府者,重京師也」的國防政策。
本文專注於宣府鎮的戰爭史事與明朝對宣府鎮執行的軍事措施,不僅補充宣府鎮防務改變的歷程與影響,更說明宣府鎮擁有屏翰京師的堅實戰力,及其在明朝國防歷史上是維繫帝國存亡的門戶重鎮。並提供明代邊防研究的另一個面向,即應注意各個北邊軍鎮的戰爭原因與防禦目標,及其受明朝的重視程度,會受到不同時期的朝政與戰爭威脅而改變。
關鍵詞:翁萬達、宣府鎮、九邊、長城、明代軍事史
關鍵詞:高魯、飛車、飛機、空中航行術、航空史
Kao Lu、Blimp、Aircraft、Air navigation technique(Kong zhong hang xing
shu 空中航行術)、Aviation history
Air balloon is for men to achieve important inventions of flying, which not only stimulate the human imagination on development of aviation, culture of life of ordinary citizens, military, weather, entertainment, and high utility value. In 1843, Wei Yuan's “Illustrated Treatise on Nations Across the Sea”(Hai-kuo t'u-chih 海國圖志) has recorded Air balloons used in the West. Then the “Natural philosophy” (Bowu xinbian 博物新編), “Shun Pao”(申報), “Dianshizhai Pictorial”(點石齋畫報), “Eastern Times”(時報) and other newspapers and periodicals have been reported in the West develop air balloons. People through narratives, imagine air balloons of various uses, the technical development and Sino-Western cultural shock, worthy of further investigation. After the air balloon into China, People recognize the importance of this aviation technology. Western countries verify that the air balloon with the action at the Sino-French War, Sino-Japanese War, and Russo-Japanese War battlefield in military value, it prompted the Government of the Qing dynasty training air balloon troops in Tianjin Military academy, and Department of the army in military exercise drills use the air balloon troops. However, the air balloon in the late Qing dynasty in the aviation history of the development of, and exactly how much technology and imagination in modern China? How is the Qing government understanding it how to apply the aviation? This article will use the archival documents of the Qing dynasty and the press, probe in late Qing dynasty official and popular impression of Western air balloon cognitive evolution, and the learning and development of aviation technology.
氣球、飛舟、飛球、飛艇、航空史
air balloon、blimp、airship、aviation history
從史料層面而言,正史、政書史料僅記載職官制度變化,並將協理京營戎政分類為兵部的增設官員,歷任者的個人奏議文集存佚豐寡不一,史料的載述分散導致不易看出其特殊性。因此,明清史家與近代學者多未特別注意協理京營戎政在明代政治、軍事史中的歷史價值。本文以《明實錄》為核心,輔以奏議、文集、總集、方志、檔案等史料建立「協理京營戎政年表」,據此為論述時間、人物主軸。對比協理京營戎政的創制淵源與其他軍事文臣的異同,逐步析論協理京營戎政如何執行代理天子守邊,以及置廢興替、權位起落的轉折。最後從明代國防的視野,說明北京防禦如何軍鎮化,而協理京營戎政就是政治上不能明言,實務上的「北京鎮總督」。