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Paidéia
2023, Vol. 33, e3302.doi:https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-4327e3302
ISSN 1982-4327 (online version)
Social Psychology
Men’s Perceptions of Domestic Violence Against Women:
A Qualitative Study
Juliana Cristina Magrin1
Wanderlei Abadio de Oliveira1

Abstract: Domestic violence against women is a serious social problem that requires male’s perspective understanding to be prevented.
This study aimed to understand the perceptions of adult men, with higher education degree or higher education students, on this type of
violence. Using Bandura’s social learning theory, a qualitative study was developed with 13 men. The data were collected using remote
semi-structured interviews. The analytical process used thematic analysis presuppositions. It was found that men do not agree with sexist
ideals that can increase the rates of violence against women. However, participants oscillate between understanding women as victim and as
guilty. The data may be a reflection of the current greater debate on issues related to gender equality. We conclude that it is important to invest
in the multidimensional training of men to break with hegemonic masculinity, which can foster the struggle against gender-based violence.

Keywords: violence against women, masculinity, marital conflict

Percepções de Homens Sobre Violência Doméstica Contra Mulheres:

Estudo Qualitativo
Resumo: A violência doméstica contra mulheres é grave problema psicossocial que, para ser prevenido, requer compreender
como homens o explicam. Este estudo teve como objetivo conhecer as percepções de homens adultos escolarizados sobre esse
tipo de violência. Utilizando o referencial teórico da aprendizagem social, foi desenvolvido um estudo qualitativo que contou com
a participação de 13 homens. Entrevistas semiestruturadas foram realizadas remotamente na coleta de dados. O processo analítico
seguiu os pressupostos da análise temática. Verificou-se que os homens não concordam com ideais machistas que podem aumentar
os índices de violência contra as mulheres. Contudo, os participantes oscilam entre entender as mulheres como vítimas e também
culpadas. Os dados podem ser reflexo do maior debate na atualidade sobre questões relacionadas à igualdade de gênero. Conclui-se
ser importante investir na formação multidimensional dos homens para romper com a masculinidade hegemônica, o que pode ser
salutar no enfrentamento da violência contra mulheres.

Palavras-chave: violência contra mulher, masculinidade, conflito conjugal

Percepciones de los Hombres Sobre Violencia Doméstica Contra la Mujer:

Un Estudio Cualitativo
Resumen: La violencia doméstica contra la mujer es un grave problema psicosocial que requiere de la perspectiva masculina para
ser prevenida. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo conocer las percepciones de hombres adultos con formación en torno a este tipo de
violencia. Utilizando el marco teórico del aprendizaje social, se desarrolló un estudio cualitativo con la participación de 13 hombres.
Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas remotas para la recolección de datos. El proceso analítico siguió los presupuestos del
análisis temático. Los hombres no están de acuerdo con los ideales machistas que pueden aumentar los índices de violencia contra
las mujeres. Los participantes oscilan entre entender a las mujeres como víctimas y también como culpables. Los datos pueden ser un
reflejo del gran debate actual sobre la igualdad de género. Se concluye que es importante invertir en la formación multidimensional de
los hombres para romper con la masculinidad hegemónica, lo que puede ser beneficioso para combatir la violencia contra las mujeres.

Palabras clave: violencia contra la mujer, masculinidad, conflicto marital

Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas, Campinas-SP, Brazil

1 Domestic violence against women is considered a
Support: Article based on the master’s thesis of the first author, defended in widespread public health problem (Fapohunda, Masiagwala,
2022, under the supervision of the second author in the Graduate Program in Stiegler, & Bouchard, 2021). Considering the different
Psychology of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas. The first nuances that compose the term ‘domestic violence,’
author held a scholarship from the National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq).
this study addresses the type perpetrated against women
Correspondence address: Juliana Cristina Magrin. Pontifícia Universidade
and that may be defined, according to its manifestations,
Católica de Campinas, Avenida John Boyd Dunlop, s/n Campinas-SP, as a physical and/or psychological aggression, perpetrated
Brazil. CEP.13.045-510. E-mail: juliana_magrin@hotmail.com by a current or former partner (Davison, Frizzell, & Chien,

