Literaturas Contemporâneas de Língua Inglesa

LITERATURAS
CONTEMPORÂNEAS DE
LÍNGUA INGLESA
autor
HÉLCIO DE PÁDUA LANZONI
1ª edição
SESES
rio de janeiro 2017
Conselho editorial roberto paes e luciana varga
Autor do original hélcio de pádua lanzoni
Projeto editorial roberto paes
Coordenação de produção luciana varga, paula r. de a. machado e aline karina

rabello
Projeto gráfico paulo vitor bastos
Diagramação bfs media
Revisão linguística marianna la vega
Revisão de conteúdo fellipe fernandes cavallero
Imagem de capa joe dunckley | shutterstock.com
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Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (cip)
L297l Lanzoni, Hélcio de Pádua

Literaturas contemporâneas de língua inglesa. / Hélcio de Pádua Lanzoni.
Rio de Janeiro: SESES, 2017.
112 p: il.
isbn: 978-85-5548-435-3
1. Lingua inglesa. 2. Literatura. 3. Teatro inglês. 4. Teatro norte-

-americano. 5. Pós-modernismo. I. SESES. II. Estácio.
cdd 820.9
Diretoria de Ensino — Fábrica de Conhecimento

Rua do Bispo, 83, bloco F, Campus João Uchôa
Rio Comprido — Rio de Janeiro — rj — cep 20261-063
Sumário
Prefácio 5
1. A expansão da língua e literaturas em

língua inglesa 7
English language in the world 9
An empire is born 12
Facing a new model 14
The new imperialism 15
The end of the empire 16
English language literatures around the world 16

Literatures in English: the Pacific Islands 18
Literatures in English: Australia 19
Literatures in English: Nigeria 21
Literatures in English: South Africa 22
2. English theater 27
Renaissance 29
Renaissance theater 30
Elizabethan theater – historical context 31
Great names in Elizabethan theater 34
After Shakespeare 36
Twentieth century English theater 37
Post war British drama 39

West End theater 39
Reaction to West End plays 41
Theater x television and movies. 42
3. O teatro norte-americano 47
Early days of the American theater 49
The first theatrical companies 49
After American independence 52
Theater expansion in late 18th century 53
American theater in the 19th century 54

Broadway 55
American civil war 55
American theatre crosses the Atlantic 57
Theatrical copyright 58
American theater in the 20th century 60

Post-War American theater 61
4. Grandes autores contemporâneos 65

Great literary contributions 66
Jack Kerouac (1922-1969) 67
Margaret atwood (1939) 72
Michèle Roberts (1949) 73
Tracy Chevalier (1962) 75
Marge Piercy (1936) 76
Ana Castillo (1953) 78
Alice Walker (1944) 81
5. Sobre a origem do teatro e pós-modernidade 87

The birth of theater 89
Theater in the world 90
Greek theater 91
Roman theater 91
Discursive genres and post modernism 92

Postmodernism 93
Modernism x postmodernism 95
Discursive genres 96
Postmodern contemporary authors: Harold Pinter 98
Postmodern contemporary authors: Doris Lessing 100
Postmodern contemporary authors: Alice Munro 102

Prefácio
Prezados(as) alunos(as),
Esta disciplina tem o objetivo de fornecer subsídios aos alunos do curso de

Letras para um aprofundamento de seus conhecimentos relacionados à língua in-
glesa e sua abrangência e importância no mundo. Devido ao seu papel histórico de
colonizadores, os ingleses criaram colônias em praticamente todos os continentes
e, com isso, foi formado o ambiente para que a língua inglesa fosse adotada por
países díspares como Nigéria, Índia ou África do Sul.
Nesse sentido, criou-se o conceito de “literaturas” em língua inglesa, com foco
linguístico, e não geográfico. Esta disciplina volta-se, portanto, para discussão
e análise da literatura de países de língua inglesa, além de Inglaterra e Estados
Unidos. A língua inglesa tem o status de língua oficial em mais de 70 países, a
maioria ex-colônias britânicas. Isso não quer dizer que o inglês seja a língua falada
pela população em geral, mas usada pelo menos por alguns setores da sociedade,
como governo, educação, sistema legal, entretenimento, etc.
Assim, ao estudar as literaturas contemporâneas em língua inglesa, agrega-se
o estudo de elementos culturais, sociais e históricos aos conceitos literários. Isso
traz uma série de debates teóricos, principalmente em relação a uma suposta “pa-
ternidade” do idioma. Afinal, quem seria o “dono” da língua inglesa no mundo
de hoje? É claro que estamos longe de um consenso, mas podemos afirmar que o
sucesso, relevância e abrangência da língua inglesa nos dias de hoje são resultado
de séculos de um processo colonizador que deixou cicatrizes profundas nos países
onde ocorreu. Estes questionamentos levam também a uma reflexão sobre a rela-
ção entre língua e nacionalidade.
Nesta disciplina, portanto, serão abordados os processos de expansão da lín-
gua inglesa, o teatro inglês e norte-americano, além de grandes autores em língua
inglesa, mas de nacionalidades diversas. Esta disciplina dialoga, portanto, com
as disciplinas de Literatura Inglesa, Literatura Norte-Americana e Fundamentos
Culturais da Literatura em Língua Inglesa.
Bons estudos!
5
1
A expansão da
língua e literaturas
em língua inglesa
A expansão da língua e literaturas em
língua inglesa
Não é nenhuma novidade afirmar que o inglês é o idioma mais ensinado ao

redor do mundo, especialmente como língua estrangeira. É, sem sombra de dúvi-
da, a língua principal de comunicação em diversos campos, como ciência, aviação,
tecnologia, saúde, turismo, etc. Outras línguas, como o chinês e o espanhol, vêm
expandindo sua penetração e importância, mas ninguém supõe, no momento, que
elas venham a tomar o lugar do inglês em um futuro próximo.
Com a importância de um idioma, vem também a importância da sua lite-
ratura. Quando estudantes usam textos literários em seus estudos, eles aprendem
não apenas a língua em si, com seu léxico, estrutura gramatical e expressões idio-
máticas, mas principalmente a cultura e história dos países de origem dos autores
de língua inglesa. O conhecimento trazido pelas literaturas em língua inglesa pode
representar um grande ganho cultural e linguístico.
Uma vez que cerca de um quarto da população mundial, ou seja, algo em
torno de 1,5 bilhão de indivíduos, possui pelo menos conhecimentos básicos de
inglês, não é surpresa que o número de falantes não nativos da língua inglesa seja
superior ao número de falantes nativos. Vale ressaltar que a importância de deter-
minado idioma no mundo não é definido pelo número de falantes desse idioma,
mas, sim, pela importância econômica, tecnológica, cultural e até mesmo militar
dos países em questão.
Mas a expansão da língua inglesa pelo mundo foi um processo gradativo e
contínuo, graças ao poderio militar e econômico da Inglaterra e, posteriormente,
da Grã-Bretanha. O espírito colonizador inglês e o fato do país ter se tornado
o berço da revolução industrial permitiram que se tornassem a maior potência
mundial, com colônias espalhadas por todo o globo. Como se costumava dizer no
auge do imperialismo britânico, “o sol nunca se põe no Império Britânico”. Se esta
expressão já não é verdadeira para a Grã-Bretanha, continua sendo verdadeira para
a literatura escrita em língua inglesa.
capítulo 1 •8
OBJETIVOS
Estudantes de ensino médio e ensino superior que estudam a língua inglesa com ênfase
nas habilidades de leitura e escrita costumam ter dificuldades em lidar com textos literários
em língua inglesa, sejam eles oriundos de autores ingleses, escoceses, americanos, cana-
denses, indianos, etc.
Há diversos aspectos da cultura anglofônica que são abordados pelas obras literárias e,
portanto, ter contato com as diversas literaturas escritas em língua inglesa pode contribuir
sobremaneira com a aprendizagem tanto da língua quanto da cultura. Ler um texto ou poesia
de um autor do século 18 permite ao leitor uma imersão no modo de pensar e na vida coti-
diana de uma época longínqua, mas que pode muito nos ensinar nos dias de hoje.
Neste capítulo você vai compreender como a língua inglesa se espalhou pelo mundo e
como a Grã-Bretanha chegou a ser a maior potência imperial do planeta e foi gradativamente
perdendo seu poder a partir de meados do século 19. Em seguida, você vai entender a ex-
pansão das literaturas em língua inglesa nas ex-colônias britânicas.
English language in the world
It is an obvious fact for most people that English has become a language for
international communication, and occurred due to two main factors: the extension
of the British colonial power, whose height occurred in late 19th century, and the
hegemony of the United States as an economic power in the 20th century.
To be considered “global”, a language must first acquire a special role, with
recognition throughout the world. This role is evident in English-speaking
countries, like the United States, Great-Britain, Canada, Ireland, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, and many other Caribbean countries. Nevertheless, it is
paramount that other countries provide to this language special roles and functions
so that it becomes an international language.
Concerning English, this language has a status of official language in more
than 70 countries, most of which share the characteristic of being former English
colonies. In these places, English is used as a means of communication in one
or more sectors, like governmental administration, education, legal system or in
mass communication.
This special status of English raises a theoretical debate on the relation
between language and nationality. One issue brought about by this debate refers
capítulo 1 •9
to knowing who “owns” English nowadays. Of course there is no single answer. It
is important to consider the international success of English as a result of centuries
of exploitation and oppression, which would lead to the conclusion that the power
over the language remains on the hands of the countries whose people are native
speakers of English.
On the opposite direction, it is also possible to look at English as a truly
international language, in the sense that the language has become a resource
to be utilized culturally and commercially by several groups, beyond any
national differences.
© ROB984 | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Countries where English is spoken natively by the majority of the population.
Some linguists and applied linguists still defend an ideological resistance

