Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has bee... more Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has been widely researched in terms of ‘demand’ factors, but less so on the ‘supply-side’, considering the contributory effects of the strategies and actions of religious organisations themselves. Local studies have largely focused on established urban centres in the nineteenth and early twenty centuries. This thesis examines ‘supply-side’ factors in a local study of Slough, which exemplified communities around London that grew rapidly as industrial development shifted to the south-east after WWI. This rapid growth and accompanying demographic change posed major challenges for the churches. However, while some churches struggled, others responded effectively and grew strongly. Organisational structure, leadership, congregational support and theology all affected a church’s fortunes. The ability to mobilise practical and financial congregational support was a major factor. The availability of finance, while always a challenge, could be a sign of support for the church’s mission. Focusing on the young was not simply necessary for replenishing church membership, but a core means of building a church community for all ages. Changing social attitudes towards duty and choice, combined with increasing leisure options, posed a further major challenge. A Christianity defined by social norms or political priorities could seem one choice amongst many, but churches that focused on attracting attendance, offering a welcoming congregational experience with authentic spiritual encounter were attractive. The thesis takes a quantitative approach, and finds that relative to population, overall adult religious adherence was stable before WWI, declined substantially in the interwar years, and stabilised again after WWII. However, the picture was not uniform; Protestant denominations declined relatively, albeit at differing rates; Roman Catholicism and Pentecostalism flourished; and there was significant institutional proliferation after WWII. Overall, the thesis contends that churches were key agents in their own fortunes, and secularisation was not inevitable.</p
In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;a... more In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s largest – reflected the national picture: 72 per cent were church schools, with total rolls of 54 per cent of school-age children. The bitterly contested 1902 Education Act apparently protected the future of church schools, but in practice its provisions severely undermined them, particularly in growing areas of the country. By 1929, Oxford&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s assistant bishop reported the schools’ situation as ‘critical’. This article examines the impact on the church schools of one rural deanery in South Buckinghamshire, between the 1902 and 1944 Education Acts. Several schools found themselves under threat of closure, while rapid population increase and a rising school leaving age more than quadrupled the number of school-age children in the area. Closer working with the local education authority and other denominations was one option to optimize scarce resources and protect the Church of England&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s influence on religious education in day schools: but many churchmen fought to keep church schools open at all costs. This strategy met with limited success: by 1939 the proportion of children in church schools had decreased to 10 per cent, with potential consequences for how religion was taught to the other 90 per cent of children.
Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church member... more Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church membership needed to be replenished through ‘religious socialisation’ of the young, as other researchers have identified. However, this focus was arguably more significant in the shorter term, particularly in a town attracting people of working age intent on ‘settling down’ and establishing families. This also became increasingly important as family sizes reduced and mobility increased, so churches could no longer rely on purely organic growth within the families of committed members. Anglican churches could also no longer rely on ‘socialisation’ through church schools for more than a small minority of children, as for increasing numbers religious education was delivered through state schools. There was quantitative evidence of the positive effect of such strategies both in the short and longer term. The effectiveness of strategies to maintain the commitment of teenage children is also examined.
After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutio... more After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutions, but as a whole, no longer as at the centre of community life as before WWI. However, individual churches could still attain this centrality within sub-communities based on ethnicity (for example, the Irish and Scottish diaspora) or geography (a housing estate). Growing disenchantment with traditional Protestant churches partly contributed to the dramatic growth of a Pentecostal church and wider proliferation of smaller orthodox groups and sects. Towards the end of the period, immigration from Commonwealth countries posed new challenges. Where immigrants came from Christian backgrounds, there were often issues of assimilation. Immigrants from other faith backgrounds significantly changed the demographics of parishes and ‘catchment areas’, challenging the mission priorities and reducing the support base of churches. These factors seemed more significant than changes in gender roles, the Sixties social revolution, or other external factors. Despite declines in commitment to mainstream Protestant churches, some churches responded creatively and overall religious adherence relative to population stabilised after the declines of the interwar years.
