We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved p... more We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved practice, improves memory and the ability to solve problems in undergraduate physics. Over 8 weeks, students in two lecture sections of a university-level introductory physics course completed thrice-weekly homework assignments, each containing problems that were interleaved (i.e., alternating topics) or conventionally arranged (i.e., one topic practiced at a time). On two surprise criterial tests containing novel and more challenging problems, students recalled more relevant information and more frequently produced correct solutions after having engaged in interleaved practice (with observed median improvements of 50% on test 1 and 125% on test 2). Despite benefiting more from interleaved practice, students tended to rate the technique as more difficult and incorrectly believed that they learned less from it. Thus, in a domain that entails considerable amounts of problem-solving, replaci...
A century ago, spelling skills were highly valued and widely taught in schools using traditional ... more A century ago, spelling skills were highly valued and widely taught in schools using traditional methods, such as weekly lists, drill exercises, and low- and high-stakes spelling tests. That approach was featured in best-selling textbooks such as the Horn-Ashbaugh Speller of 1920. In the early 21st century, however, skepticism as to the importance of spelling has grown, some schools have deemphasized or abandoned spelling instruction altogether, and there has been a proliferation of non-traditional approaches to teaching spelling. These trends invite a reevaluation of the role of spelling in modern English-speaking societies and whether the subject should be explicitly taught (and if so, what are research-supported methods for doing so). In this article we examine the literature to address whether spelling skills are still important enough to be taught, summarize relevant evidence, and argue that a comparison of common approaches to spelling instruction in the early 20th century ver...
We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved p... more We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved practice, improves memory and the ability to solve problems in undergraduate physics. Over eight weeks, students in two lecture sections of a university-level introductory physics course completed thrice-weekly homework assignments, each containing problems that were interleaved (i.e., alternating topics) or conventionally arranged (i.e., one topic practiced at a time). On two surprise criterial tests containing novel and more challenging problems, students recalled more relevant information and more frequently produced correct solutions after having engaged in interleaved practice (with observed median improvements of 50% on test 1 and 125% on test 2). Despite benefiting more from interleaved practice, students tended to rate the technique as more difficult and incorrectly believed that they learned less from it. Thus, in a domain that entails considerable amounts of problem-solving, rep...
In three experiments we investigated how the level of study-based, episodic knowledge influences ... more In three experiments we investigated how the level of study-based, episodic knowledge influences the efficacy of subsequent retrieval practice (testing) as a learning event. Possibilities are that the efficacy of a test, relative to a restudy control, decreases, increases, or is independent of the degree of prior study-based learning. The degree of study-based learning was manipulated by varying the number of item repetitions in the initial study phase between one and eight. Predictions of the dual-memory model of test-enhanced learning for the case of one study-phase repetition were used as a reference. Results support the hypothesis that the advantage of testing over restudy is independent of the degree of prior episodic learning, and they suggest that educators can apply cued-recall testing with the expectation that its efficacy is similar across varying levels of prior content learning. Implications for testing effect theory are discussed.
The use of practice tests to enhance learning, or test-enhanced learning, ranks among the most ef... more The use of practice tests to enhance learning, or test-enhanced learning, ranks among the most effective of all pedagogical techniques. We investigated the relative efficacy of pretesting (i.e., errorful generation) and posttesting (i.e., retrieval practice), two of the most prominent practice test types in the literature to date. Pretesting involves taking tests before to-be-learned information is studied, whereas posttesting involves taking tests after information is studied. In five experiments (combined n = 1,573), participants studied expository text passages, each paired with a pretest or a posttest. The tests involved multiple-choice (Experiments 1-5) or cued recall format (Experiments 2-4) and were administered with or without correct answer feedback (Experiments 3-4). On a criterial test administered 5 minutes or 48 hours later, both test types enhanced memory relative to a no-test control, but pretesting yielded higher overall scores. That advantage held across test format...
Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learn... more Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learning can be attenuated by mind wandering (shifts in attention away from the task at-hand towards unrelated thoughts). We investigated whether taking tests on to-be-studied information, also known as pretesting, could mitigate this problem and promote learning. In two experiments, participants viewed a 26-min video-recorded online lecture that was paired with a pretest activity (answering questions about the lecture) or a control activity (solving algebra problems), and with multiple probes to measure attention. Taking pretests reduced mind wandering and improved performance on a subsequent final test compared to the control condition. This result occurred regardless of whether pretests were interspersed throughout the lecture (Experiment 1) or were administered at the very beginning of the lecture (Experiment 2). These findings demonstrate that online lectures can be proactively structure...
In four experiments, we explored conditions under which learning due to retrieval practice (i.e.,... more In four experiments, we explored conditions under which learning due to retrieval practice (i.e., testing) transfers to the case in which the cue and response words are rearranged (e.g., a training test on gift, rose, ?, wherein the target is wine, and a final test on gift, ?, wine, wherein the answer is rose). In both Experiment 1 and a supplementary experiment, we observed divergent results for pairs and triplets: Relative to a restudy control condition, strong transfer was observed for pairs, but none for triplets. In Experiments 2 and 3, the theoretical basis of the specificity of learning for triplets was explored. The results rule out the possibilities that transfer is wholly absent for triplets and that transfer occurs only for the case of exact cue–response reversal on the final test. Rather, it appears that, for both pairs and triplets, transfer will occur unless both of the following conditions hold: (1) two or more independent cues are presented on the training test, and (2) the correct responses on the training and final tests are different. We show that the majority of the results can be explained by combining the dual-memory theory of the testing effect with an inclusive-OR representation that forms when two or more cues are presented on the training test. Follow-up analyses that were conditionalized on training test accuracy suggest that specificity of learning is greater on a correct than on an incorrect training test trial, although selection confounds and contradictory experimental results preclude a strong conclusion.
Although widely used, the true-false test is often regarded as a superficial or even harmful test... more Although widely used, the true-false test is often regarded as a superficial or even harmful test, one that lacks the pedagogical efficacy of more substantive tests (e.g., cued-recall or short-answer tests). Such charges, however, lack conclusive evidence and may, in some cases, be false. Across four experiments, we investigated how true-false testing of studied passages (e.g., on Yellowstone National Park) might enhance—or be optimized to enhance—performance on subsequent cued-recall tests. In Experiments 1–2, relative to control performance that did not benefit from any additional exposure, we found that (a) the evaluation of true statements enhanced the recall of tested (but not related) content and that (b) the evaluation of false statements enhanced the recall of related (but not tested) content, a differential pattern of benefits that did not depend on the syntactic structure of the test items. Moreover, when competitive clauses were embedded within the true-false items of Experiment 3 (e.g., True or false? Castle Geyser (not Steamboat Geyser) is the tallest geyser), we found that the evaluation of both types of statements enhanced the recall of both types of content. Finally, in Experiment 4, these holistic benefits proved robust to a retention interval of 48 h and were comparable with the benefits of a restudy condition in which learners restudied all of the propositions that could have been retrieved in the evaluation of the true-false items. Accordingly, although it was not uncommon for participants to misremember information as a consequence of true-false practice, our findings broadly indicate that, especially when carefully constructed, true-false tests can elicit beneficial, not superficial, processes that belie their poor reputation.
Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other science, te... more Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other science, technology, engineering, and mathematics domains. In two experiments, we investigated whether prelecture quizzes enhance memory for jargon terms, and whether that enhanced familiarity can facilitate learning of related concepts that are encountered during subsequent lectures and readings. Undergraduate students enrolled in neuroanatomy and physiology courses completed 10-minute low-stakes quizzes with feedback on jargon terms either online (experiment 1) or using in-class clickers (experiment 2). Quizzes occurred before conventional course instruction in which the terms were used. On exams occurring up to 12 weeks later, we observed improved student performance on questions that targeted memory of previously quizzed jargon terms and their definitions relative to questions on terms that were not quizzed. This pattern occurred whether those questions were identical (experiment 1) or differen...