to English, with a focus on a change of attitudes against the subservience to
the language or toward its rejection. This has the objective of recognizing the
imperialist and ideological character that has led to the expansion of the English
language in the world with the purpose of using it in strategic ways. In this sense,
some specialists advocate changes in the teaching of English as a foreign language,
using the argument that the contents of the courses should reflect the needs
of non-native speakers who use the language to communicate with other non-
native speakers.
capítulo 1 • 10
CONEXÃO
O inglês é a língua nativa em diversos países, mas é também o segundo idioma em muitos
outros. No link abaixo, você vai conhecer os países que têm o inglês como uma língua oficial,
mesmo quando não é falado pela maioria da população. <http://chartsbin.com/view/k9n>.
In any case, English is no longer a language that belongs to the English people.
The use of this language is continuously growing around the world. Nevertheless,
most people study English for practical reasons instead of ideological reasons.
We can mention Africa, where countries that adopted English as a first or second
language formed a community of Afro-Saxon that unites different African peoples.
Modern English has been sometimes described as the first global Lingua Franca,
or the first “world language”. Besides the other uses already mentioned, it has also
been used in newspapers, magazines, books, international telecommunication,
scientific research, international commerce, mass entertainment, and diplomacy.
Due to international treaties, English is used as “international auxiliary language”
in sea and air transports (Seaspeak and Airspeak, respectively). English also
substituted German as the language of scientific research and paired with French
as a language of diplomacy after the Versailles Treaty in 1919.
©© PATRICK GRUBAN | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
UN General Assembly hall.
capítulo 1 • 11
By the time the United Nations Organization (UN) was created, in the end of
World War II, English gained its prominence and is today the main language of
international relations, besides being one of the six official languages of the UN.
Many other international organizations around the world, as the International
Olympic Committee and the European Unity, adopted English as its official
language.
An empire is born
The British Empire overseas begins with the exploitation and settlements
out of Europe due to Henry VII, who ruled England between 1485 and 1509.
During his realm, several commercial lines were established, creating a very strong
merchant fleet, which contributed to consolidate the bases of the merchant
institutions that would have an important role in the imperial expansion to come,
like the British East India Company. Henry VII also ordered the construction of
the first dry dock in Portsmouth, and also improved remarkably the then small
Royal Navy. The foundations for the British sea power were established.
Antes da criação da Marinha Real (Royal Navy), a marinha inglesa não tinha uma for-
mação definida. Começou como um agrupamento de “navios do rei”, ainda durante a
Idade Média. Este agrupamento se juntava e se dispersava conforme as necessidades
do momento. Henrique VIII liderou a maior expansão na frota, que aumentou de cinco
navios em 1509 para trinta em 1514, incluindo o “Mary Rose”, de 600 toneladas, e
o “Great Harry”, de 1500 toneladas. A maioria da frota foi construída após 1525. A
criação de uma marinha estável começou durante o século 16 e continuou durante
o tumultuado século 17. A Marinha Real cresceu bastante durante as lutas contra a
França, que culminaram nas Guerras Napoleônicas, período no qual as batalhas navais
com navios movidos a vela atingiram o seu auge.
The British fleet grew fast in order to protect English commercial interests and
also to open new routes. With this purpose in mind, Henry VII’s son and heir,
Henry VIII, founded the modern English navy, tripling the number of battleships
and building the first ships with heavy armaments and long range. He also
invested in the construction of lighthouses, which facilitated coastal navigation.
Due to this army, Elizabeth I, Henry VIII’s daughter and heir was able to repel the
invasion of the Spanish armada in 1588, which paved the road to the English sea
domain in the following centuries.
capítulo 1 • 12
The British Empire started to assume a definite shape in the early 17th century,
with the establishment of the first thirteen settlements in the east coast of North
America, which were the origin of the United States of America. The maritime
provinces of Canada and the colonization of small island in the Caribbean, like
Jamaica and Barbados, were also part of the process of colonizing the New World.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Pilgrims landing at Plymouth Rock, in 1620.
The sugar producing colonies in the Caribbean, where slavery became the
basis of the local economy, were the most important and profitable for England.
The American colonies produced tobacco, cotton and rice in the South, and naval
materials and pelts in the North.
The British empire was gradually expanding in the Americas through wars
against indigenous peoples or against other European powers. As an example of
the latter, we can mention the Anglo-Dutch war over the control of provinces in
North America, like New Amsterdam, later renamed New York by the English. The
American colonies spread also to the West in search of new land for agriculture.
During the Seven Years War, the English beat the French, which made England
the “owner” of almost all North America.
capítulo 1 • 13
Facing a new model
The lesson that the English learned after losing the North American colonies
– that commercial relation can go on creating prosperity even without colonial
control – contributed to the expansion of the self-governed colony model in
the mid-19th century, applied to Canada and Australia. Ireland had a different
approach, once it was incorporated to Great Britain in 1801.
In 1807, England prohibited the trade of slaves and soon began to force other
nations to do the same. By the middle of the 19th century, slavery had been eradicated
in most of the world, including the British colonies. Until 1870, Great Britain was
the only industrial power in the world, with more than 30% of the world industrial
production. The country could produce manufacture in a so efficient and economic
way that they could sell cheaper than local producers in foreign markets.
Nevertheless, industrialization progressed rapidly in Germany and the United
States, allowing these countries to surpass the British and French models. German
textile and metal industries overcame their British counterparts after 1870, when their
efficiency and organization put their products into Great Britain internal market.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
An elaborate map of the British Empire in 1886, marked in the traditional colour for imperial
British dominions on maps.
capítulo 1 • 14
Even though banking services, insurance and transportation kept Great
Britain away from serious economic troubles, its participation in the world market
dropped to one fourth in 1880 and one sixth in 1913. Great Britain was losing
not only in the new industrial countries, but also in less developed countries and
regions, like China, India, South America and the African coast.
The new imperialism
The politics and ideology in the European colonial expansion between 1870
and the beginning of World War I in 1914 were referred to as “new imperialism”.
This period is characterized by an unprecedentedly aggressive competition among
the world powers in order to get overseas territories. At the same time, it was possible
to observe among the imperialist countries the belief on the existence of a racial
superiority and on the inadequacy of the dominated countries to govern themselves.
During this period, European powers added almost 23,000,000 km² to their
original territories. Before 1880, Africa was practically free from the Western Powers,
but from then on it became the main objective of the “new” imperial expansion,
along with targets in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, where the United States and
Japan joined the European powers in their struggle for more territories. 1875 is
often considered the year in which Great Britain entered its new imperial era.
The occupation of Egypt by Great
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Britain in 1882, due to Suez Canal,
caused an increase in the worries
concerning the Nile Vale which, on its
turn, led to the invasion of the neighbor
Sudan between 1896 and 1898. In 1899,
Great Britain launched an offensive
in order to settle its position in South
Africa. By 1903, a telegraph system was
able to connect the most important areas
of the British Empire.
British magnate Cecil John Rhodes planned to link South Africa to Cairo (Egypt).
capítulo 1 • 15
By 1914, Great Britain was the biggest empire overseas due to its presence
in India and its status as a winner in the combats for Africa. Between 1885 and
1914, Great Britain had approximately 30% of the African population under its
control. France had 21%, Germany 9%, Belgium 7%, and Italy 1%. Only one
country, Nigeria, provided Great Britain with 15 million people, more than all
France’s western Africa or all Germany’s colonial empire.
The end of the empire
The growth of the nationalist and anticolonialist movements in the British

territories in the first half of the 20th century defied the metropolis, which
had more serious and nearer worries, especially after the World War II. Taking
advantage of this opportunity, India was the first to claim independence, followed
by other territories in Asia and Africa. After some disastrous attempts to hold its
territories, Great Britain was forced to accept the new situation. The only way
to maintain ties with its former colonies was the inclusion of some of them into
the Commonwealth.
The end of the British Empire forced Great Britain to abandon the position
of the greatest world power and accept the rise of the United States as the new
world power.
Para melhor compreender o significado do Commonwealth e a posição atual da Grã-

-Bretanha, é importante compreender suas origens a partir do Império Britânico. Tec-
nicamente, houve três impérios: o primeiro na França, que foi perdido em 1558; o
segundo na América do Norte, que se tornou os Estados Unidos depois de 1776; e o
terceiro, global, transformou-se no atual Commonwealth of Nations depois de 1949.
Cada império foi maior que aquele que o precedeu.
É curioso observar que os países de maior sucesso no mundo, a maioria tem raízes co-
loniais britânicas: Canadá, Estados Unidos, Austrália, Índia, Cingapura, Hong Kong, etc.
English language literatures around the world
During the period of the British Empire there were several great authors and
successful books from the colonies. But it was in the postwar years, more precisely
after 1950, that several authors from previous English colonies started coming to
England to study or work on their books. The exception was the United States,
which had produced great writers since the Victorian Period.
capítulo 1 • 16
Before World War II, the literature of the Anglophonic world already had
some important names. In 1883, South African Olive Schreiner published his
famous novel The Story of an African Farm. In 1911, Katherine Mansfield, from
New Zealand, published In a German Pension, a collection of her stories. R.K.
Narayan is considered the first major author from India to write in English.
Thanks to the support of writer Graham Greene, he started publishing in England
from 1930 on.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Indian writer - R. K. Narayan .
The career of Caribbean author Jean Rhys had its start in 1928. Nevertheless,
Wide Sargasso Sea, her most relevant text, was published only in 1966. In 1948,
Alan Paton, from South Africa, publishes his remarkable work, The Beloved
Country. From 1950 on, Doris Lessing brought the name of her country Rhodesia
(now Zimbabwe) under the limelight. She won the Nobel Prize in Literature
in 2007.
Some authors from the former British colonies settled for good in Britain
after World War II. This is the case of Salman Rushdie, who became famous
after publishing Midnight’s Children, in 1981. But he achieved world fame after
publishing The Satanic Verses, in 1989, a controversial novel partly inspired by
Muhammad’s life. Another “foreign” author to win the Nobel Prize in Literature,
V.S. Naipaul was born in Trinidad. One of his most remarkable works is A Bend
in the River, published in 1979.
capítulo 1 • 17
©© BOBERGER | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Nadine Gordimer at the Göteborg Book Fair 2010.
In 1995, Nadine Gordimer, from South Africa, won a Nobel Prize in