In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial tow... more In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial town that many church leaders found spiritually tough. Over the next thirty years Billy Richards built a thriving church with six hundred adult members and a thousand children attending groups across the town. His ministry extended beyond Slough through books, radio broadcasts, correspondence courses and international speaking tours. His methods embraced modern media, new forms of worship, conservative theology and a focus on the active work of the Holy Spirit. One local newspaper characterized it as ‘Old-Time Religion in a New-Fashioned Way’. This article explores the inspirational aspects of Richards&#39;s ministry, how these took institutional expression in his lifetime, and why that institution continues to be influential today. His ministry provides one example of how local churches could adapt successfully to the changing social and cultural landscape of late twentieth-century Britain. This has implications for the understanding of urban mission and the contribution made by the agency of organized religious institutions to twentieth-century secularization.
Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where th... more Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where the church attained a strong position before the onset of relative (and, later, absolute) numerical decline. This chapter demonstrates how, in new urban communities, adherence to organised religion grew overall in line with population growth before WWI, but with significant differences between the fortunes of individual churches. This growth was due to the churches playing a central role in providing education and welfare, community leadership, facilities for clubs and societies, and in facilitating social networks where there were limited alternatives in a growing town. The chapter explores the contributory ‘supply side’ factors in the different fortunes experienced, particularly in providing buildings and supporting children’s work. In general, churches that invested in such facilities fared better than those that did not, but often took significant financial risks in doing so. The roots of later challenges were observable as secular education and welfare provision increased, and leisure choices began to proliferate. Churches also encountered significant difficulties in transferring children from Sunday Schools into longer term commitment to adult congregations.
Industrial Management and Data Systems, Jul 1, 1991
As it becomes increasingly evident that skills shortage in many areas of business and commerce is... more As it becomes increasingly evident that skills shortage in many areas of business and commerce is likely to grow, it is clear that knowledge‐based systems can go some way towards replacing human resources. The use of these systems also increases the productivity and effectiveness of already experienced personnel and also brings with it consistent standards of performance and reliability. A better balance is also achievable between the tasks done by employees and those performed by machines.
In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp... more In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s population quadrupled from 16,397 to 66,471, transforming it from an insignificant market town into the fastest growing industrial town in southern England. Aggressive expansion of the country&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s first private sector &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;trading estate&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; provided employment that attracted tens of thousands of voluntary migrants from the distressed areas and elsewhere. Growth placed huge demands on local authorities, resulting in largely unplanned and uncoordinated urban development, with accompanying social challenges and a diminished sense of civic identity. Whether this represented an economic miracle or a demographic blight divided opinion: while Betjeman condemned it as unfit for human habitation, The Times commended Slough as &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;a smart and prosperous centre of industry&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;. The positive and negative aspects of its growth influenced planners of the post-war era of nationalisation and other centralised initiatives.
Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has bee... more Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has been widely researched in terms of “demand” factors, but less so on the “supply-side,” considering the contributory effects of the strategies and actions of religious organisations themselves. This article explores these strategies in a group of Anglican churches in South Buckinghamshire in the period leading up to the Second World War, as industrial and population development shifted proportionally to the southeast. This rapid growth and accompanying demographic change posed major challenges to the Church of England, subjecting the parish system to severe pressure. The availability, allocation, and suitability of clergy were a constant concern. The very basis of the Church of England’s “offer” to the average citizen — of being the established, national church, there for everyone — seemed under threat: in some places, there was simply no church to “belong” to. Money was in short supply — perhaps both a cause and a symptom of other problems. A general issue was how to reach young people, but a specific concern was the funding of church schools. More widely, the church seemed to be losing touch with the changing cultural and moral landscape in which it operated.
In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England's largest – reflected the nat... more In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England's largest – reflected the national picture: 72 per cent were church schools, with total rolls of 54 per cent of school-age children. The bitterly contested 1902 Education Act apparently protected the future of church schools, but in practice its provisions severely undermined them, particularly in growing areas of the country. By 1929, Oxford's assistant bishop reported the schools’ situation as ‘critical’. This article examines the impact on the church schools of one rural deanery in South Buckinghamshire, between the 1902 and 1944 Education Acts. Several schools found themselves under threat of closure, while rapid population increase and a rising school leaving age more than quadrupled the number of school-age children in the area. Closer working with the local education authority and other denominations was one option to optimize scarce resources and protect the Church of England's influence on religious...