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition
Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice, ... more Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice, can improve learning over traditional, one-topic-at-a-time blocked practice. We investigated whether interleaving's benefits for second language learning are facilitated by random schedules, wherein training trials follow unpredictable patterns, or by systematically alternating schedules, wherein trials are predictably sorted. Students learned to conjugate Spanish verbs in the preterite and imperfect tenses and then took a 48-hr delayed verb conjugation test. A consistently random (Experiment 1) or systematically alternating schedule (Experiment 2) did not improve learning versus blocking. However, the combination of both types–systematic alternation for study trials and randomization for practice trials–enhanced learning (Experiments 3–4). Thus, neither interleaving schedule alone appears to be sufficient; for verb conjugation skills and likely other materials involving study and problem-solving practice, both are needed. Interleaving's benefits are therefore impacted by the alignment between training schedule and task type.
Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other STEM domain... more Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other STEM domains. In two experiments we investigated whether pre-lecture quizzes enhance memory for jargon terms, and whether that enhanced familiarity can facilitate learning of related concepts that are encountered during subsequent lectures and readings. Undergraduate students enrolled in neuroanatomy and physiology courses completed 10-minute low-stakes quizzes with feedback on jargon terms either online (Experiment 1) or using in-class clickers (Experiment 2). Quizzes occurred prior to conventional course instruction in which the terms were used. On exams occurring up to 12 weeks later, we observed improved student performance on questions that targeted recall of previously quizzed jargon terms and their definitions, relative to questions on terms that were not quizzed. This pattern occurred whether those questions were identical (Experiment 1) or different (Experiment 2) from that used during qui...
Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice (... more Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice (interleaving), can improve learning over traditional, one-topic-at-a-time blocked practice (blocking). We investigated whether interleaving’s benefits for foreign language learning are facilitated by random schedules, wherein training trials follow unpredictable patterns, or systematically alternating schedules, wherein trials are predictably sorted. Students learned to conjugate Spanish verbs in the preterite and imperfect tenses and then took a 48-hr. delayed verb conjugation test. A consistently random (Experiment 1) or systematically alternating schedule (Experiment 2) did not improve learning versus blocking. However, the combination of both types – systematic alternation for study trials and randomization for practice trials – enhanced learning (Experiments 3-4). Thus, neither interleaving schedule alone appears to be sufficient; for verb conjugation skills and likely other materia...
Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does n... more Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does not transfer, relative to a restudy control, to recall of another term from the same fact. Here we report six experiments in which a series of manipulations during the initial study and training phases of learning, hypothesized to increase transfer for process-based biology concepts, were investigated. In Experiments 1-2, fill-in-the-blank questions combined with immediate or delayed and repeated correct answer feedback improved learning but not transfer. In Experiments 3-4, practice questions that involved recalling process steps, understanding ordinal relationships, or making inferences, did not improve transfer. Positive transfer was produced, however, in Experiments 5-6 via retrieval-verification-scoring, a new method in which difficult fill-in-the-blank questions were combined with extensive feedback processing. We discuss implications for transfer in both theoretical and applied con...
Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does n... more Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does not transfer, relative to a restudy control, to recall of another term from the same fact. Here we report six experiments in which a series of manipulations during the initial study and training phases of learning, hypothesized to increase transfer for process‐based biology concepts, were investigated. In Experiments 1 and 2, fillin‐ the‐blank questions combined with immediate or delayed and repeated correct answer feedback improved learning but not transfer. In Experiments 3 and 4, practice questions that involved recalling process steps, understanding ordinal relationships, or making inferences did not improve transfer. Positive transfer was produced, however, in Experiments 5 and 6 via retrieval–verification–scoring, a new method in which difficult fill‐in‐the‐blank questions were combined with extensive feedback processing. We discuss implications for transfer in both theoretical and applied contexts.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2020
Students are often advised to do all of their studying in one good place, but restudying to-be-le... more Students are often advised to do all of their studying in one good place, but restudying to-be-learned material in a new context can enhance subsequent recall. We examined whether there are similar benefits for testing. In Experiment 1 (n = 106), participants studied a 36-word list and 48 hr later—when back in the same or a new context—either restudied or recalled the list without feedback. After another 48 hr, all participants free-recalled the list in a new context. Experiment 2 (n = 203) differed by having the testing-condition participants restudy the list before being tested. Across both experiments, testing in a new context reduced recall, which carried over to the final test, whereas restudying in a new context did not impair (and in Experiment 2, significantly enhanced) recall. These findings reveal critical interactions between contextual-variation and retrieval-practice effects, which we interpret as consistent with a distribution-of-memory-strengths framework.