Literature, as did her country fellow J.N. Coetzee in 2003. Writer Chinua Achebe,
from Nigeria, is another novelist from a former British colony that conquered
worldwide recognition, along with playwright Wole Soyinka, who got a Nobel
Prize in 1986. From Australia we can mention the novelist Patrick White, who
published his first novel in 1939. Novelist Peter Carey, who won the Booker Prize
twice, and poet Les Murray are other examples of great Australian writers.
As we can see, the fact that Britain colonized so many places around the world
allowed English to be the language of so many talented writers and, consequently,
so many Nobel and Bookers Prizes. It is not the purpose of this book to provide
a comprehensive compendium about the different English literatures. Therefore,
the focus will be on just some of them.
Literatures in English: the Pacific Islands
What is called Pacific Islands is a group of up to 30,000 islands, depending

on the classification. The group may or may not include all the islands colonized
in Oceania. In terms of literature, the region has several renowned authors, who
commonly write about topics of common concern or identification among
different people, like cultural changes and Diaspora – topics recurrent in
postcolonial times. Some of these important writers are Courtney Sina Meredith,
Selina Tusitala Marsh, Lani Wendt, and others.
capítulo 1 • 18
New Zealander Witi Ihimaera, the first Maori to publish in English, and poet
Albert Wendt, from Samoa, are two pioneering writers in the region. Wendt, who
has German blood from his great-grandfather, wrote Leaves of the Banyan Tree,
published in 1979. His Germanic heritage influences some of his writing, even
though he considers his lineage as purely Samoan.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Samoan writer Sia Figiel.
Author Sia Figiel won the Commonwealth Writers’ Prize in 1997 with her very
first novel, Where We Once Belonged. A Samoan novelist and also a painter, Sia
Figie’s writing was affected by her background among Samoans and their peculiar
culture. She was also influenced by another Samoan, author Albert Wendt.
Literatures in English: Australia
The first reports about native Australians were written by the first Europeans
explorers first arrived, once the natives did not have a writing system. Therefore,
when the news reached the motherland, everything about the first contacts had
the point of view of the colonists, which provided biased descriptions of the
“savages” they met.
One of the first relevant Australian authors was Oodgeroo Noonuccal. Her
birth name was Kath Walker and she was a political activist, poet, and educator
who fought for the rights of Aboriginal people. Her book of verses We Are Going
was the first published by a native Australian of Aboriginal background.
capítulo 1 • 19
©© WKIMEDIA.ORG
Oodgero Noonuccal (Kath Walker), March 1975.
Considered a reference in terms or widening the relevance of Aboriginal

stories, author Sally Morgan published the novel My Place in 1987. Her path was
followed by other activists, like Marcia Langton and Noel Pearson, whose main
contributions to Australian literature are, respectively, the books First Australians
(2008) and Up From the Mission (2009).
Australia’s Mile Franklin Award, a highly prestigious literary award, was
won twice by Kim Scott: in 2000, for the book Benang and in 2011, for That
Deadman Dance. Another author to win this prize was Alexis Wright, in 2007,
for the book Carpentaria.
CONEXÃO
É chamado de literatura australiana o trabalho literário produzido na área ou pelas
pessoas da Austrália. Na história recente do mundo ocidental, Austrália era formada por uma
série de colônias britânicas e, portanto, a tradição literária australiana tem forte influência
da literatura inglesa. Visite o link abaixo para conhecer mais sobre os principais autores
e obras desta importante literatura em língua inglesa. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Australian_literature#Poetry>.
capítulo 1 • 20
Literatures in English: Nigeria
In the 1950’s, Chinua Achebe, a Nigerian writer, published Things Fall Apart
and got international recognition. Even though English was considered the
language of the colonizers, Achebe was favorable to the use of English in African
Literature, for the sake of making the ideas of African writers accessible to the rest
of the world. The books of Chinua Achebe deal with the traditions of his native
tribe, the Igbo, and the influence of Christianism. Another important focus of his
writings is the conflict between African traditions and Western culture.
Awarded the first Nobel Prize in Literature in the African continent, in
1986, Wole Soyinka is a Nigerian playwright and poet. He studied in the United
Kingdom and worked with the Royal Court Theatre. His plays were frequently
produced both in the UK prominent action in the politics of his country,
especially during the difficult times prior to the independence of Nigeria. Due to
his political involvements, he was even arrested and put in jail for two years during
the Nigerian Civil War, in 1967.
©© CHIDI ANTHONY OPARA | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Wole Soyinka, in 1986.
capítulo 1 • 21
Another important Nigerian author is Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, who got
a MacArthur Genius Grant and was once called “the most prominent” of several
other young authors who wrote in English. Adichie’s nonfiction novels had the
power to attract a legion of readers who became interested in African Literature.
Literatures in English: South Africa
The most significant constraints that a South African reader or writer faces
is the diversity of different literatures in a country that was divided throughout
most of its history. Some believe that the negative legacy of the Apartheid is the
fact why nobody can really “represent” South Africa – no matter if the person is
White, Black, Mixed, or Asian.
This kind of problem comes from before Apartheid. We have to take into
consideration that South Africa was artificially defined as a nation by the
Europeans, but was originally formed by culturally and linguistically diverse
peoples. The relative autonomy of these cultures has made it very difficult to make
a compilation of texts and call them “South African Literature”.
In South Africa there are eleven national languages, but what is considered a
“national” literature is Afrikaans. Some consider that the South African literature
written in English is nothing more than an extension of British Literature, the
language of the colonizer, which does not represent the true African voices.
Colonial writers were, therefore, ©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
the first ones to emerge in South

Africa scene, and their view was biased,
sometimes romantic and sometimes
hostile. Authors of adventure stories
always pictured the white colonial heroes
in a romanticized way and the black
natives were servants or enemies. Books
like King Solomon’s Mine, published
in 1886, was one of the most popular
from writer Rider Haggard. This book
is popular up to the present days. In
Haggard’s subsequent book, Allan
Quartermain (1887), the main character
is an idealized colonial gentleman. English writer Henry Rider Haggard
(1856-1925).
capítulo 1 • 22
Several South African Languages are also spoken outside the country limits,
once the borders of South Africa were created by the British without taking
into consideration the peoples that lived the region. Therefore, it may be more
reasonable to consider South African literature everything produced within the
borders of the country, regardless of the language.
Nevertheless, when we put side by side the literature produced in the several
languages of the country and the literature produced in English, the latter will
enjoy a formidable advantage in terms of reach and acceptance. Then, making
distinctions in terms of “black literature” and “white literature” does not seem to
make sense anymore, but it used to be a way of literary distinction not long ago
in the history of this country.
REFLEXÃO
O império britânico foi o maior império da História e tornou-se a maior potência mundial.
A expansão colonial britânica foi um produto da era dos descobrimentos na Europa, que
começou com as expedições marítimas no século 15, que lançou as potências europeias
em busca de novos territórios. Este grande império chegou a dominar um território de 36,6
milhões de quilômetros quadrados, cerca de um quarto da área terrestre do planeta.
Como resultado dessa expansão, sua influência foi imensa, na forma de sistemas legais
e governamentais, práticas econômicas, influência militar, sistemas educacionais, esportes e,
claro, na expansão da língua inglesa. Como já mencionado neste capítulo, em seu auge dizia-
se que “o sol nunca se põe no Império Britânico” (the Sun never sets on the British Empire),
uma vez que se espalhava ao redor do globo, de modo que o sol estava sempre brilhando em
pelo menos uma de suas colônias ou áreas de influência.
Nas duas décadas após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, a maior parte dos territórios do
império britânico tornou-se independente. Vários deles formaram a Comunidade de Nações
(Commonwealth of Nations), uma associação livre formada por estados independentes, ge-
ralmente ex-colônias britânicas, como Nova Zelândia e África do Sul.
Com a expansão do império britânico, ocorreu também a expansão da língua inglesa,
que passou a ser falada como primeira ou segunda língua em dezenas de países, além de
ternar-se uma Língua Franca de comunicação internacional. Um fator que contribuiu para o
estabelecimento do inglês como língua mundial foi a substituição de uma potência falante
de língua inglesa por outra potência também falante de língua inglesa, os Estados Unidos.
Assim como a língua, a literatura mundial escrita em inglês assume características tão
diversas quanto as diversas culturas e línguas nativas das antigas colônias britânicas.
capítulo 1 • 23
LEITURA
Para compreender a posição da língua inglesa no mundo, é importante entender a for-
mação do Império Britânico. A obra Império - Como os Britânicos Fizeram o Mundo Moderno,
explica de uma forma bastante clara a formação do maior império que já existiu. Leia abaixo
a descrição do livro presente no site da Livraria Saraiva <www.saraiva.com.br>:
“Na época que antecedeu a Segunda Guerra Mundial, o Império Britânico
cobria mais de um quarto da superfície terrestre. Ainda que, para as novas gerações,
esse período possa ser visto como nada além do que uma época remota, o momento
é propício para uma reavaliação. Neste novo trabalho, Niall Ferguson argumenta
que o império britânico não deve ser visto apenas como um passado vitoriano, mas
sim, como o berço da modernidade. Quase todas as características existentes no século
XXI podem ser identificadas na extraordinária expansão econômica, populacional e
cultural da Grã-Bretanha desde o século XVII até a metade do século XX: economia
globalizada, revolução nas comunicações, mudanças raciais na América do Norte, a
noção de humanitarismo, a natureza da democracia. (...)”
Título: Império - Como os Britânicos Fizeram o Mundo Moderno
Autor: Niall Ferguson
Editora: Planeta do Brasil
ATIVIDADE
O Império Britânico foi o maior império da história mundial, com domínios espalhados por
todos os continentes. Conforme já mostrado neste capítulo, em 1922, o Império Britânico
chegou a ter sob seus domínios 458 milhões de pessoas, um quinto da população do mundo
na época, e cobria quase um quarto da área terrestre do planeta.
Na relação abaixo, há diversos países. Assinale aqueles que foram colônias britânicas.
1. Afeganistão 9. Mianmar
2. Barbados 10. China
3. Austrália 11. Vietnã
4. Argentina 12. Serra Leoa
5. Canadá 13. África do Sul
6. Egito 14. Uganda
7. Índia 15. Marrocos
8. Jordânia 16. Emirados Árabes Unidos
capítulo 1 • 24
17. Grécia 19. Estados Unidos
18. Zâmbia 20. Fiji
REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
Anglo Saxon Literature. Disponível em: <http://anglosaxonliterature.wikispaces.com/Anglo-
Saxon+Christianity>. Acesso em 13 jul. 2016.
Brasil Escola. Disponível em: <http://brasilescola.uol.com.br/historia-da-america.htm>.
Acesso em: 17 jul. 2016.
Enciclopædia Britannica. Disponível em: <https://global.britannica.com/place/British-Empire>.
Enciclopédia das Línguas do Brasil. Disponível em: <http://www.labeurb.unicamp.br/elb2/pages/
artigos/lerArtigo.lab?id=98>. Acesso em: 20 jul. 2016.
Historical Atlas of the British Empire. Disponível em: <http://www.atlasofbritempire.com/>.
Acesso em: 27 out. 2016.
ITS Education. Disponível em: <http://www.itseducation.asia/english-literature.htm>.
The British Empire. Disponível em: <www.britishempire.co.uk>. Acesso em: 22 jul. 2016.
Wiki Lingue. Disponível em:<http://pt.encydia.com/es/Imp%C3%A9rio_brit%C3%A2nico>.
capítulo 1 • 25
capítulo 1 • 26
2
English theater
English theater
O teatro inglês tem uma história muito rica, que vai de dramaturgos como
William Shakespeare a atores como Lawrence Olivier. O público nos dias de hoje
ainda gosta de ir ao teatro para se divertir e também para pensar e aprender, ouvin-
do ideias que podem ser pouco comuns em outros meios de comunicação.
Mas não foi sempre assim, pois no início o teatro era usado pela Igreja e
Realeza para divulgar suas ideias e conceitos. No entanto, com o tempo, o teatro
passou gradativamente a ser um meio de fazer com que a voz de cada um fosse
ouvida. Assim, o teatro essencialmente surgiu da contação de histórias, já que
entreter o povo tornou-se necessário, especialmente depois do enorme número de
mortes causadas pela peste negra.
As primeiras peças de teatro consistiam na dramatização de histórias bíblicas e
histórias sobre a vida dos santos. As paróquias criavam estas peças com o objetivo
de transmitir lições de moral à sociedade. Através dessas apresentações organiza-
das, o conceito de teatro começou a criar raízes na Grã-Bretanha.
O desenvolvimento do teatro inglês passou por diversas fases e atravessou o
século XX afetado por dois grandes conflitos bélicos: a Primeira Guerra Mundial e
a Segunda Guerra Mundial. No entanto, mesmo com a inevitável interrupção de
suas atividades em períodos de guerra, o teatro inglês seguiu seu caminho e sofreu
diversas alterações, especialmente no período após a Segunda Guerra Mundial,
que terminou em 1945.
OBJETIVOS
O teatro tem sua origem em civilizações da antiguidade, como Grécia e Roma, e durante
o período medieval – época dominada pela religião –, o teatro assumiu características nota-
damente doutrinadoras, com peças de cunho religioso.
Neste capítulo, você vai conhecer o teatro na sua acepção mais moderna, que coincide
com o período elisabetano, ou seja, durante o reinado da rainha Elizabeth I, que foi uma gran-
de incentivadora das artes e, em especial, do teatro. Foi neste período que viveu o grande
dramaturgo inglês William Shakespeare.
Você vai conhecer também as modificações que o teatro inglês sofreu ao chegar ao
século 20 e algumas das suas principais características durante a segunda metade des-
se século.
capítulo 2 • 28
Renaissance
When we study History it is possible to notice that Renaissance meant not