In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough's population quadrupled from 16,397 to 66,4... more In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough's population quadrupled from 16,397 to 66,471, transforming it from an insignificant market town into the fastest growing industrial town in southern England. Aggressive expansion of the country's first private sector 'trading estate' provided employment that attracted tens of thousands of voluntary migrants from the distressed areas and elsewhere. Growth placed huge demands on local authorities, resulting in largely unplanned and uncoordinated urban development, with accompanying social challenges and a diminished sense of civic identity. Whether this represented an economic miracle or a demographic blight divided opinion: while Betjeman condemned it as unfit for human habitation, The Times commended Slough as 'a smart and prosperous centre of industry'. The positive and negative aspects of its growth influenced planners of the post-war era of nationalisation and other centralised initiatives.
This chapter considers the challenges faced by organised religion in new urban Britain in compari... more This chapter considers the challenges faced by organised religion in new urban Britain in comparison with the country as a whole, beginning with a detailed statistical survey by religious grouping. Using standard measures, adherence grew in absolute terms but showed a steady decline relative to population both nationally and locally, but with adherence in the new urban areas at a consistently lower level. However, given the reducing civic, cultural and social roles undertaken by religious institutions, this relative decline might not correlate to similar decline in underlying religious belief. There were significant differences between different groupings, with mainstream Protestantism faring relatively poorly. As the Church of England was by far the dominant religious force at the beginning of the period, the statistical analysis is followed by an in depth exploration of the weaknesses in the Anglican organisational structure and parish system in coping with rapid demographic and s...
Local Churches in Nerw Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where th... more Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where the church attained a strong position before the onset of relative (and, later, absolute) numerical decline. This chapter demonstrates how, in new urban communities, adherence to organised religion grew overall in line with population growth before WWI, but with significant differences between the fortunes of individual churches. This growth was due to the churches playing a central role in providing education and welfare, community leadership, facilities for clubs and societies, and in facilitating social networks where there were limited alternatives in a growing town. The chapter explores the contributory ‘supply side’ factors in the different fortunes experienced, particularly in providing buildings and supporting children’s work. In general, churches that invested in such facilities fared better than those that did not, but often took significant financial risks in doing so. The roots...
Local Churches in Nerw Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutio... more After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutions, but as a whole, no longer as at the centre of community life as before WWI. However, individual churches could still attain this centrality within sub-communities based on ethnicity (for example, the Irish and Scottish diaspora) or geography (a housing estate). Growing disenchantment with traditional Protestant churches partly contributed to the dramatic growth of a Pentecostal church and wider proliferation of smaller orthodox groups and sects. Towards the end of the period, immigration from Commonwealth countries posed new challenges. Where immigrants came from Christian backgrounds, there were often issues of assimilation. Immigrants from other faith backgrounds significantly changed the demographics of parishes and ‘catchment areas’, challenging the mission priorities and reducing the support base of churches. These factors seemed more significant than changes in gender roles, th...
Local Churches in New Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
This chapter discusses the origins and characteristics of communities that grew substantially dur... more This chapter discusses the origins and characteristics of communities that grew substantially during a ‘second wave’ of industrialisation, in which old industries in the north and west of the country declined relatively, and industrial development, based on new industries such as light engineering, shifted proportionally to the south-east following WWI. This ‘shift to the South’ was complemented by ‘out-migration’ as populations moved away from the centre of conurbations into the suburbs, or in the case of London, an outer ring of new and expanding towns. After WWII, this latter shift was further accentuated by the Greater London Plan. The town of Slough was a prime example of these trends, and as such was regularly quoted in popular culture, the press, academic debate and policy formation from the 1920s to the present day. The demographic and social challenges posed for all institutions, including the churches, by the town’s rapid development are explored.