In some educational contexts, such as during assessments, it is essential to avoid errors. In oth... more In some educational contexts, such as during assessments, it is essential to avoid errors. In other contexts, however, generating an error can foster valuable learning opportunities. For instance, generating errors can improve memory for correct answers. In two surveys conducted at three large public universities in North America, we investigated undergraduate students’ and instructors’ awareness of the pedagogical benefits of generating errors, as well as related practices, attitudes, and beliefs. Surveyed topics included the incorporation of errors into learning activities, opinions about the consequences of studying errors, and approaches to feedback. Many students had an aversion towards making errors during learning and did not use opportunities to engage in errorful generation, yet studied or analysed errors when they occurred. Many instructors had a welcoming attitude towards errors that occur during learning, yet varied in providing students with resources that facilitate errorful generation. Overall, these findings reveal the prevalence of an ambivalent approach to errors: Students and instructors avoid generating errors but prioritise learning from them when they occur. These results have important implications for the implementation of pretesting, productive failure, and other error-focused learning techniques in educational contexts.
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2021
Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learn... more Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learning can be attenuated by mind wandering (shifts in attention away from the task at hand towards unrelated thoughts). We investigated whether taking tests on to-be-studied information, also known as pretesting, could mitigate this problem and promote learning. In two experiments, participants viewed a 26-min video-recorded online lecture that was paired with a pretest activity (answering questions about the lecture) or a control activity (solving algebra problems), and with multiple probes to measure attention. Taking pretests reduced mind wandering and improved performance on a subsequent final test compared to the control condition. This result occurred regardless of whether pretests were interspersed throughout the lecture (Experiment 1) or were administered at the very beginning of the lecture (Experiment 2). These findings demonstrate that online lectures can be proactively structured to reduce mind wandering and improve learning via the incorporation of pretests.
We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved p... more We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved practice, improves memory and the ability to solve problems in undergraduate physics. Over 8 weeks, students in two lecture sections of a university-level introductory physics course completed thrice-weekly homework assignments, each containing problems that were interleaved (i.e., alternating topics) or conventionally arranged (i.e., one topic practiced at a time). On two surprise criterial tests containing novel and more challenging problems, students recalled more relevant information and more frequently produced correct solutions after having engaged in interleaved practice (with observed median improvements of 50% on test 1 and 125% on test 2). Despite benefiting more from interleaved practice, students tended to rate the technique as more difficult and incorrectly believed that they learned less from it. Thus, in a domain that entails considerable amounts of problem-solving, replaci...
A century ago, spelling skills were highly valued and widely taught in schools using traditional ... more A century ago, spelling skills were highly valued and widely taught in schools using traditional methods, such as weekly lists, drill exercises, and low- and high-stakes spelling tests. That approach was featured in best-selling textbooks such as the Horn-Ashbaugh Speller of 1920. In the early 21st century, however, skepticism as to the importance of spelling has grown, some schools have deemphasized or abandoned spelling instruction altogether, and there has been a proliferation of non-traditional approaches to teaching spelling. These trends invite a reevaluation of the role of spelling in modern English-speaking societies and whether the subject should be explicitly taught (and if so, what are research-supported methods for doing so). In this article we examine the literature to address whether spelling skills are still important enough to be taught, summarize relevant evidence, and argue that a comparison of common approaches to spelling instruction in the early 20th century ver...
We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved p... more We investigated whether continuously alternating between topics during practice, or interleaved practice, improves memory and the ability to solve problems in undergraduate physics. Over eight weeks, students in two lecture sections of a university-level introductory physics course completed thrice-weekly homework assignments, each containing problems that were interleaved (i.e., alternating topics) or conventionally arranged (i.e., one topic practiced at a time). On two surprise criterial tests containing novel and more challenging problems, students recalled more relevant information and more frequently produced correct solutions after having engaged in interleaved practice (with observed median improvements of 50% on test 1 and 125% on test 2). Despite benefiting more from interleaved practice, students tended to rate the technique as more difficult and incorrectly believed that they learned less from it. Thus, in a domain that entails considerable amounts of problem-solving, rep...