only a return to the creativity and freedom lost during the Medieval Era, but a new
conception of the world and the destiny of the mankind. The huge transformation
faced by the Western cultures in the 15th and 16th centuries create and spread
the notion that there is a rupture between past and present. As the power of the
Church diminishes, religious force and unity start to crumble throughout Europe.
Based on the faith that everything can be done with the control of rational
techniques, Renaissance settles its understand of the universe on mathematics and
other exact sciences.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
The School of Athens by Raphael.
Renaissance is the period in which classical art is rediscovered and revalued.

Nevertheless, this period did not start all of a sudden. Its preparation begins during
the 13th century through Humanism, and is consolidated in full around the 18th
century with Enlightenment. Anyway, theater and drama’s greatest development
occurred during the 15th and the 16th centuries.
capítulo 2 • 29
Renaissance theater
The evolutional origin of Renaissance theater began under the influence

of Italian theater, once several plays were presented in England, but spoken in
Italian. These plays were then translated and acted in English. The author that
was chosen as a drama paradigm in this phase of English theater was Seneca. Later
on, England historical subjects use the same paradigmatic structures inspired in
Seneca’s model to present aspects of popular culture.
In this phase of the Elizabethan Era, Thomas Heywood (1570-1641) writes
A Woman Killed With Kindness, and Thomas Dekker (1572-1632) writes The
Honest Whore. According to some theater researchers, these two plays can be
considered precursors of bourgeoisie melodrama.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Hannah Pritchard as Lady Macbeth and David Garrick as Macbeth at the Theatre Royal,
Drury Lane in April 1768.
According to information available, right after the development of drama

with everyday or historical themes, some texts started to be classified in a variety of
ways. One common type was the “blood tragedies”, in which the plots are around
intrigues with a touch of romantic love, the unhappy beauty, unfairness, suffering,
capítulo 2 • 30
and murder. This format sets it close to the characteristics of melodramas or
tragedies to come. Another very popular type of play was the “domestic tragedies”,
which dramatized the famous crimes of the time, with a less melodramatic touch.
Several other types of plays were abundant at the time, such as “historical
plays”, which could be epics or dramas, and “romantic comedies”, which imitated
the Italian style.
English theater presentations were common during the Middle Ages on huge,
two-floored wagons with six wheels. In these flexible stages, plays were performed
on the top floor, while the ground floor was used for storage and backstage. Those
wagons evolved through Middle Ages with the purpose of taking the theater to
the public, not the other way around. Several of those wagons were started being
used for performances within patios and inns, which led to the creation of the
archetypical Elizabethan theater, developed and built from the 16th century on.
Durante o século XVI, atores não eram bem pagos e nem bem vistos pela sociedade
da época, que os considerava vagabundos, encrenqueiros e pecadores. Isso se deve
principalmente ao fato de que no início do século XVI os atores viajavam em carroças
e se apresentavam em cidades e vilarejos em troca de dinheiro ou comida. Teatros
propriamente ditos só foram construídos em Londres a partir de 1576.
Assim, devido ao fato de que ser ator não era uma profissão respeitada, mulheres só
foram permitidas a partir de 1660. Os papéis femininos eram desempenhados por
rapazes imberbes e de voz fina.
Assim, ir ao teatro não era considerado um programa de status. As peças eram geral-
mente muito grosseiras, pelos padrões atuais. Havia várias alternativas que competiam
com o teatro em termos de entretenimento. Uma delas eram arenas que continham
ursos selvagens, os quais eram incitados a “lutar” com cães, que eram mortos pelos
ursos.
Elizabethan theater – historical context
The Elizabethan Era in England is the period of the realm of Queen Elizabeth
I, which goes from 1558 to 1603. This period is considered England’s Golden
Era. It was the height of Renaissance in that country, especially in literature and
poetry. It was during Elizabeth’s realm that England assumed the position of a
world power, once Spain was a decadent power. English commerce expanded
throughout the world, paving the path for the prosperity and progress of the
bourgeoisie.
capítulo 2 • 31
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
The Portrait of Elizabeth I, 1592.
It was a moment of rapid transformations in all sectors of society. The sea

voyages and trade affected fashion, while land transportation (using wagons)
influenced architecture and customs, like the use of forks (brought from Italy)
and tobacco (brought from India and the Americas).
The Protestant Reformation and Humanism introduced new elements in
English drama. It was through "commedia dell'arte” that professional theater began.
Elizabeth I sponsored and protected the theatrical activities during her realm,
once her taste for popular spectacles was able to counterbalance the puritan
tendencies in the realm. Dances, magic, theatrical plays, and several other artistic
manifestations were presented wherever the queen went.
The term “Elizabethan Theater” refers to all dramas written and interpreted
in England by English authors during the second half of the 16th century (1558)
until the beginning of the 17th century (1603). After the Greek Theater and
Medieval Theater, several characteristics made the Elizabethan theater a distinct
phenomenon, when compared to the rest of Europe.
capítulo 2 • 32
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Great English authors created
plays that were supposed to satisfy a
wide variety of tastes. Therefore, it
was common to join in the same play
tragedy and comedy. Besides, London
got plenty of theater companies which
competed among themselves in order to
attract the public.
A 1596 sketch of a rehearsal in progress

on the stage of The Swan, a typical circular
Elizabethan open-roof playhouse.
The audiences in the London theaters were composed of princes, intellectuals,

simple artisans, peasants, and children. All were there to contemplate battles,
crimes, love, and funny misunderstandings. That miscellaneous of social and
intellectual classes was possible because the theater tickets were within everyone’s
reach, but with distinct prices.
CONEXÃO
O Globe Theater teve como um de seus sócios William Shakespeare, mas não há sequer
uma imagem que o tenha retratado fielmente. No entanto, uma gravura de outro teatro da
época, o Swan, sobreviveu aos séculos. Essa gravura se deve a um viajante holandês que
visitou o teatro entre 1596 e 1598. Visite o link abaixo e conheça mais sobre o Globe Theater,
que hoje conta com uma réplica em Londres. <http://www.william-shakespeare.info/william-
shakespeare-globe-theatre-structure.htm>.
The most expressive representatives of Elizabethan Theater were William

Shakespeare (1564 – 1616), the greatest playwright of universal literature, and
Christopher Marlowe (1564 – 1593), English writer and playwright, who wrote
tragedies which made him the most important precursor of Shakespeare in
English Theater.
capítulo 2 • 33
Great names in Elizabethan theater
William Shakespeare was born in 1564 and died in 1616 and is considered the
greatest English language playwright and poet. He is also regarded the inventor
of modern tragedy. He is frequently called “English national poet” or the bard of
Avon.
His plays were translated into the main languages in the world and they have
been acted more frequently than any other plays in history. Many consider Romeo
and Juliet, Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello and King Lear his masterpieces, but one
cannot say that The Merchant of Venice, Richard III or The Tempest are not
equally ingenious.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
It would not be incorrect to say
that Romeo and Juliet, for being a love
story, and Hamlet, which has one most
widely known sentences of the English
Language (To be or not to be, that is
the question) are Shakespeare’s most
famous plays.
This was long thought to be the only portrait of William Shakespeare that had any claim to
have been painted from life.
CONEXÃO
“A Universidade de Oxford anunciou nesta quinta-feira (7) a descoberta em uma ilha
escocesa de um exemplar do chamado "First Folio" de William Shakespeare (1564-1616),
o primeiro livro que reuniu as 36 obras do escritor.”
Visite o link abaixo para ler a reportagem completa sobre esta importante descoberta.
<http://g1.globo.com/pop-arte/noticia/2016/04/exemplar-do-first-folio-de-william-
shakespeare-encontrado-na-escocia.html>.
capítulo 2 • 34
There were several other talented writers that were contemporary of
Shakespeare, all from similar backgrounds. Christopher Marlowe was the son of a
shoemaker, Peele of a goldsmith, Dekker of a tailor, and Ben Jonson started out in
the same profession of his father, a mason, before starting to write. Nevertheless,
only a small number of writers came from the lower strata of society, since the
majority was gentries, civil workers, and rich merchants.
During the Elizabethan Era, the literary culture becomes one of the most
important assets of a wellborn man. Literature was available and it used to be
adequate for an educated man to recite poetry and discuss literary issues. The
affected style (mannerism) of poetry was entirely assimilated into ordinary
conversation, to a point that even the Queen spoke in that artificial style. In
addition, not speaking that way was considered a sign of lack of education - almost
as serious as not being able to speak French.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
A 1585 portrait of Christopher Marlowe at the age of 21.
In the Elizabethan Era, literature becomes popular and reaches the streets
and theaters. It is not a coincidence that the existence of great playwrights at the
time, writing for the immensely popular theaters of the time. Being a playwright
brought more stability than being a “free writer” who depended exclusively of
a patron.
capítulo 2 • 35
Christopher Marlowe nasceu em 1564, dois meses antes de William Shakespeare. Es-
tudante brilhante, ele conseguiu bolsas de estudo em escolas de prestígio e se formou
na Universidade de Cambridge em 1584.
Apesar de sua carreira literária ter durado menos de seis anos e sua vida, apenas 29
anos, suas conquistas literárias lhe garantiram um legado duradouro, especialmente a
peça A Trágica História do Doutor Faustus.
Depois de 1587, Marlowe se fixou em Londres, escrevendo para o teatro e prova-
velmente se envolvendo ocasionalmente com serviços governamentais. Aquela que
é considerada sua primeira peça, Dido, Rainha de Cártago só foi publicada em 1594,
mas provavelmente foi escrita enquanto ele era ainda um estudante em Cambridge.
Por que Christopher Marlowe foi apunhalado e morto aos 29 anos em uma taberna
modesta e respeitável em Deptford e quem foi o responsável? Este mistério continua
sem solução.
After Shakespeare
In 1642, breaks a civil war between the Anglican-Puritan Oliver Cromwell