Local Churches in New Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
Due to economic migration, the population of Slough quadrupled during the interwar years, posing ... more Due to economic migration, the population of Slough quadrupled during the interwar years, posing huge challenges for all institutions, including the churches. In addition, changes in social attitudes, and increases in leisure options and disposable income, increased the sense of church adherence being a choice, rather than an obligation arising from duty or social respectability. Churches could grow strongly if they offered a positive ‘choice’ in terms of welcome, authentic encounter and a focus on families and the young. Those that did not might maintain their existing membership but failed to attract incomers, and so declined relative to population growth. Only the most committed would travel long distances to church, so it was also necessary to establish, or ‘plant’, new congregations on the new housing estates. Sunday Schools in particular needed to be located close to where children lived. The financial and human resource commitments required highlighted differences in how ‘mis...
Local Churches in New Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 2020
Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church member... more Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church membership needed to be replenished through ‘religious socialisation’ of the young, as other researchers have identified. However, this focus was arguably more significant in the shorter term, particularly in a town attracting people of working age intent on ‘settling down’ and establishing families. This also became increasingly important as family sizes reduced and mobility increased, so churches could no longer rely on purely organic growth within the families of committed members. Anglican churches could also no longer rely on ‘socialisation’ through church schools for more than a small minority of children, as for increasing numbers religious education was delivered through state schools. There was quantitative evidence of the positive effect of such strategies both in the short and longer term. The effectiveness of strategies to maintain the commitment of teenage children is also examined.
In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial tow... more In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial town that many church leaders found spiritually tough. Over the next thirty years Billy Richards built a thriving church with six hundred adult members and a thousand children attending groups across the town. His ministry extended beyond Slough through books, radio broadcasts, correspondence courses and international speaking tours. His methods embraced modern media, new forms of worship, conservative theology and a focus on the active work of the Holy Spirit. One local newspaper characterized it as ‘Old-Time Religion in a New-Fashioned Way’. This article explores the inspirational aspects of Richards's ministry, how these took institutional expression in his lifetime, and why that institution continues to be influential today. His ministry provides one example of how local churches could adapt successfully to the changing social and cultural landscape of late twentieth-century Britain...
Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has bee... more Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has been widely researched in terms of ‘demand’ factors, but less so on the ‘supply-side’, considering the contributory effects of the strategies and actions of religious organisations themselves. Local studies have largely focused on established urban centres in the nineteenth and early twenty centuries. This thesis examines ‘supply-side’ factors in a local study of Slough, which exemplified communities around London that grew rapidly as industrial development shifted to the south-east after WWI. This rapid growth and accompanying demographic change posed major challenges for the churches. However, while some churches struggled, others responded effectively and grew strongly. Organisational structure, leadership, congregational support and theology all affected a church’s fortunes. The ability to mobilise practical and financial congregational support was a major factor. The availability of finance, while always a challenge, could be a sign of support for the church’s mission. Focusing on the young was not simply necessary for replenishing church membership, but a core means of building a church community for all ages. Changing social attitudes towards duty and choice, combined with increasing leisure options, posed a further major challenge. A Christianity defined by social norms or political priorities could seem one choice amongst many, but churches that focused on attracting attendance, offering a welcoming congregational experience with authentic spiritual encounter were attractive. The thesis takes a quantitative approach, and finds that relative to population, overall adult religious adherence was stable before WWI, declined substantially in the interwar years, and stabilised again after WWII. However, the picture was not uniform; Protestant denominations declined relatively, albeit at differing rates; Roman Catholicism and Pentecostalism flourished; and there was significant institutional proliferation after WWII. Overall, the thesis contends that churches were key agents in their own fortunes, and secularisation was not inevitable.</p
In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;a... more In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s largest – reflected the national picture: 72 per cent were church schools, with total rolls of 54 per cent of school-age children. The bitterly contested 1902 Education Act apparently protected the future of church schools, but in practice its provisions severely undermined them, particularly in growing areas of the country. By 1929, Oxford&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s assistant bishop reported the schools’ situation as ‘critical’. This article examines the impact on the church schools of one rural deanery in South Buckinghamshire, between the 1902 and 1944 Education Acts. Several schools found themselves under threat of closure, while rapid population increase and a rising school leaving age more than quadrupled the number of school-age children in the area. Closer working with the local education authority and other denominations was one option to optimize scarce resources and protect the Church of England&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s influence on religious education in day schools: but many churchmen fought to keep church schools open at all costs. This strategy met with limited success: by 1939 the proportion of children in church schools had decreased to 10 per cent, with potential consequences for how religion was taught to the other 90 per cent of children.
Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church member... more Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church membership needed to be replenished through ‘religious socialisation’ of the young, as other researchers have identified. However, this focus was arguably more significant in the shorter term, particularly in a town attracting people of working age intent on ‘settling down’ and establishing families. This also became increasingly important as family sizes reduced and mobility increased, so churches could no longer rely on purely organic growth within the families of committed members. Anglican churches could also no longer rely on ‘socialisation’ through church schools for more than a small minority of children, as for increasing numbers religious education was delivered through state schools. There was quantitative evidence of the positive effect of such strategies both in the short and longer term. The effectiveness of strategies to maintain the commitment of teenage children is also examined.
After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutio... more After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutions, but as a whole, no longer as at the centre of community life as before WWI. However, individual churches could still attain this centrality within sub-communities based on ethnicity (for example, the Irish and Scottish diaspora) or geography (a housing estate). Growing disenchantment with traditional Protestant churches partly contributed to the dramatic growth of a Pentecostal church and wider proliferation of smaller orthodox groups and sects. Towards the end of the period, immigration from Commonwealth countries posed new challenges. Where immigrants came from Christian backgrounds, there were often issues of assimilation. Immigrants from other faith backgrounds significantly changed the demographics of parishes and ‘catchment areas’, challenging the mission priorities and reducing the support base of churches. These factors seemed more significant than changes in gender roles, the Sixties social revolution, or other external factors. Despite declines in commitment to mainstream Protestant churches, some churches responded creatively and overall religious adherence relative to population stabilised after the declines of the interwar years.
In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial tow... more In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial town that many church leaders found spiritually tough. Over the next thirty years Billy Richards built a thriving church with six hundred adult members and a thousand children attending groups across the town. His ministry extended beyond Slough through books, radio broadcasts, correspondence courses and international speaking tours. His methods embraced modern media, new forms of worship, conservative theology and a focus on the active work of the Holy Spirit. One local newspaper characterized it as ‘Old-Time Religion in a New-Fashioned Way’. This article explores the inspirational aspects of Richards&#39;s ministry, how these took institutional expression in his lifetime, and why that institution continues to be influential today. His ministry provides one example of how local churches could adapt successfully to the changing social and cultural landscape of late twentieth-century Britain. This has implications for the understanding of urban mission and the contribution made by the agency of organized religious institutions to twentieth-century secularization.
Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where th... more Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where the church attained a strong position before the onset of relative (and, later, absolute) numerical decline. This chapter demonstrates how, in new urban communities, adherence to organised religion grew overall in line with population growth before WWI, but with significant differences between the fortunes of individual churches. This growth was due to the churches playing a central role in providing education and welfare, community leadership, facilities for clubs and societies, and in facilitating social networks where there were limited alternatives in a growing town. The chapter explores the contributory ‘supply side’ factors in the different fortunes experienced, particularly in providing buildings and supporting children’s work. In general, churches that invested in such facilities fared better than those that did not, but often took significant financial risks in doing so. The roots of later challenges were observable as secular education and welfare provision increased, and leisure choices began to proliferate. Churches also encountered significant difficulties in transferring children from Sunday Schools into longer term commitment to adult congregations.
Industrial Management and Data Systems, Jul 1, 1991
As it becomes increasingly evident that skills shortage in many areas of business and commerce is... more As it becomes increasingly evident that skills shortage in many areas of business and commerce is likely to grow, it is clear that knowledge‐based systems can go some way towards replacing human resources. The use of these systems also increases the productivity and effectiveness of already experienced personnel and also brings with it consistent standards of performance and reliability. A better balance is also achievable between the tasks done by employees and those performed by machines.