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia 1
Paidéia, 33, e3302

2021). It is any and all violent action that is gender-based and To some extent, phenomenon can also be explained by
can result in suffering and harm in various dimensions of a the assumptions of the Social Learning Theory (Bandura,
person’s life (Amarijo, Figueira, Ramos, & Minasi, 2020). 2016). It is inferred that aggressive behavior is transmitted
The abuses perpetrated involve issues of social inequality and intergenerationally, at the same time that witnessing and/or
gender, highlighting the socially constructed power of men experiencing violence in critical moments of development
over women (Amarijo et al., 2020). In addition, despite the (such as childhood or adolescence) model abusive behavior
domestic environment is referred as a safe place, aggression in other moments of the life cycle (Telzer, Van Hoorn,
often occurs in women’s homes and can be incorporated into Rogers, & Do, 2018). Aggressive models in the family favor
relationships (Saadi Tosi, 2017). learning to use aggressive behavior as a way to resolve
According to Stöckl et al. (2013), globally, one out of conflicts or internal issues (Huesmann, 2018). This theory
three women at reproductive age has experienced physical also allows understanding risk behaviors for involvement in
or sexual violence perpetrated by their intimate partner. situations of violence (such as alcohol abuse and financial
Male intimate partners are the most identified agents of problems) (Huesmann, 2018). Also, the propositions of the
aggression, and psychological violence is the most prevalent, Social Learning Theory can also be applied to think about
followed by physical violence (Santos, Leite, Amorim, positive social behaviors that can break cycles of violence
Maciel, & Gigante, 2020). A Brazilian study involving (Telzer et al., 2018).
302 puerperal women, for example, revealed that 43% had However, there are few studies with men discussing
experienced abuse by their partners throughout their lives, perceptions, beliefs or opinions about domestic violence.
7.6% had suffered physical violence in the year preceding Most studies on the subject are conducted with women in
data collection and 4 .6% reported this type of violence during situations of violence, an aspect that limits the understanding
pregnancy (Fiorotti et al., 2018). Another study conducted of the phenomenon and its complexities (Silva, Coelho, &
in the state of Maranhão, Brazil, with 233 pregnant women Moretti-Pires, 2014). Thus, the importance of a structural
found psychological violence (18.9%) as predominant change is highlighted and for this to happen, it is necessary
(Conceição, Coelho, & Madeiro, 2021). to know the opinion of men – who are usually the agents
Studies document the consequences of such phenomenon. of violence – on the subject. In addition to recognizing how
Psychological disorders, cognitive, emotional and behavioral they explain violence, it is necessary to involve them in
problems, as well as physical injuries are the most deleterious discussions on this phenomenon, in order to identify possible
effects reported by the scientific literature (Souza & Silva, gaps in knowledge regarding the causes, justifications and
2019). Moreover, many cases end in femicide, which is the motivations of violence, as well as ways to prevent or
murder of women justified or explained because they are minimize it. Thus, this study aimed to know the perceptions
female (Silva & Schermann, 2021). In 2019, 35% of female of educated adult men about this type of violence. The study
homicides in Brazil were classified as femicides, of which also sought to analyze men’s attitudes and responses to
88.8% were committed by partners or former partners (Vieira, witnessed or known incidents of violence.
Garcia, & Maciel, 2020). It is noteworthy that the occurrence
of femicide and its characteristics broaden the understanding
of domestic violence against women and point to the need Method
to address gender issues, but this aspect was not covered in
this study. This study is characterized as qualitative, descriptive
The scientific literature shows that the most important and exploratory. The COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for
aspect regarding the profile of aggressors is to have some Reporting Qualitative Research) criteria were followed to
kind of relationship with the woman. However, in an report the investigation.
interview conducted during the research that based this
study, it was found that different types of characteristics, Participants
such as individual ones (impulsivity, low self-esteem,
insecurity), behavioral ones (use of alcohol and other A total of 13 men aged from 20 to 46 years old participated
drugs) and contextual (patriarchal society), may explain in the investigation, the majority (eight) were higher
the perpetration of domestic violence. On the other hand, education students, and five had complete higher education.
a documentary analysis of the profile of male perpetrators The following inclusion criteria were adopted: self-declared
of domestic violence against women revealed that the men; age equal to or greater than 18 years old; and access
phenomenon is associated with the poorest population, to smartphone or computer with internet. The exclusion
which denounces criminal selectivity related to social criteria were: having close contact with the author and not
classes (Scott & Oliveira, 2018). This study also verified being available to participate in the interview. Having a
a movement of blaming/responsibilizing the person in history of violence against women was not an inclusion or
situation of violence. It is also worth noting that positive exclusion criterion. The sample was defined by convenience
cognitions such as self-confidence and optimism may favor and, for recruitment purposes, a questionnaire was posted
aggressive behavior in men (Centurion-Cabral, Corrêa, on social networks (Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter) and
Neves, Dias, & Almeida, 2019). messaging application groups (WhatsApp), as the research