In three experiments we investigated how the level of study-based, episodic knowledge influences ... more In three experiments we investigated how the level of study-based, episodic knowledge influences the efficacy of subsequent retrieval practice (testing) as a learning event. Possibilities are that the efficacy of a test, relative to a restudy control, decreases, increases, or is independent of the degree of prior study-based learning. The degree of study-based learning was manipulated by varying the number of item repetitions in the initial study phase between one and eight. Predictions of the dual-memory model of test-enhanced learning for the case of one study-phase repetition were used as a reference. Results support the hypothesis that the advantage of testing over restudy is independent of the degree of prior episodic learning, and they suggest that educators can apply cued-recall testing with the expectation that its efficacy is similar across varying levels of prior content learning. Implications for testing effect theory are discussed.
The use of practice tests to enhance learning, or test-enhanced learning, ranks among the most ef... more The use of practice tests to enhance learning, or test-enhanced learning, ranks among the most effective of all pedagogical techniques. We investigated the relative efficacy of pretesting (i.e., errorful generation) and posttesting (i.e., retrieval practice), two of the most prominent practice test types in the literature to date. Pretesting involves taking tests before to-be-learned information is studied, whereas posttesting involves taking tests after information is studied. In five experiments (combined n = 1,573), participants studied expository text passages, each paired with a pretest or a posttest. The tests involved multiple-choice (Experiments 1-5) or cued recall format (Experiments 2-4) and were administered with or without correct answer feedback (Experiments 3-4). On a criterial test administered 5 minutes or 48 hours later, both test types enhanced memory relative to a no-test control, but pretesting yielded higher overall scores. That advantage held across test format...
Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learn... more Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learning can be attenuated by mind wandering (shifts in attention away from the task at-hand towards unrelated thoughts). We investigated whether taking tests on to-be-studied information, also known as pretesting, could mitigate this problem and promote learning. In two experiments, participants viewed a 26-min video-recorded online lecture that was paired with a pretest activity (answering questions about the lecture) or a control activity (solving algebra problems), and with multiple probes to measure attention. Taking pretests reduced mind wandering and improved performance on a subsequent final test compared to the control condition. This result occurred regardless of whether pretests were interspersed throughout the lecture (Experiment 1) or were administered at the very beginning of the lecture (Experiment 2). These findings demonstrate that online lectures can be proactively structure...
In four experiments, we explored conditions under which learning due to retrieval practice (i.e.,... more In four experiments, we explored conditions under which learning due to retrieval practice (i.e., testing) transfers to the case in which the cue and response words are rearranged (e.g., a training test on gift, rose, ?, wherein the target is wine, and a final test on gift, ?, wine, wherein the answer is rose). In both Experiment 1 and a supplementary experiment, we observed divergent results for pairs and triplets: Relative to a restudy control condition, strong transfer was observed for pairs, but none for triplets. In Experiments 2 and 3, the theoretical basis of the specificity of learning for triplets was explored. The results rule out the possibilities that transfer is wholly absent for triplets and that transfer occurs only for the case of exact cue–response reversal on the final test. Rather, it appears that, for both pairs and triplets, transfer will occur unless both of the following conditions hold: (1) two or more independent cues are presented on the training test, and (2) the correct responses on the training and final tests are different. We show that the majority of the results can be explained by combining the dual-memory theory of the testing effect with an inclusive-OR representation that forms when two or more cues are presented on the training test. Follow-up analyses that were conditionalized on training test accuracy suggest that specificity of learning is greater on a correct than on an incorrect training test trial, although selection confounds and contradictory experimental results preclude a strong conclusion.