In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp... more In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s population quadrupled from 16,397 to 66,471, transforming it from an insignificant market town into the fastest growing industrial town in southern England. Aggressive expansion of the country&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s first private sector &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;trading estate&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39; provided employment that attracted tens of thousands of voluntary migrants from the distressed areas and elsewhere. Growth placed huge demands on local authorities, resulting in largely unplanned and uncoordinated urban development, with accompanying social challenges and a diminished sense of civic identity. Whether this represented an economic miracle or a demographic blight divided opinion: while Betjeman condemned it as unfit for human habitation, The Times commended Slough as &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;a smart and prosperous centre of industry&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;. The positive and negative aspects of its growth influenced planners of the post-war era of nationalisation and other centralised initiatives.
Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has bee... more Secularisation, or the reducing social significance of religion in the twentieth century, has been widely researched in terms of “demand” factors, but less so on the “supply-side,” considering the contributory effects of the strategies and actions of religious organisations themselves. This article explores these strategies in a group of Anglican churches in South Buckinghamshire in the period leading up to the Second World War, as industrial and population development shifted proportionally to the southeast. This rapid growth and accompanying demographic change posed major challenges to the Church of England, subjecting the parish system to severe pressure. The availability, allocation, and suitability of clergy were a constant concern. The very basis of the Church of England’s “offer” to the average citizen — of being the established, national church, there for everyone — seemed under threat: in some places, there was simply no church to “belong” to. Money was in short supply — perhaps both a cause and a symptom of other problems. A general issue was how to reach young people, but a specific concern was the funding of church schools. More widely, the church seemed to be losing touch with the changing cultural and moral landscape in which it operated.
In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England's largest – reflected the nat... more In 1902 elementary school provision in Oxford diocese – England's largest – reflected the national picture: 72 per cent were church schools, with total rolls of 54 per cent of school-age children. The bitterly contested 1902 Education Act apparently protected the future of church schools, but in practice its provisions severely undermined them, particularly in growing areas of the country. By 1929, Oxford's assistant bishop reported the schools’ situation as ‘critical’. This article examines the impact on the church schools of one rural deanery in South Buckinghamshire, between the 1902 and 1944 Education Acts. Several schools found themselves under threat of closure, while rapid population increase and a rising school leaving age more than quadrupled the number of school-age children in the area. Closer working with the local education authority and other denominations was one option to optimize scarce resources and protect the Church of England's influence on religious...
In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough's population quadrupled from 16,397 to 66,4... more In the 25 years after the First World War, Slough's population quadrupled from 16,397 to 66,471, transforming it from an insignificant market town into the fastest growing industrial town in southern England. Aggressive expansion of the country's first private sector 'trading estate' provided employment that attracted tens of thousands of voluntary migrants from the distressed areas and elsewhere. Growth placed huge demands on local authorities, resulting in largely unplanned and uncoordinated urban development, with accompanying social challenges and a diminished sense of civic identity. Whether this represented an economic miracle or a demographic blight divided opinion: while Betjeman condemned it as unfit for human habitation, The Times commended Slough as 'a smart and prosperous centre of industry'. The positive and negative aspects of its growth influenced planners of the post-war era of nationalisation and other centralised initiatives.
This chapter considers the challenges faced by organised religion in new urban Britain in compari... more This chapter considers the challenges faced by organised religion in new urban Britain in comparison with the country as a whole, beginning with a detailed statistical survey by religious grouping. Using standard measures, adherence grew in absolute terms but showed a steady decline relative to population both nationally and locally, but with adherence in the new urban areas at a consistently lower level. However, given the reducing civic, cultural and social roles undertaken by religious institutions, this relative decline might not correlate to similar decline in underlying religious belief. There were significant differences between different groupings, with mainstream Protestantism faring relatively poorly. As the Church of England was by far the dominant religious force at the beginning of the period, the statistical analysis is followed by an in depth exploration of the weaknesses in the Anglican organisational structure and parish system in coping with rapid demographic and s...
Local Churches in Nerw Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where th... more Local studies examining secularisation have typically focused on established communities where the church attained a strong position before the onset of relative (and, later, absolute) numerical decline. This chapter demonstrates how, in new urban communities, adherence to organised religion grew overall in line with population growth before WWI, but with significant differences between the fortunes of individual churches. This growth was due to the churches playing a central role in providing education and welfare, community leadership, facilities for clubs and societies, and in facilitating social networks where there were limited alternatives in a growing town. The chapter explores the contributory ‘supply side’ factors in the different fortunes experienced, particularly in providing buildings and supporting children’s work. In general, churches that invested in such facilities fared better than those that did not, but often took significant financial risks in doing so. The roots...