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 Magrin, J. C., & Oliveira, W. A. (2023). Men’s Perceptions of Violence Against Women.

was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the end when they thought about domestic violence against women,
of the questionnaire there was space for contact data and the they did not separate it from physical aggression, such as
respondents who volunteered were invited to participate in pushing, slapping, punching, pulling, and similar actions.
the study. A total of 170 men answered the questionnaire, Some participants stated that all physical violence begins with
of which 41 provided contact information for participation other types of violence, such as psychological violence.
in the study. Out of the 41 volunteers, 28 were excluded, Psychological violence was defined by the participants
seven for having some degree of proximity to one of the as an invisible violence, difficult to identify. The participants
researchers and 21 men for unavailability for the interviews mentioned threats, shouting, swearing, belittlement, exercise
or not answering email contact to carry out the interview. of control, minimization and devaluation as psychological
aggressions. However, participants’ opinions were different
Instrument regarding the seriousness of this type of violence.

Script for semi-structured interviews. In the data I believe that psychological violence affects much
collection, a script was prepared based on the scientific more than physical violence, because it is a violence
literature. Some examples of the script questions are: What is that nobody sees (…) Psychological violence is stron-
domestic violence against women in your opinion? What do ger than physical violence, people give less impor-
you think justifies aggression in an intimate relationship? tance, and affects people much more, as it is silent,
Have you ever witnessed a situation of domestic violence? and people suffer without knowing they are suffering
What is your opinion about a relationship between two (Participant 4, 29 years old).
people in which aggression occurs?
Participants also mentioned abusive or toxic
Procedures relationship. They characterized this type of relationship
and witnessed situations, both in their own experiences and
Data collection. The semi-structured interviews were in those of close people.
carried out by the researcher JCM in the first half of 2021,
remotely, via the Skype platform, due to the restrictions imposed It was a totally abusive relationship, in which I didn’t
by the COVID-19 pandemic. The interviews were recorded and trust her and she didn’t trust me, so if she went to a
then transcribed. The average duration of the interviews was party I couldn’t sleep, if I went to a party without her
41 minutes and the transcription totaled 257 pages. or did anything, she couldn’t sleep either. We fought
Data analysis. The thematic analysis proposed by a lot, there was no trust in each other, in which one
Clarke, Braun and Hayfield (2019) was used to analyze the cursed the other (Participant 12, 21 years old).
data. Six stages were followed: (1) Familiarization – reading
and rereading the corpus; (2) Coding – 26 initial codes On the motivations for aggression, narratives on
were built; (3) Search for themes; (4) Review of topics; betrayal were the main factor for aggressions. The betrayed
(5) Definition and naming of themes – in which three themes man would feel humiliated and would attack his partner as
emerged; and (6) Presentation of results (Clarke et al., 2019). punishment or to defend his honor.
The data were also analyzed in the light of Social Learning.
Let’s imagine a situation where the guy cheated on
Ethical Considerations the woman, he’s totally wrong. The woman beats him
and then he beats her back, you know? I imagine a
At all stages of the study, the recommendations of situation in which this could happen, but this is aw-
Resolution 510/2016 of the National Health Council were fully wrong (…) The guy thinks, ‘oh, if you hurt me
observed. The study was approved by the Research Ethics [emotionally], I have the right to beat you up’ (Parti-
Committee of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas cipant 7, 22 years old).
(CAAE number 43126721.8.0000.5481). Participants were
volunteers and received all information related to the research The violent upbringing and the misogynist culture were
and expressed informed consent on the home page of the online also mentioned by the interviewees as risk factors, in which
form applied in the recruitment process. the subject would use violence as means to communicate
or to relate. In the same sense, the cultural history was also
considered a risk factor, as a ‘permission to attack,’ since
Results the man would be protected by a system that have always
favored him, as it was created and maintained by men.
Theme 1: Male narratives on domestic violence
It comes from the biology of human beings, who are
The first theme that emerged from the data analysis was animals like any other (…) I think human beings are
composed of 14 initial codes. The issue of physical aggression still trying to understand the difference between so-
was among the first to be mentioned. Participants narrated that, cial and biological power (…) In most civilizations,