and the monarchy. In September, Cromwell closes all playhouses because they
shock the Puritans, once the plays do not enhance the Christian ideals. This event
leads to a future change: English theater loses its popular character and gets closer
to the nobility.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Refinement meets burlesque in Restoration comedy. In this scene, musicians and well-bred
ladies surround a man who is wearing a tub because he has lost his trousers.
capítulo 2 • 36
For eighteen years, all theaters remain closed. Here and there some noblemen
offer private theater presentations, but for the general public there is no access
to this kind of entertainment. Former actors are regarded as bums, and if any of
them is caught acting, they would be sentenced to jail or to pay a fine.
In 1660, with the fall of Cromwell and the return of monarchy, theaters
reopen. The plays of that period are called by some “the glory and the shame of
the period”. The plays are elaborate, with well decorated stages, painted scenes,
etc. The themes were usually everyday situations and satires. The term “the shame”
is used because some plays are considered immoral, differently from Shakespeare’s.
Compared to the Elizabethan Era, several changes could be noticed. The topics
of the plays used to focus on morality, but now immorality is not an uncommon
characteristic. The public is now also different. If the poor would stand on the
floor and the rich would sit in the galleries, now the public is predominantly
educated. Another relevant change refers to the presence of women on the stages,
prohibited in the Elizabethan Theater. Because of the influence from France, now
women are allowed to act.
King Charles II monopolizes the English theater, since he was the only one
to provide licenses to theater companies and had them under control. The main
companies at the time were “The King's Players” and “The Duke's Players”.
Elizabethan theaters were circular, open, and in rows, but now theaters are closed
and the stage is rectangular, with artificial light.
Twentieth century English theater
In the beginning of the 20th Century, English theater began a separation

between mere entertainment and works of a more serious nature, since the same
was happening in several other European countries. Until late 1950’s and 60’s, the
changes in the rest of the continent took some time to settle in the British Isles
due to their conservative way of viewing and performing theater. But when the
changes finally arrive, they found fertile ground for counter-cultural revolutionary
audience and playwrights. The nature of English theater was never the same again.
The greatest innovations began in smaller theaters, usually run by Irish people.
On the other hand, great productions and well-made plays and comedies were
presented at the West End, the British equivalent to the American Broadway.
The most common themes in early 20th century English drama included
rebellious, satirical and political focuses. This occurred due to the tendency of
capítulo 2 • 37
rebellions of workers against the government. The philosophical aspects of those
plays took into consideration existential questions like “who am I?” and “where
did I come from?”. Another common focus at the time was the colonization and
invasion of territories by other countries and cultures.
The 20th century brought several changes, which influenced the way people
viewed their lives and their perspectives. The hard life in the factories became
something that could (and should) be changed. Therefore, new ideologies, like
Socialism, and new social perspectives for minorities and women, the section of
the population that suffered the highest repression, were common subjects in
any conversation.
©© THE LUD | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
A view of Lyceum Theatre front in London.
The changes in society affected English drama. The plays turned increasingly
sober and complex, and criticized the constant alienation of people and the
repetitive nature of people’s routines. The criticized alienation was not considered
the only by-product of industrialization. The wars also played an important role
in the way humans behaved in the modern world.
Of course, during the First and Second World War there were practically
no theatrical activities in England. Nevertheless, the space of time between the
capítulo 2 • 38
wars, London theaters offered two types of plays. The middle and higher classes
attended commercial plays in the West End, which were usually conservative and
popular. Those theaters presented expensive extravagant musicals, with great sets
and props, large casts and expensive costumes.
New directors, writers, actors and ideas came after World War II. It was a
time in which taboos were to be broken and experimentations began. The postwar
years brought a new concept of reality, a new political momentum, and paradigms
that were about to be broken.
As the 20th century went by, English drama started to bring about topics
related to the past as an attempt to confront it and, consequently, accept it.
Playwrights like Harold Pinter, Brian Friel, Tom Stoppard, Samuel Beckett, and
Caryl Churchill were the best of English drama towards the end of the century,
when there was a turn back to realism.
Post war British drama
Of course there are clear differences between novels and plays, even though
they are considered narrative genres. When we talk about plays, we can clearly
understand that it can only express its full literary and dramatic potential when
performed in a theater or similar place. Therefore, in order to understand the
evolution of drama in any given period, we have to take into consideration two
distinct situations: analyzing plays as they are performed, and analyzing plays in
the form of printed texts.
Despite the differences in the way plays were written during the postwar years,
drama must be analyzed according to the performance of the plays on stage, which
also depend on how plays are written. New acting styles are required by the many
innovations brought by the new plays which, on its turn, led to new ways of producing
plays and managing theaters. All the evolution that the drama of the time witnessed
encouraged authors to write with more freedom and give room to their imagination.
West End theater
The rise of the new English drama is thought of as a response to the

mainstream theater that was spread throughout the West End theaters in London.
For decades, frequent innovations inspired directors, playwrights and actors to
change the form and content of the postwar drama in England. These changes
capítulo 2 • 39
offered viable alternatives to the traditional theater that was present in the West
End region. Nevertheless, these alternatives gradually became mainstream and are
now part of West End’s theatrical plays.
As in literature, in which popular fiction is placed side by side with literary
fiction on bookstore shelves, mainstream theater and drama gradually started to
include anything that gets successful – no matter the genre or style.
©© EWAN MUNRO | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
The St Martin's Theatre, in the West End, home to The Mousetrap, the longest-running play
in the world.
The theater industry was facing serious difficulties by the end of World War II,
once several theaters had been destroyed, actors were lost in battles, and producers
had no money to invest in entertainment. To make things worse, movies were
becoming popular, once they represented a more affordable form of entertainment
in those difficult times, and several theaters became movie theaters.
About ten years after the war, a group of businessmen with common interests
controlled the West End theaters. Their main focus was on metropolitan topics and
tastes instead of provincial ones. For instance, musicals from the United States were
very popular, as was the tendency to attract audiences bringing famous performers
capítulo 2 • 40
to the plays (star system). For the so-called “provincial tastes”, companies had to
use provincial theaters in order to satisfy the audience outside London.
In the West End theaters, plays and, of course, the audience were very
traditional and conservative. Therefore, if someone was looking for innovation
with different faces, he/she would have to look for amateur places that did not
succumb to the craving for profits of the mainstream theater. Nevertheless, some
great actors, like Laurence Olivier, were also managers of their own companies
and, therefore, offered interesting alternatives to the West End plays.
Based on the 19th century French theater, the majority of West End plays had
the highest standards of the time, and the topic usually focused on a character
of the upper-class (the “hero”) who was facing some sort of crisis. This was the
process from which the hero would move from ignorance to wisdom.
There are several great British authors, and it is a hard job to mention someone
and leave another important author behind. But we can affirm that some of the
main playwrights of the postwar era were J.B. Priestley, Noël Coward, T.S. Eliot,
Christopher Fry, and Terence Rattigan.
CONEXÃO
A região do West End, em Londres, é famosa pela incrível profusão de teatros, atrações
turísticas, hotéis e lojas. Há sempre algo acontecendo nas ruas desta região icônica de Lon-
dres. Visite o link abaixo para saber mais sobre esta região que é considerada a Broadway de
Londres, devido à concentração de teatros. <http://www.visitlondon.com/discover-london/
london-areas/central/west-end#0wJvE0wTaJIjwc3c.97>.
Reaction to West End plays
West End plays faced a growing reaction from the 1950’s on. Samuel Beckett
called the attention of the audience to the artificial form of speech in the plays
performed at the West End theaters and also to the sense of alienation of a rising
number of lower class attendees. As a consequence, the decade 1956 – 1966
witnessed an explosive transformation in the way English theater was viewed and
performed.
In 1960, London saw the establishment of the Royal Shakespeare Company,
under the direction of Peter Hall, and also the New National Theatre Company,
under the management of Laurence Olivier. Foreign companies also found space
capítulo 2 • 41
in London’s theatrical scene, like the Brecht’s Berliner Ensemble, the company
that most deeply influenced English drama.
©© BUNDESARCHIV, BILD 183-T0927-019 / KATJA REHFELD | WIKIMEDIA.ORG