Although widely used, the true-false test is often regarded as a superficial or even harmful test... more Although widely used, the true-false test is often regarded as a superficial or even harmful test, one that lacks the pedagogical efficacy of more substantive tests (e.g., cued-recall or short-answer tests). Such charges, however, lack conclusive evidence and may, in some cases, be false. Across four experiments, we investigated how true-false testing of studied passages (e.g., on Yellowstone National Park) might enhance—or be optimized to enhance—performance on subsequent cued-recall tests. In Experiments 1–2, relative to control performance that did not benefit from any additional exposure, we found that (a) the evaluation of true statements enhanced the recall of tested (but not related) content and that (b) the evaluation of false statements enhanced the recall of related (but not tested) content, a differential pattern of benefits that did not depend on the syntactic structure of the test items. Moreover, when competitive clauses were embedded within the true-false items of Experiment 3 (e.g., True or false? Castle Geyser (not Steamboat Geyser) is the tallest geyser), we found that the evaluation of both types of statements enhanced the recall of both types of content. Finally, in Experiment 4, these holistic benefits proved robust to a retention interval of 48 h and were comparable with the benefits of a restudy condition in which learners restudied all of the propositions that could have been retrieved in the evaluation of the true-false items. Accordingly, although it was not uncommon for participants to misremember information as a consequence of true-false practice, our findings broadly indicate that, especially when carefully constructed, true-false tests can elicit beneficial, not superficial, processes that belie their poor reputation.
Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other science, te... more Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other science, technology, engineering, and mathematics domains. In two experiments, we investigated whether prelecture quizzes enhance memory for jargon terms, and whether that enhanced familiarity can facilitate learning of related concepts that are encountered during subsequent lectures and readings. Undergraduate students enrolled in neuroanatomy and physiology courses completed 10-minute low-stakes quizzes with feedback on jargon terms either online (experiment 1) or using in-class clickers (experiment 2). Quizzes occurred before conventional course instruction in which the terms were used. On exams occurring up to 12 weeks later, we observed improved student performance on questions that targeted memory of previously quizzed jargon terms and their definitions relative to questions on terms that were not quizzed. This pattern occurred whether those questions were identical (experiment 1) or differen...
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition
Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice, ... more Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice, can improve learning over traditional, one-topic-at-a-time blocked practice. We investigated whether interleaving's benefits for second language learning are facilitated by random schedules, wherein training trials follow unpredictable patterns, or by systematically alternating schedules, wherein trials are predictably sorted. Students learned to conjugate Spanish verbs in the preterite and imperfect tenses and then took a 48-hr delayed verb conjugation test. A consistently random (Experiment 1) or systematically alternating schedule (Experiment 2) did not improve learning versus blocking. However, the combination of both types–systematic alternation for study trials and randomization for practice trials–enhanced learning (Experiments 3–4). Thus, neither interleaving schedule alone appears to be sufficient; for verb conjugation skills and likely other materials involving study and problem-solving practice, both are needed. Interleaving's benefits are therefore impacted by the alignment between training schedule and task type.
Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other STEM domain... more Mastery of jargon terms is an important part of student learning in biology and other STEM domains. In two experiments we investigated whether pre-lecture quizzes enhance memory for jargon terms, and whether that enhanced familiarity can facilitate learning of related concepts that are encountered during subsequent lectures and readings. Undergraduate students enrolled in neuroanatomy and physiology courses completed 10-minute low-stakes quizzes with feedback on jargon terms either online (Experiment 1) or using in-class clickers (Experiment 2). Quizzes occurred prior to conventional course instruction in which the terms were used. On exams occurring up to 12 weeks later, we observed improved student performance on questions that targeted recall of previously quizzed jargon terms and their definitions, relative to questions on terms that were not quizzed. This pattern occurred whether those questions were identical (Experiment 1) or different (Experiment 2) from that used during qui...
Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice (... more Repeatedly switching between a series of to-be-learned topics, also called interleaved practice (interleaving), can improve learning over traditional, one-topic-at-a-time blocked practice (blocking). We investigated whether interleaving’s benefits for foreign language learning are facilitated by random schedules, wherein training trials follow unpredictable patterns, or systematically alternating schedules, wherein trials are predictably sorted. Students learned to conjugate Spanish verbs in the preterite and imperfect tenses and then took a 48-hr. delayed verb conjugation test. A consistently random (Experiment 1) or systematically alternating schedule (Experiment 2) did not improve learning versus blocking. However, the combination of both types – systematic alternation for study trials and randomization for practice trials – enhanced learning (Experiments 3-4). Thus, neither interleaving schedule alone appears to be sufficient; for verb conjugation skills and likely other materia...
Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does n... more Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does not transfer, relative to a restudy control, to recall of another term from the same fact. Here we report six experiments in which a series of manipulations during the initial study and training phases of learning, hypothesized to increase transfer for process-based biology concepts, were investigated. In Experiments 1-2, fill-in-the-blank questions combined with immediate or delayed and repeated correct answer feedback improved learning but not transfer. In Experiments 3-4, practice questions that involved recalling process steps, understanding ordinal relationships, or making inferences, did not improve transfer. Positive transfer was produced, however, in Experiments 5-6 via retrieval-verification-scoring, a new method in which difficult fill-in-the-blank questions were combined with extensive feedback processing. We discuss implications for transfer in both theoretical and applied con...
Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does n... more Previous work has demonstrated that cued recall of a term from a fact yields learning that does not transfer, relative to a restudy control, to recall of another term from the same fact. Here we report six experiments in which a series of manipulations during the initial study and training phases of learning, hypothesized to increase transfer for process‐based biology concepts, were investigated. In Experiments 1 and 2, fillin‐ the‐blank questions combined with immediate or delayed and repeated correct answer feedback improved learning but not transfer. In Experiments 3 and 4, practice questions that involved recalling process steps, understanding ordinal relationships, or making inferences did not improve transfer. Positive transfer was produced, however, in Experiments 5 and 6 via retrieval–verification–scoring, a new method in which difficult fill‐in‐the‐blank questions were combined with extensive feedback processing. We discuss implications for transfer in both theoretical and applied contexts.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2020
Students are often advised to do all of their studying in one good place, but restudying to-be-le... more Students are often advised to do all of their studying in one good place, but restudying to-be-learned material in a new context can enhance subsequent recall. We examined whether there are similar benefits for testing. In Experiment 1 (n = 106), participants studied a 36-word list and 48 hr later—when back in the same or a new context—either restudied or recalled the list without feedback. After another 48 hr, all participants free-recalled the list in a new context. Experiment 2 (n = 203) differed by having the testing-condition participants restudy the list before being tested. Across both experiments, testing in a new context reduced recall, which carried over to the final test, whereas restudying in a new context did not impair (and in Experiment 2, significantly enhanced) recall. These findings reveal critical interactions between contextual-variation and retrieval-practice effects, which we interpret as consistent with a distribution-of-memory-strengths framework.
In some educational contexts, such as during assessments, it is essential to avoid errors. In oth... more In some educational contexts, such as during assessments, it is essential to avoid errors. In other contexts, however, generating an error can foster valuable learning opportunities. For instance, generating errors can improve memory for correct answers. In two surveys conducted at three large public universities in North America, we investigated undergraduate students’ and instructors’ awareness of the pedagogical benefits of generating errors, as well as related practices, attitudes, and beliefs. Surveyed topics included the incorporation of errors into learning activities, opinions about the consequences of studying errors, and approaches to feedback. Many students had an aversion towards making errors during learning and did not use opportunities to engage in errorful generation, yet studied or analysed errors when they occurred. Many instructors had a welcoming attitude towards errors that occur during learning, yet varied in providing students with resources that facilitate errorful generation. Overall, these findings reveal the prevalence of an ambivalent approach to errors: Students and instructors avoid generating errors but prioritise learning from them when they occur. These results have important implications for the implementation of pretesting, productive failure, and other error-focused learning techniques in educational contexts.
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2021
Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learn... more Although online lectures have become increasingly popular, their effectiveness at promoting learning can be attenuated by mind wandering (shifts in attention away from the task at hand towards unrelated thoughts). We investigated whether taking tests on to-be-studied information, also known as pretesting, could mitigate this problem and promote learning. In two experiments, participants viewed a 26-min video-recorded online lecture that was paired with a pretest activity (answering questions about the lecture) or a control activity (solving algebra problems), and with multiple probes to measure attention. Taking pretests reduced mind wandering and improved performance on a subsequent final test compared to the control condition. This result occurred regardless of whether pretests were interspersed throughout the lecture (Experiment 1) or were administered at the very beginning of the lecture (Experiment 2). These findings demonstrate that online lectures can be proactively structured to reduce mind wandering and improve learning via the incorporation of pretests.
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