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the societies were built based on a system where I have flashes of my father drunk trying to hit my mo-
men prevails, and protect them from doing anything, ther, but I never witnessed nothing beyond this (…)
because men built the world for themselves, therefo- I have a flash of my father running after her, she jum-
re they can do what they want because nothing will ping out the window, but I don’t remember the sensa-
bring consequences (Participant 5, 20 years old). tion (Participant 10, 41 years).

In addition to these factors, impunity appeared several Likewise, some men narrated how watching their
times in the narratives of these men, who discussed how the parents’ fights influenced their later relationships, when
Brazilian justice system fails to protect female victims and they were children or adolescents, such as Participant 7,
punish male aggressors, even after the creation of the Maria who reported problems in romantic relationships because he
da Penha Law (Lei No. 11.340, 2006). witnessed the constant fights of his parents: “I always had
a lot of problems with relationships, I never really wanted
I feel anger at impunity because we know that, them so close, because I think my parents always fought a
unfortunately, despite laws in Brazil being very good, lot at home and that bothered me” (Participant 7, 22 years
they are not applied, it is difficult to apply them (…) old). Participant 2, in turn, described how he adopted violent
the Maria da Penha Law, for example, is among the practices at the beginning of his sexual life, as he followed
best laws in the world, we hear this frequently, but its the examples of his friends and colleagues, even questioning
application is not that good (…). The feeling of anger whether it was right.
and impunity remains, knowing that if a situation of
violence occurs, the aggressor will probably not pay I questioned myself, ‘man, isn’t it cool to do that,’
for his actions, no serious consequences, but the vic- but since I didn’t have other examples, I ended up
tim will continue to be attacked and violated, she will reproducing and doing it, because my friends did it,
suffer much more than the person who aggressed her that’s how I had learned it, I could see no other way
(Participant 2, 27 years old). of doing it (Participant 2, 27 years).