Manfred Wekwerth and Gisela May during rehearsals of Mother Courage and Her Children
(1978).
Directors, actors and authors were attracted by the concept of permanent

companies, brought by the Brecht’s, which emphasized collaboration instead of
the typical individualism of English theater. New ways of thinking the playhouses
were also a topic that attracted many. One of the main characteristics of the new
playhouses was a less distinctive separation between stage and audience, which
led to a more informal interaction and more open acting and greater focus on
body language.
Theater x television and movies.
The English stage has brought into the scene a great number of very traditional
playwrights, despite experimentalisms and the typical political engagement of the
time. Among them we can mention names like James Saunders, Robert Bolt,
Michael Frayn, Christopher Hampton, Anthony Shaffer, John Mortimer, Peter
Shaffer, Alan Ayckbourn, Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard and John Whiting.
capítulo 2 • 42
Of course this is not a conclusive list, but it is important to mention that
several authors began to write for the movie and television industry while writing
their original plays. Sometimes they also adapted novels for the screen and stage
alike. This possibility of mixed activities contributed to bringing new ideas and
personality to their work, which was frequently reassessed and reevaluated by the
authors themselves and also by critics and audience.
Even though English theater is in evident need of novelties and fresh blood, and
even with the sometimes unfair competition by television and the movie industry, we
could not say that it is in decline. Theater in general – not only the English theater - has
struggled to maintain its attractiveness and has succeeded in doing so. Nevertheless,
there is room for theater, television, movies and other types of entertainment.
REFLEXÃO
Há diversos fatos históricos muito interessantes a respeito do teatro inglês. Por exemplo,
devido à guerra civil inglesa, sob a liderança de Oliver Cromwell, os teatros da Inglaterra fi-
caram fechados por 18 anos. Uma apresentação teatral pública seria considerada um crime.
Assim, a única alternativa das companhias teatrais foi se apresentarem em segredo, em
recintos particulares ou em tabernas localizadas três ou quatro milhas fora da cidade.
Outro ponto curioso diz respeito à presença de mulheres nos palcos ingleses, já que
elas não tinham permissão para atuar em uma peça teatral. Temos que imaginar, portanto, a
indignação que tomou conta da parcela mais conservadora da sociedade com o surgimento
de atrizes nos palcos ingleses. De qualquer modo, Londres assimilou essa “inovação”.
Avançando um pouco mais no tempo, neste capítulo foi possível observar algumas carac-
terísticas do desenvolvimento do teatro inglês no século XX, especialmente após a Segunda
Guerra Mundial. Em uma sociedade recém-saída de um conflito devastador, o teatro inglês
teve que se reinventar e encontrar meios de atrair seu público. O cinema e, em seguida, a
televisão, passaram a ser grandes concorrentes do universo teatral.
LEITURA
O livro The Golden Generation: New Light on Post-War British Theatre traz uma visão
interessante sobre debates antigos relacionados ao teatro inglês do pós-guerra. O editor, Do-
minique Shellard, traz à tona testemunhos e evidências recém-recuperadas na British Library.
capítulo 2 • 43
Começando no ano de 1945, o livro explora as mudanças de perspectiva em termos de
drama, gênero e estilo de um novo teatro chamado por seus contemporâneos de “ilegítimo”.
Ricamente ilustrado com desenhos, cartas e fotografias, o livro traz um cativante retrato
de como deve ter sido a vida de grandes atores, como Sir Lawrence Olivier, no início de suas
carreiras, no período mais vibrante da história do teatro inglês.
Título: The Golden Generation: New Light on Post-War British Theatre
Autor: Dominic Shellard (ed.)
Ano: 2009
Editora: British Library
ATIVIDADE
01. Muitos teatros londrinos existem há mais de um século, enquanto outros foram criados
há mais tempo. Cheios de história, cada teatro do distrito teatral em Londres – o West End –
tem uma história própria a contar. Conhecida como Theatreland, devido à presença de mais
de 40 teatros, essa área cheia de casas de espetáculos é também uma área elitizada, onde a
maioria dos atores famosos e poderosos homens de negócios se encontram. Para quem é fã
de teatro, uma visita ao distrito teatral de Londres é uma parada obrigatória.
Nesta atividade, você deve fazer uma pesquisa e descobrir os dez maiores teatros do
West End, em termos de capacidade de público. Bom trabalho.
Anglo Saxon Literature. Disponível em: <http://anglosaxonliterature.wikispaces.com/Anglo-
Saxon+Christianity>. Acesso em 13 jul. 2016.
Art Movements. Disponível em: <http://www.artmovements.co.uk/mannerism.htm>.
Acesso em: 18 ago, 2016.
Brasil Escola. Disponível em: <http://brasilescola.uol.com.br/historia-da-america.htm>.
capítulo 2 • 44
Sara Martín Alegre - Post-War English Literature 1945-1990 - Disponível em: <http://gent.uab.cat/
saramartinalegre/sites/gent.uab.cat.saramartinalegre/files/Post-War%201945-1990.pdf>.
Theatre History. Disponível em: <http://www.theatrehistory.com/british/restoration_drama_001.html>.
Acesso em: 18 ago, 2016
Wiki Lingue. Disponível em: <http://pt.encydia.com/es/Imp%C3%A9rio_brit%C3%A2nico>.
capítulo 2 • 45
capítulo 2 • 46
3
O teatro
norte-americano
O teatro norte-americano
O teatro profissional na colônia inglesa no Novo Mundo, que seria posterior-
mente chamada de Estado Unidos da América, provavelmente começou com a
trupe de Lewis Hallam, que chegou na Virgínia no século XVIII.
Eles foram os primeiros a trazer uma companhia completa de atores da Europa
para as colônias e apresentavam peças que eram populares em Londres. As peças
de Shakespeare eram bastante populares e, portanto, foram encenadas na América,
especialmente O Mercador de Veneza, Otelo, Ricardo III e Hamlet. As primeiras
apresentações foram em 1752.
Em 1809, foi fundado o teatro The Walnut, na Filadélfia, considerado o mais
antigo teatro na América. A primeira produção teatral do Walnut foi apresentada
em 1812. A peça, chamada Os Rivais, foi assistida pelo então presidente america-
no Thomas Jefferson. Naquela época, era normal que os teatros não tivessem aque-
cimento nem cenários elaborados, e era relativamente normal também os “teatros
flutuantes”, feitos sobre barcaças ou outras embarcações fluviais para poderem se
mover de cidade em cidade.
No século XIX, as peças de Shakespeare continuavam atraindo público, mas
diversas peças passaram a utilizar textos de autores americanos, geralmente melo-
dramas. Um exemplo é a peça A Cabana do Pai Tomás (no original: Uncle Tom’s
Cabin), adaptada do livro homônimo de Harriet Beecher Stowe. Neste capítulo,
portanto, diversos aspectos do surgimento do teatro nos Estados Unidos serão
abordados, mostrando similaridades e diferenças em relação ao que ocorria com o
teatro inglês na mesma época.
OBJETIVOS
Nos capítulos anteriores, você verificou que a evolução do teatro é contínua desde a
antiguidade, mesmo levando em consideração o período Medieval, fase em que as artes, de
modo geral, foram pouco desenvolvidas e enfatizadas.
Neste capítulo, você vai observar que o teatro norte-americano é baseado em tradições
ocidentais e teve forte influência do teatro inglês. Assim, o objetivo é que você conheça a
evolução do teatro norte-americano, que deixou de ser mera reprodução do que ocorria na
Europa para ganhar voz própria e identidade.
capítulo 3 • 48
Early days of the American theater
Many early American colonies had strong Puritan roots, which made it
difficult for theater to develop. Nevertheless, not all places were very Puritan,
especially in the end of the 17th century. In these places, theater found room to
thrive.
Some of the first American theaters were built mainly in three different places:
Williamsburg, New York, and Charleston, in 1716, 1732, and 1736, respectively,
but success was not immediate, since they were actually in use for just a few
seasons after their openings. The Puritan influence still existed in most places,
which restricted the expansion of drama and theater. In this sense, the most liberal
cities of the time, New York and Philadelphia, established theatrical companies
that found an audience eager for entertainment and culture.
The first theatrical companies
A full company of English actors had their debut in Philadelphia in 1749.

Trustworthy records regard this date as a reference in studies of professional
theater in America. Their first plays were Cato, in 1749, and Richard III, in 1750,
which were performed in Philadelphia and New York respectively.
Only two years after that, William Hallam, an English actor and also a theater
manager, created a company and sent it to the United States under the supervision
of Lewis Hallam, his brother. But things went a little differently from the original
plans. According to the plans, Mr. Robert Upton was sent to America in advance
to make sure everything would be prepared for the arrival of the theater company,
These preparations included the necessary licenses, the preparation of the building
where the plays would be performed, etc., but Mr. Upton got all the money he
had received in advance, which was a considerable amount, and simply vanished
– with all the money, of course.
The company went to New York anyway, and they had to find a place to
perform only after their arrival in America. It was not difficult, but another setback
occurred: they lacked the licenses and, therefore, were not allowed to perform.
Instead, they had to transfer their operations to Williamsburg.
capítulo 3 • 49
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Honoré Daumier, Melodrama, 1856-1860.
An interesting situation occurred during one of the performances of the

theatrical group in Williamsburg. The Governor was having a meeting with the
chief of the Cherokees, who came with advisors and warriors. After the meeting,
the whole group went together to the theater to watch William Shakespeare’s
Othello. The Native-Americans were very amused by the performance of the
actors on the stage, especially in fight scenes with wooden swords.
William Hallam went back to New York and, after a lot of requests and
meetings, he obtained the so desired license that allowed his company to perform
in the city. Finally, he was able to have a whole season in New York City and then
one in Philadelphia. In fact, the Philadelphia season was not financially attractive
and both the actors and the producers could not fill their pockets as much as
they expected.
During a season in Jamaica, Lewis Hallam died. Nevertheless, four years later
his wife and son went back to the United States. The theatrical company had a
capítulo 3 • 50
new manager, who married Mrs. Hallam and then became Mrs. Douglass. The
couple went to Philadelphia and built the first theater made of brick in America,
in 1766. They also built a theater in New York in 1767.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Lewis Hallam Jr.
In Newport, where a great number of Puritans lived, they managed to have a