Local Churches in Nerw Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutio... more After the challenges of the interwar years, the churches were still significant social institutions, but as a whole, no longer as at the centre of community life as before WWI. However, individual churches could still attain this centrality within sub-communities based on ethnicity (for example, the Irish and Scottish diaspora) or geography (a housing estate). Growing disenchantment with traditional Protestant churches partly contributed to the dramatic growth of a Pentecostal church and wider proliferation of smaller orthodox groups and sects. Towards the end of the period, immigration from Commonwealth countries posed new challenges. Where immigrants came from Christian backgrounds, there were often issues of assimilation. Immigrants from other faith backgrounds significantly changed the demographics of parishes and ‘catchment areas’, challenging the mission priorities and reducing the support base of churches. These factors seemed more significant than changes in gender roles, th...
Local Churches in New Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
This chapter discusses the origins and characteristics of communities that grew substantially dur... more This chapter discusses the origins and characteristics of communities that grew substantially during a ‘second wave’ of industrialisation, in which old industries in the north and west of the country declined relatively, and industrial development, based on new industries such as light engineering, shifted proportionally to the south-east following WWI. This ‘shift to the South’ was complemented by ‘out-migration’ as populations moved away from the centre of conurbations into the suburbs, or in the case of London, an outer ring of new and expanding towns. After WWII, this latter shift was further accentuated by the Greater London Plan. The town of Slough was a prime example of these trends, and as such was regularly quoted in popular culture, the press, academic debate and policy formation from the 1920s to the present day. The demographic and social challenges posed for all institutions, including the churches, by the town’s rapid development are explored.
Local Churches in New Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2020), 2020
Due to economic migration, the population of Slough quadrupled during the interwar years, posing ... more Due to economic migration, the population of Slough quadrupled during the interwar years, posing huge challenges for all institutions, including the churches. In addition, changes in social attitudes, and increases in leisure options and disposable income, increased the sense of church adherence being a choice, rather than an obligation arising from duty or social respectability. Churches could grow strongly if they offered a positive ‘choice’ in terms of welcome, authentic encounter and a focus on families and the young. Those that did not might maintain their existing membership but failed to attract incomers, and so declined relative to population growth. Only the most committed would travel long distances to church, so it was also necessary to establish, or ‘plant’, new congregations on the new housing estates. Sunday Schools in particular needed to be located close to where children lived. The financial and human resource commitments required highlighted differences in how ‘mis...
Local Churches in New Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 2020
Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church member... more Focusing on the young was key to church growth for two reasons. In the longer term, church membership needed to be replenished through ‘religious socialisation’ of the young, as other researchers have identified. However, this focus was arguably more significant in the shorter term, particularly in a town attracting people of working age intent on ‘settling down’ and establishing families. This also became increasingly important as family sizes reduced and mobility increased, so churches could no longer rely on purely organic growth within the families of committed members. Anglican churches could also no longer rely on ‘socialisation’ through church schools for more than a small minority of children, as for increasing numbers religious education was delivered through state schools. There was quantitative evidence of the positive effect of such strategies both in the short and longer term. The effectiveness of strategies to maintain the commitment of teenage children is also examined.
In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial tow... more In 1943 a twenty-six-year-old Pentecostal pastor arrived in Slough, a fast-growing industrial town that many church leaders found spiritually tough. Over the next thirty years Billy Richards built a thriving church with six hundred adult members and a thousand children attending groups across the town. His ministry extended beyond Slough through books, radio broadcasts, correspondence courses and international speaking tours. His methods embraced modern media, new forms of worship, conservative theology and a focus on the active work of the Holy Spirit. One local newspaper characterized it as ‘Old-Time Religion in a New-Fashioned Way’. This article explores the inspirational aspects of Richards's ministry, how these took institutional expression in his lifetime, and why that institution continues to be influential today. His ministry provides one example of how local churches could adapt successfully to the changing social and cultural landscape of late twentieth-century Britain...