The lack of dialogue was also raised by the participants as Conversely, aspects that naturalize and trivialize
a possible risk factor for aggression. For these interviewees, situations of violence also appeared in the participants’
dialogue is crucial for change, as it fosters the promotion of narratives. They mentioned that situations of violence are
critical thinking in people who have never questioned the common and widely reported in the media, which may favor
deeper aspects of domestic violence against women. a movement towards the trivialization of such situations.
Therefore, Participant 5 mentioned that violence “happens so
If we talked more about it, with more openness and much that became banal and I don’t even remember a specific
collaboration, most of these situations could have case anymore” (Participant 5, 20 years old). Similarly,
been avoided from the beginning (…) and hence the Participant 13 stated that he currently feels “colder” about it:
importance of really opening spaces for this type of “I believe that now I’m a little bit colder, for that’s what we
discussion, not just talking how not to attack, but how read every day, so it would be just another piece of news,
to stop attacking. I think that [violence] will remain, ‘oh, another person died,’ about a femicide” (Participant 13,
but through dialogue and conversation it will be iden- 30 years old).
tified, making it possible to make changes, looking The emphasis is about being just “one more” (sic) case
for healthier manners (Participant 2, 27 years old). among many others that happen every day, not making it
possible to even remember a specific reported case. Thus,
Finally, the use of substances, which is suggested in participant 10 showed the naturalization of actions such
the specialized literature as one of the main risk factors for as swearing, persecutions and offensive messages in his
domestic violence, also appeared in the narratives of two statements, not recognizing them as violence..
participants, who described the use of alcohol and other
drugs as aggravating risk situations. In addition, Participants I feel aggrieved in this, as I was subjected to a restrai-
9 and 10 brought personal examples of their fathers being ning order because of messages I sent and didn’t want
aggressive when drunk, both against themselves and against to let go, but it wasn’t… it was an emotional persis-
their mothers. tence (…) I had an abusive father, but I’m not an ag-
gressor, at least not physically. I’ve cursed at women
There are things that go beyond consciousness, a lot (Participant 10, 41 years old).
such as drug use, alcohol intake, which can make
this scenario a bit worse (…) there was the issue of Following the analysis of men’s opinions on domestic
alcoholism, so my father would come home wasted, violence against women, speeches that encourage it,
and then there was always discussions, never physical maintaining its cyclical aspect is highlighted, in which
violence, but many fights with words (Participant 9, participants defended that aggressors should suffer violence
46 years old). in the same way as they cause it, as in the case of Participant 5,

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 Magrin, J. C., & Oliveira, W. A. (2023). Men’s Perceptions of Violence Against Women.

who described a “cathartic feeling” (sic) in watching women Men’s social roles was also a topic addressed by
retaliating against violence: “There is a catharsis when we participants who argued that a posture of strength and courage
see in the media the woman fighting back” (Participant 5, is imposed on the ‘male subject,’ not allowing weaknesses.
20 years old); and of Participant 1, who advocated that these In the same sense, toxic masculinity was widely mentioned
men should suffer physical aggression. by the participants of this study, who described it as violent