season, which was considered a success. To do so, they had to use some strategies in
order to avoid the Puritan opposition, like calling their plays “Morality Dialogues”.
One example of this strategy was the presentation of Shakespeare’s Othello, which
was presented as a moral dialogue focusing on bad passions, jealousy, and the
temptations of the evil.
During the Revolutionary War (1775 until 1783), professional theater had to
be suspended, once the British military requested the theaters to present shows
and other forms of entertainment to the troops. Therefore, the Douglass theatrical
company was forced to leave the colonies.
CONEXÃO
A Revolução Americana (1775-1783) é também conhecida como Guerra Revolucionária
Americana ou Guerra da Independência dos Estados Unidos. O conflito afetou o teatro
americano, já que que as apresentações profissionais foram suspensas. Para conhecer
melhor as características e consequências desta guerra, visite o link abaixo.
<http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/american-revolution-history>.
capítulo 3 • 51
Miss Margaret Cheer was the most important actress at Douglass’ Company
and became the first professional actress in America to join the nobility after
marrying Lord Rosehill in 1768, in Maryland. Of course this fact was one of the
most discussed subjects in the higher classes gatherings.
After American independence
George Washington was the leader of the government of the new country.
It was a time for more unity and the old laws and rules concerning theatrical
activities were relaxed, despite the resistance of the Puritans, who still viewed the
theater as something that did not bring any good to the development of human
beings. It was acknowledged that George Washington enjoyed and supported
theater, once he often attended presentations in New York.
The end of the war also brought another byproduct: more and more English
actors were landing in the new country to make a living. They were talented and
experienced artists, who contributed to the development of drama in the USA,
since many of them chose not to return to England and to create a foundation
for actors. Cities like Richmond, Baltimore, Savannah, and Washington D.C.
gradually became important centers for theatrical activities in the United States.
With the country now enjoying peace and prosperity, Lewis Hallam Jr. went
back to the United States to found a theater company called “Old American
Company” with an Irish actor, John Henry. This company ended up becoming
one of the most important touring companies in the continent. Their plays were
even watched by George Washington.
Restoration Comedies, farces, political satire and Shakespearean tragedies
were the most attended plays for several years in American theaters, with no
real “American” texts. The Contrast, by Royall Tyler, is regarded as the first real
American play, which means that it was based on American subjects and written
by an American. It opened in 1787 in New York, at the John Street Theater, by
Lewis Hallam Junior’s Old American Company.
capítulo 3 • 52
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Royall Tyler.
Theater expansion in late 18th century
By the end of the century, Philadelphia and New York were the main destination
for theatrical companies, but many other cities had become large enough to host
permanent theater companies. It was not uncommon for some medium cities to
have more than two different companies, which began to follow a continuous
development on the quality of the actors, props, costumes, and scenery structure.
In addition, the quality of the playhouses was also improving dramatically.
One example of the way in which playhouses were facing a new momentum
was the construction of the Philadelphia’s Chestnut Street Theater, which imitated
a theater in England. Considered to have the best equipped stage in America, with
columns decorating its entrance and a capacity to sit 2,000 people. Even Boston,
a stronghold of Puritan forces that still fought against theaters and plays and other
types of popular entertainment, had a theater built downtown.
In 1798, New York’s The Park Theater debuted and soon after it was considered
a great development in terms of theater structure and architecture. This theater
capítulo 3 • 53
contributed to make New York the center of theatrical performances in the USA
and sent Philadelphia to a second place.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, 1821.
American theater in the 19th century
As many people began to spread to the Western part of the country, theatrical
companies followed the flux. Therefore, the first playhouses were built in St. Louis,
Chicago and San Francisco in 1837, 1847, and 1853, respectively.
The first American actor who traveled to England to expand his career on the
stages was Howard Payne, in 1813, which meant that a paradigm was broken.
Instead of English actors coming to America, now American actors began to look
for opportunities in the Old World. Anyway, theater in the United States profited
on those first English actors who came to America and decided to stay, once they
were the founders of some of the most important theatrical companies.
Many features of the showbiz that are common in our days started in the
19th century. We can mention the then new system of “stars”, which consisted
in bringing famous actors from other cities for special appearances in local plays.
capítulo 3 • 54
Broadway
New York assumed its position as the center of the theatrical world in America
in the first half of the 19th century, putting Philadelphia in a secondary position.
New York was growing fast, its inhabitants demanded entertainment and culture,
which caused a positive competition among theatrical companies and playhouses.
New theaters were built all the time in the first half of the 19th century, but there
was a continuous danger: fire.
In England, fire had always been the major threat to theaters, starting with
the famous fire in the Globe Theater, which also belonged to Shakespeare. In New
York, The Bowery Theater caught fire and had to be reconstructed four times in
a period of 20 years.
As a theater center, New York started to compete with the West End in London
in terms of the number of theaters in the city or around it. In the middle of the
19th century, Manhattan alone had a population of about half a million people
and Broadway concentrated the majority of theaters in the city that does not sleep.
American civil war
A major reduction in theater activities occurred in 1961, as the American Civil

War broke out. Nevertheless, the tendency did not last, once the huge population
of the city went back to the theaters searching for entertainment in order to forget
about the hostilities and the harsh reality for a while.
The Confederacy captured sympathy for the public in England. Because there
was a negative feeling towards the “Yankees” during the war, American actors
visiting or working in England decided to reduce their stay and return home at
once.
At that time, a theater was the place where a major event changed American
history. Four days after the end of the war, when the North defeated the South,
President Abraham Lincoln was killed by an actor inside a theater. The date was
14 April 1865, and the Ford Theater, in Washington, was featuring Our American
Cousin. The killer was John Wilkes Booth, who came from a traditional family
of actors. His father was an English actor, and his brother, Edwin Booth, was
considered one of the greatest actors of the time.
capítulo 3 • 55
A morte do presidente Abraham Lincoln indiscutivelmente afetou profundamente o fu-
turo imediato da nação. Ele havia sido tão fortemente marcado pelos terríveis eventos
dos últimos quatro anos que as ações de seu governo, naquele contexto de guerra civil,
estavam intimamente ligadas ao seu caráter pessoal. Ele tinha conquistado tanta con-
fiança e amor de seu povo, sem distinção de matiz política, que sua remoção repentina
do cenário nacional trouxe ansiedade e apreensão à mente das pessoas. No entanto,
havia a percepção comum de que ele havia conseguido atingir o grande trabalho de
pacificação de seu país, que ele havia tão brilhantemente começado.
De qualquer modo, é sempre bom lembrar que a natureza peculiar das instituições
torna impossível que um homem sozinho seja absolutamente indispensável para o bom
encaminhamento do destino de toda uma nação.
The president’s assassin, John Wilkes Booth, was also a talented actor and
had already acted at Ford’s theater several times. What led him to commit the
crime remains a mystery. Some people consider that he had a sympathy for the
confederates and, therefore, was angry at their failure to win the war. Other people
have a more mundane explanation: he committed that crime in order to become
famous, in a desperate attempt to reach the fame of his brother. Whatever the
reason, that theater is today a museum and is preserved as such.
The common sense would expect the end of the assassin brother’s career, due to
that horrible crime that shook the nation, and which could destroy the family name.
Nevertheless, things happened in a very different way. Four years after the crime, he was
so successful that he had to build a new playhouse in Manhattan, the Brooth’s theater.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet, in 1899
capítulo 3 • 56
American theatre crosses the Atlantic
The theatrical scene in New York and London began to merge into one, at a
certain point in the end of the 19th century, and this was due to the impressive
improvements in transportation, especially transatlantic transportation. Crossing
the Atlantic used to be an arduous task, but the power steamers made that
crossing something very common, fast and accessible. Another reason to enjoy a
transatlantic trip is the fact that several boats were very luxurious, which made the
trip similar to staying in a fancy hotel.
Because of that convenience, producers were able to make a certain production last
longer by taking it to England after the American audience started to get tired of it. It
was a commonplace to take the actors along, once it was more rational than having to
hire local actors and making them memorize the lines and rehearse for a long period.
Because theater in the United States was not yet as developed as their English
counterparts, American impresarios got more advantages from that exchange of
plays and talents. American theater producers, like Charles Frohman and Augustin
Daly, became well-known both in England and in America.
As mentioned before, in the past, several English actors had come to America
in search for opportunities and never returned. This time, things happened the
other way around, once talented American actors, some of them local stars and
descendants of those English actors who came to America, started to cross the
Atlantic Ocean to perform on English stages. Some of those were Maxine Elliott,
Gertrude Elliott and Pauline Chase. The same way as happened in the United
States in the past, some of these American actors never returned home.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
The Allan Line steamship SS Sardinian.
capítulo 3 • 57
Theatrical copyright
All that exchange in the theatrical scenario between England and the United
States cause an undesirable side effect: theater piracy. Because there were no
copyright protection at that time, it was not difficult for a company to simply
copy another company’s successful production. For example, a successful
play in a certain place could be copied and presented by other companies in
different locations.
Of course, very often it was just a way to profit on the other company’s
success, but the copied productions were inferior – the texts were poorly copied,
the props and scenes of lower quality, etc. Even though the copies were inferior,
it was a serious danger to the fame and number of patrons in the original play,
once people would sooner or later not know if the bad reviews referred to this or
that production.
CONEXÃO
A segunda metade do século XIX foi uma época de grandes mudanças para o tea-
tro americano. O tremendo crescimento populacional, especialmente na costa leste, e os
avanços econômicos fizeram com que os americanos tivessem um melhor padrão de vida e
também mais inclinação para buscar entretenimento e cultura. E o teatro era uma das opções
mais populares. Visite o link abaixo para entender melhor o teatro americano no século XIX.
<http://content.lib.washington.edu/19thcenturyactorsweb/essay.html>.
The English play HMS Pinafore. When the original company arrived in the
United States, the play had already been presented in most theaters in America.
How did this happen? Producers in the United States would send “spies” to
England to write down the dialogues, observe the acting, the interpretation, the
sceneries, the props, etc. Then they would return home and help their impresarios
recreate the same play in America. The company that produced the play HMS
Pinafore decided that they had enough and put into practice a different approach
for their next production. First they had an opening presentation in England, a
single one, in a peripheral theater, in order to avoid attention and to establish
copyright in England. Right after, they would debut the play in America,
capítulo 3 • 58
©© UPSTATENYER | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
The Golden Theatre, Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre, Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre and Booth
Theatre on West 45th Street in Manhattan's Theater District.
The fast expansion of roads and railways in late 19th century made it possible
to make a complete production “hit the road” and tour the whole country. The
tour would include the actors equipment, everything. The impresarios realized
that it was easier, more practical end more economical to load a train with
everything and everybody they needed than keeping different stock companies in
different locations.
Charles Frohman and a group of other theatrical magnates formed, in the
last years of the 19th century, a theatrical syndicate. This syndicate was very
relevant for several years and even had a certain monopoly over the majority of
the American theaters. This monopoly included the definition of contracts for
the plays and for actors, but not everyone was under their control. A number of
independent producers and famous actors, little by little, broke the power exerted
by the syndicate.
capítulo 3 • 59
American theater in the 20th century
Early radio, television and film productions in America were influenced by

the Vaudeville, which was very popular from the late 19th century on, due to a
common system of playing music with singers and performing different types of
acts during regular features.
Even though, many theaters built in the first decades of the 20th century
did well in terms of maintaining their importance until the end of the century.
Nevertheless, several others did not last long and became movie theaters, although
some managed to return to their original activities before the closing of the
century, bringing back the patrons they had steadily lost as the century went by.
In the 20th century, most theaters in the United States started to become more
sophisticated, similarly to their European counterparts. Like would happened
decades later with the cinema industry, the stars dictated the success or failure of
a certain production. In other words, who was in the play was more relevant than
the play itself.
As we could easily expect, the movie industry affected the theatrical industry
dramatically, but both sectors had their separate characteristics. Early movie
productions were silent and, therefore, musicals became very popular in theaters,
at least until sound was introduced in movies. This led to a rise in the complexity
of the plots in movies which, on its turn, required good actors. Then many theater
actors began to focus on the film industry, which was a thriving business.
One of the most influential
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
dramatists for the growth of drama in