Local Churches in New Urban Britain 1890-1975: The Greatest Challenge?, 2020
This book contributes to the ongoing academic debates on secularisation—or the marginalisation o... more This book contributes to the ongoing academic debates on secularisation—or the marginalisation of mainstream religious beliefs and practices—in twentieth-century British society. It addresses three areas in which the current literature is weak: the ‘agency' of organised religion in the outcomes described as secularisation, rather than explanations based on external challenges (such as the ‘modernisation' of society and thought, increased affluence, and more leisure choices); a focus on urban areas transformed by twentieth-century industrialisation and suburbanisation; and an extended time period to the end of the third quarter of the twentieth century, allowing proper consideration of long-term trends alongside short-term upheavals such as the World Wars, the Great Depression, and the social changes of the 1960s. Further, the book employs a distinctly different, highly data-driven approach, considers all religious movements, and sets its conclusions within the wider social and cultural context of a representative community.
“This monograph is an important contribution to our understanding of the varied fortunes of British Christianity during the twentieth century.” - Rev Dr Andrew Atherstone, Tutor in Church History and Latimer Research Fellow, Wycliffe Hall, University of Oxford, UK “This book is an important and original work. Anyone interested in twentieth-century Christianity in Britain will learn much from it. Grant Masom enables the reader to make sense of the new urban spaces that became a key part of British life in the last hundred years.” - Rev Dr David Goodhew, Visiting Fellow of St Johns College, Durham University, UK “This ground-breaking study adds new depth to our understanding of the importance of religion in English life and the role of the churches in shaping their own destiny in the first three-quarters of the twentieth century.” - Dr Mark Smith, Associate Professor in History, University of Oxford, UK
Local Churches in New Urban Britain, 1890-1975 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 2020
Debates about ‘secularisation’ and the marginalisation of mainstream religious belief and practic... more Debates about ‘secularisation’ and the marginalisation of mainstream religious belief and practice in Britain have generally focused on whether modern life posed insuperable challenges for organised religion and its institutions, or whether on the contrary it created new opportunities. Aspects of ‘modernisation’ explored include industrialisation, urbanisation, the increasing role of the state in education and welfare, increasing affluence and leisure, decreasing deference and social conformity, changes in gender roles, and greater intellectual scepticism. Attention on the external challenges to, and the ‘demand’ for, organised religion and its institutions, has been to the neglect of ‘the supply side’ – or the agency of those institutions in responding to that demand. Ordinary people primarily encountered organised religion in a local context, so the discussion has been supported by several local studies – usually examining long-standing urban centres, between the mid-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. This book focuses on newer urban communities, arising from twentieth century industrialisation and demographic change, over an extended period ending around 1975. While examining the major themes of secularisation, the primary focus is on how the strategies pursued by local churches contributed to any decline in adherence to organised religious institutions. The book uses a data-driven approach to support its conclusions
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“This monograph is an important contribution to our understanding of the varied fortunes of British Christianity during the twentieth century.” - Rev Dr Andrew Atherstone, Tutor in Church History and Latimer Research Fellow, Wycliffe Hall, University of Oxford, UK
“This book is an important and original work. Anyone interested in twentieth-century Christianity in Britain will learn much from it. Grant Masom enables the reader to make sense of the new urban spaces that became a key part of British life in the last hundred years.” - Rev Dr David Goodhew, Visiting Fellow of St Johns College, Durham University, UK
“This ground-breaking study adds new depth to our understanding of the importance of religion in English life and the role of the churches in shaping their own destiny in the first three-quarters of the twentieth century.” - Dr Mark Smith, Associate Professor in History, University of Oxford, UK
Ordinary people primarily encountered organised religion in a local context, so the discussion has been supported by several local studies – usually examining long-standing urban centres, between the mid-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. This book focuses on newer urban communities, arising from twentieth century industrialisation and demographic change, over an extended period ending around 1975. While examining the major themes of secularisation, the primary focus is on how the strategies pursued by local churches contributed to any decline in adherence to organised religious institutions. The book uses a data-driven approach to support its conclusions