and harmful in their life experiences. Participant 8 mentioned
I’m not saying not to punch him in the face, oh no, a moment when he suffered aggression from his father
you must do it, and harder if you can! (…) [violen- who, frustrated at being unemployed, perceived himself as
ce is justifiable] since the other attacked you! Law of incapable of maintaining his social role as provider of the
action and reaction: If the other attacks me… (Partici- house. Participant 3, in turn, mentioned how some aggressions
pant 1, 25 years old). are used as a means of expression, being externalized by some
and both internalized and repressed by others. In this sense,
Regarding feelings aroused when talking about domestic Participant 4 narrated how men are taught to hit and speak
violence against women, the subjects reported anger, hatred, louder: “I think that the issue of the macho culture has a lot
sadness, pity, agony, sorrow, revolt, impotence and ‘negative in common, because men are always taught to hit, hit and hit,
feelings.’ “I feel sorry for her, I feel sad, I feel a little always be aggressive , fight back, don’t let it go, always speak
distressed” (Participant 3, 24 years old). “First of all there’s louder” (Participant 4, 29 years old).
a bit of a pity, you know? To see the person having to go
through this kind of thing… and obviously, a lot of anger” I got beaten once by my father, it was a moment when
(Participant 5, 20 years old). However, some participants he was completely frustrated with his unemployment,
described becoming apathetic when witnessing situations of not feeling like the man of the house as he should be,
violence. “Look, I saw my friend harassing, but I kept quiet. and then he compared himself with everything that
Sometimes men are aware, but do nothing to change it” he should be and what he couldn’t do for his family
(Participant 12, 21 years old). (Participant 8, 31 years old).
As this study was developed during the COVID-19
pandemic and, although it was not the direct target of the The narratives reveal that men often only manage to
investigation, it was found that some participants made express themselves through anger and strength, also finding
connections between the period of the pandemic and the it difficult to deal with frustrations, concepts that are violent
theme of domestic violence. They mainly raised questions for themselves. Participant 2 observed that man himself
about the increase in cases resulting from social isolation. created and maintains the ideals of hegemonic masculinity,
which turns out to be self-destructive.
One of the things I thought about the most at the
beginning of the pandemic, and of course, it wasn’t I think that men have put themselves in a position
just me, but many people… that there could be a gre- that is not healthy, for example, this hypermasculinity
at increase in domestic violence because of people (…) this toxic masculinity, which is currently being
staying at home (Participant 7, 22 years). worked on, studied and recognized. So I see that it’s
an extremely self-destructive hierarchy and social
Theme 2: Definitions about being a man and masculinities contract if it’s not changed, but I think we’re making
progress as a society to improve this kind of thing.
This analytical theme was composed of nine initial (Participant 2, 27 years old).
codes. Specifically, in the reflection on what it means to
be a man, the participants described aspects related to their Another concept presented by the participants in their
proximal processes and how they developed their concepts narratives was machismo. Some participants exposed
about masculinity based on their social interactions with situations in which they were sexist or witnessed sexist
school, friends and family. attitudes from other men.

My father has a lot of macho traits in him and this be- We’ve been speaking of treating others as equals for
comes clear if you know the relationship between him a long time, in short, respect and basic things, but if
and his brothers. I see that it comes from the family, you ask the guy who beat his wife, if he would do the
kind of a tradition that has been passed from person to same thing with his buddy, or his father, he wouldn’t
person, from generation to generation (Participant 6, even think about it. (Participant 7, 22 years old).
21 years old).
A relevant point raised was the view of the participants
I believe it’s cultural, I mean, it’s not only in Brazilian that men who attack are psychologically ill and should be
culture, it is cultural like… the father didn’t have much isolated, as they would not have the ability to live in society.
of this information, and the son will not have access to Participant 11 described male aggressors as abnormal,
it either, an idea of perpetuation (Participant 7, 22 years) arguing that they should be isolated from society and only

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return when re-socialized. Thus, Participants 1 and 10 cannot be blamed for the situation. “There are cases in which
considered aggressors as having some ‘psychic problem’ and the victim returns to live with the aggressor, because she has
of being ‘dysfunctional, maladjusted.’ no other condition” (Participant 2, 27 years old).
Some participants also recognized that they had already Two participants highlighted the issue of femicide. They
been perpetrators of violence in their intimate relationships. narrated knowing women who were killed by their partners
They acknowledged responsibility for the aggressions and shared feelings about these experiences. “There was a
they performed at certain periods in their lives, as well as girl who studied with me, whose case had a bit of national
moments of awareness that led them to change the way they repercussion a few years ago. She had twins, and the father of
thought about the issue. the boys killed her and the children (…) It was a huge shock.”
(Participant 4, 29 years old). “There was a medicine student
I had some behaviors that were violent and aggressi- who died because she was asphyxiated by her boyfriend, her
ve during the relationship (…) I screamed and I think father is one of my father’s best college friends (…) the first
I slapped or punched a wall (…) Obviously I still do feeling that comes is of revolt”” (Participant 12, 21 years).
many things wrong, I may still do many things wrong
in the future, but it’s a search, a daily deconstruction
to try to reproduce healthier modes, so I’m much Discussion
more communicative and more open, I listen more
and I ask more (…) I can’t erase the past, but I can This study aimed at knowing the perceptions of adult
improve my present and my future (Participant 2, men on domestic violence against women. It was highlighted
27 years old). how domestic violence against women is both normalized
and part of everyday life. It was also possible to address
Theme 3: The victim/guilty dichotomy regarding women how adult men with a high education level identify, narrate,
and interpret such violence. The data analysis specifically
This theme was composed of only 3 initial codes. Thus, revealed that most participants tended to break with the
in its analysis, the question that prevailed was: Is the woman norms of a structurally male-dominated society and exposed
who suffers violence in a relationship guilty or a victim? the need for a change in perspective on domestic violence
For the participants of this investigation the answer navigates against women. Participants showed knowledge about the
between the two extremes. meaning and what is included in the phenomenon addressed
in this study, including individual and, to some extent,
There is also aggression on her part, which does not macrosystemic issues.
contribute to, how can I say? Women aggressions However, it was noted that the expansion of awareness
don’t help men to stop abusing women, only make has not yet been able to establish a culture of total intolerance
things worse (…) many times we don’t know if the towards violence practiced against women, who are
woman contributed... this is not in the sense of going understood, dichotomously, either as guilty, or as victims.
out with short clothes, or going out with friends, such There is still a logic of exemption or sharing of men’s
sexist things, but really aggression, for we know that responsibility. Often, men do not recognize their guilt and/
there are many jealous women, as much as men (Par- or transfer it to a person or event, for example the woman’s
ticipant 1, 25 years old). attitudes or a possible mental disorder of the aggressor
(Amarijo et al., 2020; Meluzzi, Pinelli, Valvason, &
The man sees the woman as an object and sometimes Zanchi, 2021). Thus, by placing the aggressor as abnormal
takes out his anger on her, as this object does not and pathological, he is removed from collective male
respond the way he would like, he gets angry with responsibility, ignoring all the contexts that influence the
the object, but this is totally wrong (Participant 9, occurrence of violence.
46 years old). In another direction, through differential reinforcement
(balance of past, present and future rewards and punishments
Another issue related to women in situations of violence related to a certain behavior), individuals are conditioned to
was the issue of acceptance of violence and permanence in the internalize social norms valued by the group (Telzer et al.,
relationship. Participants 7, 8, and 12 questioned why women 2018). In this sense, men see themselves as hostages of
often continue with their aggressors, even though they have toxic masculinity, which refers to behaviors that reinforce
access to information and can ask for help. On the other hand, male hegemony and that negatively impact men’s lives,
Participants 4, 6, 9, and 13 brought up factors for which many influencing their well-being and preventing them from
women remain in their relationships, such as fear of suffering freely experiencing their affections or emotions (Mesquita &
reprisals, hope that their partner will change and improve, Corrêa, 2021; Paula & Rocha, 2019). This is also related
emotional and/or financial dependence, socioeconomic to the social roles of men, in which ‘being a man’ means
context, and social inequality. These individuals argued that, showing virility and aggressiveness, using violence in the
due to so many possible factors for a person to remain in development of their socialization, which became part of
an abusive relationship, she possibly cannot break free and the identity of these subjects who may not know other forms

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of expression than those violent or aggressive (Mesquita & with greater access to education tend to be less tolerant
Corrêa, 2021; Paula & Rocha, 2019). of aggression, which expresses a relationship between
These concepts are intrinsically connected to the logic socioeconomic level and the occurrence of violence.
of reproduction of violence, as men develop according It denotes the importance of investing in scientific studies that
to the idea that aggression is a valid resource to be used promote the production of knowledge on this subject, as well
in their relationships (Lírio et al., 2018). Since they have as the construction of public policies, aiming to contribute to
difficulty recognizing other forms of relationships, they end the reduction and prevention of violence through dialogue
up reproducing violent practices they grew up experiencing and awareness. Using dialogue, it is possible to show and
and observing, unable to, on their own, to behave differently. teach models of non-violent relationships to men, which can
However, considering the profile of the participants and the be favorable to them and women, exposing the existence of
data on how they perceive masculinity, there is a movement the possibility of creating healthier scenarios. The creation of
of differential association as they express norms, values and, public policies and promotion of dialogue also contribute to
to some extent, attitudes that differ from the logic of empowering women to face situations of violence.
hegemonic masculinity. Thus, attitudinal and relational It also denotes the importance of opening spaces for
changes may be related to access to more schooling, as men to express their feelings. Considering that the male
assumed by the theory of social learning (Telzer et al., 2018). subject is not allowed to experience affections inherent to the
When explaining the phenomenon, the participants also human being and that affections considered negative, such as
evoked ideas on the development of boys and made reflections fear and anger, have direct effects on the aggressiveness
on how family care or experiences with caregivers can be of individuals (Centurion-Cabral et al., 2019), with the
decisive for presenting aggressive behavior. In this sense, naturalization of male aggressiveness, men find it difficult to
a study involving 304 heterosexual couples, over 18 years get rid of these concepts rooted since the beginning of their
old, officially married or in a stable relationship for at least development, not finding gaps to fully express themselves.
six months, aimed to verify the relationship between events In addition to the difficulty in expressing their feelings, men
experienced in the family of origin and marital violence also end up not recognizing their own violent actions, as they
(Razera , Bedin, Oliveira, Mosmann, & Falcke, 2021). are naturalized, consequently they are seen as common
It was discovered that family experiences in childhood can actions of the male being.
predict behavioral models that are repeated in adult life and It is still important to highlight that the participants of this
for men some experiences (such as negligence, physical recognized the violence reproduced inside and outside their
abuse, for example) influence the perpetration of violence. affective relationships and, when dialoguing on the subject,
That is, behaviors, including aggressive ones, are shaped they ended up talking about themselves, bringing personal
through individual interaction with the environment and experiences and emotions experienced. Thus, the participants
dysfunctional practices are shaped through successive expressed feelings of sadness, anger, impotence and pity in
generations of children (Telzer et al., 2018). In addition, relation to domestic violence against women, being sadness
men tend to be punished in childhood for not showing their and pity for women in a situation of violence, and anger in
masculinity and this has repercussions in adult life. relation to aggressors. In addition, all agreed with the feeling
On definitions (attitudes, rationalizations or meanings of impotence in relation to the phenomenon itself, which
attributed to a certain behavior) about domestic violence can expose a willingness to break paradigms and search for
against women and being a man, it was observed that they were sociocultural changes (Brito, Pereira, & Coelho, 2021).
based on the evaluative logic of good or bad, right or wrong, Safeguarding the strong points of this study, it is necessary
justified or unwarranted and appropriate or inappropriate. to consider that the investigation had the participation of only
It is worth noting that the more people learn that specific 13 men, and it is not possible to extrapolate the interpretations
attitudes or behaviors are good or desirable in relation to those to other contexts or to the male profile. As a limitation, it can
undesirable, the more likely they are to engage in this type of be mentioned the lack of inclusion of questions on racial
behavior (Bandura, 2016; Telzer et al., 2018). In a study with inequality, an important variable in the debate on domestic
men who are agents of violence against women, this aspect violence against women, according to other studies. Other
seems even more relevant, as there is a tendency for cases to limitations are related to the not very diverse profile of the
decrease as the phenomenon is evaluated as bad or wrong. participants and the difficulty in reaching men with low
Regarding social learning, the groups and the social education, which resulted from methodological decisions.
context of the participants can favor this change or expansion Finally, the main difficulties encountered in structuring this
in the level of awareness of their own place in the world and, study were related to the search for bibliographic references
specifically, the debate on the issue of violence practiced in relation to men’s feelings on domestic violence against
by men (Telzer et al. ., 2018). Thus, men’s low educational women. Thus, there is a need to deepen the issues related to
level and challenging financial situation may be factors the male perspective on the phenomenon, considering gender
that contribute to the perpetration of violence. On the other violence, patriarchy and the support of violence, masculinity
hand, according to findings by Santos et al. (2020), women scripts and social inequalities, among others.

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Paidéia, 33, e3302

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Juliana Cristina Magrin holds a Master’s degree at the

Graduate Program in Psychology at Pontifícia Universidade How to cite this article:
Católica de Campinas, Campinas-SP, Brazil. Magrin, J. C., & Oliveira, W. A. (2023). Men’s perceptions
of domestic violence against women: A qualitative
Wanderlei Abadio de Oliveira is a Professor of Pontifícia study. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 33, e3302.
Universidade Católica de Campinas, Campinas-SP, Brazil. doi:https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-4327e3302