the United States, Eugene O’Neill had
been involved with theater since he was
a child. He wrote many plays between
1916 and 1920 and ended up winning
a Pulitzer Prize for Beyond the Horizon.
Eugene O'Neill had a huge influence on the

development of modern American drama.
capítulo 3 • 60
Most professional theater companies are followed by amateur groups. Their
main hope is to become professional and profitable in the future, and to achieve
their goals, in the end of the 19th century, a group of actors founded the Amateur
Comedy Group. In 1885, the Amateur Comedy Group opened their first
production, which went on for decades. Several very important people from New
York became members of the group.
African-American theatrical productions started to appear in the American
theater around 1940, with the creation of the American Negro Theater, with
very modest facilities in Harlem. Of course, the audience, authors and actors
were mainly African-American. Several actors that became famous in the movie
industry started their careers in the American Negro Theater. Several actresses also
found their way to the movies profiting from a good training at the theater.
Formado por atores do Harlem, Nova York, em 1940, o American Negro Theater (ANT)
esteve ativo dos anos 1940 até meados dos anos 1950 e era regido por quatro obje-
tivos principais:
1. Desenvolver uma companhia permanente de atores treinada nas artes do teatro e

que ressaltasse os talentos e atributos dos afro-americanos;
2. Produzir peças que interpretassem, iluminassem e criticassem, com integridade
e honestidade, a vida e preocupações contemporâneas dos negros, especialmente os
pertencentes às comunidades do Harlem;
3. Manter afiliação e fornecer liderança a outros grupos de teatro formados por negros;
4. Utilizar seus recursos para desenvolver orgulho racial através do teatro, ao invés
de apatia racial.
Post-War American theater
It was after the end of World War II that American playwrights found their
way into the world scene. Names like Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller
found their global fame during this period. But the most radical of all American
theater experimentations were yet to come, during the 1950’s and 1960’s.
Plays that contained nudity and references to drug use, like Hair, became
very popular, along with other musicals like Chorus Line or West Side Story.
Eventually, all these plays became successful movies and expanded their capacity
to reach a broader audience.
capítulo 3 • 61
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Original Broadway poster of the musical ‘Hair”.
Even though the movie industry usually made movies out of successful plays,
in the late 1990’s things started to go the other way around. Several Broadway
theatrical productions sought inspiration in the movie industry. Movies like
Tarzan, Mary Poppins, The Beauty and the Beast, The Producers, and many
others ended up as successful Broadway productions.
REFLEXÃO
Neste capítulo, foi mostrado que o teatro nos Estados Unidos teve seu início na segunda
metade do século XVIII, época em que há evidência das primeiras tentativas de introduzir
o teatro em áreas onde o puritanismo era menos influente. Assim, os primeiros espaços
destinados a peças teatrais foram construídos em 1716, em Williamsburg, e em 1736, em
Charleston. Infelizmente, não duraram mais que algumas poucas temporadas.
As duas cidades com maior liberalismo em termos de produções teatrais eram Nova York
e Philadelphia, uma vez que em outras localidades a forte influência puritana ainda impedia
certos tipos de entretenimento considerados demasiadamente mundanos.
capítulo 3 • 62
Nova York desbancou a Philadelphia como um centro de excelência teatral já no início
do século XIX, graças à expansão populacional e econômica da cidade, o que resultou em
um campo fértil para um aumento da competitividade entre companhias teatrais, o que foi
bastante positivo para o desenvolvimento da qualidade e diversificação das peças teatrais.
Muitos teatros foram construídos em Nova York naquele período.
Um ponto interessante, e que também já foi mencionado neste capítulo, é que o maior
risco para os teatros da época eram os frequentes incêndios, já que muitas construções eram
de madeira, e as peças teatrais obrigavam as companhias a manter em um só lugar diversos
elementos altamente inflamáveis, como roupas, adereços, cortinas de palco, elementos ce-
nográficos, etc. Já por volta de 1850, a população de Manhattan era de aproximadamente
500.000 habitantes, e toda essa população buscava entretenimento e cultura na região da
Broadway, que passou a ser a região com a maior concentração de teatros da cidade.
Depois da Segunda Guerra Mundial, os dramaturgos americanos adentraram o cenário
teatral mundial, com nomes de peso como Tennessee Williams e Arthur Miller, e diversas pro-
duções relacionadas à contracultura dos anos 1950 e 1960 também tiveram sucesso mundo
afora. Peças como Hair e Amor Sublime Amor se transformaram em filmes de sucesso e
trouxeram mais respeito e credibilidade ao teatro norte-americano.
LEITURA
O livro History of the North American Theater: The United States, Canada and Mexico
From Pre-Columbian Times to the Present é o terceiro volume de uma coleção sobre o teatro
mundial. O livro aborda a dimensão multicultural do teatro no continente americano e se
propõe a fascinar tanto estudiosos do assunto quanto estudantes e leitores casuais. Traz
cerca de 300 ilustrações e um índice detalhado, com bibliografias específicas para cada
período abordado
Título: History of the North American Theater: The United States, Canada and Mexico
From Pre-Columbian Times to the Present.
Autores: Felicia Hardison e Daniel J. Watermeier
Editora: Continuum
Ano: 2000
capítulo 3 • 63
ATIVIDADE
01. Os Estados Unidos possuem dramaturgos de alta qualidade e com reconhecimento in-
ternacional. As obras de alguns dramaturgos já receberam diversas interpretações ou produ-
ções diferentes e, assim como ocorre com as peças de William Shakespeare, continuam em
cartaz em algum ponto dos Estados Unidos ou do mundo.
O objetivo desta atividade é que você faça uma busca na internet e procure identificar os
20 autores cujas peças mais foram produzidas no cenário teatral americano.
Stagebeauty.net. Disponível em: <http://www.stagebeauty.net/th-frames.html?http&&&www.
stagebeauty.net/th-ushist.html>. Acesso em: 22 ago. 2016.
The New York Times. Disponível em: <http://www.nytimes.com/1865/0417/news/the-effect-of-
president-lincoln-s-death-on-national-affairs.html>. Acesso em: 21 ago. 2016.
Art Movements. Disponível em: <http://www.artmovements.co.uk/mannerism.htm>.
Theatre History. Disponível em: <http://www.theatrehistory.com/british/restoration_drama_001.html>.
Acesso em: 18 ago, 2016
Wiki Lingue. Disponível em: <http://pt.encydia.com/es/Imp%C3%A9rio_brit%C3%A2nico>.
capítulo 3 • 64
4
Grandes autores
contemporâneos
Grandes autores contemporâneos
A Literatura Inglesa é uma área de estudos vasta e recompensadora, que vai
além dos cursos de Letras ou correlatos. Para compreender tal importância, é pre-
ciso nos lembrarmos sempre da grande diversificação trazida pela expansão colo-
nial inglesa. Assim, ao falarmos de “literatura inglesa”, não estamos nos referindo
à literatura produzida exclusivamente no Reino Unido, mas, sim, a toda literatura
produzida em língua inglesa.
Neste capítulo, serão apresentados alguns renomados autores da língua ingle-
sa, mas oriundos de países diversos, como Estados Unidos, Canadá e Inglaterra.
A obra desses autores é bastante diversa, mas esse não é o elo que os une. O elo
principal é o novo olhar que sua produção literária trouxe para a literatura devido
ao caráter inovador dela.
Um ponto que deve ser ressaltado no estudo literário são os “efeitos colaterais”
que o estudo de obras importantes e seus respectivos autores podem trazer para
aquele que mergulha neste universo fantástico de personagens, lugares, histórias,
conflitos ou aprendizagem. Quem vê a leitura de obras literárias com a visão sim-
plista de “mero passatempo” não consegue (ainda) enxergar as possibilidades tra-
zidas por tal atividade. Prazer sim, divertimento sim, mas também aprendizagem,
crescimento e ampliação de horizontes.
OBJETIVOS
Neste capítulo, você vai conhecer um pouco da vida e a obra de sete consagrados au-
tores da literatura em língua inglesa. Ao conhecer a trajetória desses autores, você vai com-
preender melhor o dinamismo da língua inglesa, com suas variações regionais, nacionais e
estilísticas, que resultam em obras de grande criatividade e propósitos diferentes, desde a
denúncia da situação vivida pelos negros americanos até um exercício de imaginação sobre
os personagens e motivações por trás de uma famosa pintura holandesa do século XVII.
Great literary contributions
When we talk about potential new authors, it is inevitable to realize that,

among so many talented writers, just a few will reach fame and/or fortune through
their writings. It is not so rare that some authors, in the urge to stand out from
capítulo 4 • 66
the crowd, show a certain need to deconstruct language or even literature itself.
Sometimes they achieve writings of some quality, but most of the times their
attempts sound like faint attempts to recreate what has already been done.
What most novice authors need is sometimes a better knowledge of their own
literature, once it is difficult, if not impossible, to state that something has never
been done without knowing what has already been done. Therefore, what many
of these novice authors seek is a quick narrative – something that sounds natural,
closer to the oral language.
Authors that do not realize clearly the repetitive nature of their books get
inspiration for their characters on themselves, their friends, relatives, or even on
their favorite literary characters. This search for inspiration on their own reality
limits the scope of their texts, bringing no contribution to the growth of the
literature of their country. Nevertheless, other authors bring a gust of fresh air and
prepare the ground for other innovators to come. Some of these contemporary
authors will be mentioned in this chapter.
Jack Kerouac (1922-1969)

©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Naval Reserve Enlistment photograph of Jack Kerouac.
capítulo 4 • 67
Jack Kerouac dreamed not only of becoming a writer, but also of understanding
the influences of the authors who came before him and that lived during his own
time. He knew the stories he wanted to tell, and in order to be able to write
them, he decided to live them. Spokesman of the so called Beat Generation, Jack
Kerouac was an American author that brought innovation to the North American
literature in the late 1950’s. Born in Massachusetts, his real name was Jean-Louis
Lebris de Kerouac. Son of a French-Canadian family, he studied in catholic
schools and spoke only French until the age of six, when he finally started to
speak English. He got a scholarship for the University of Columbia, New York,
because of his abilities as a football player. Because of his short temper, he had a
disagreement with his football coach and dropped out of the course, joined the
merchant navy and decided to live with Edie Parker, his girlfriend then.
His first novel was The Town and the City (1950), under the name of John
Kerouac. This first work was well received by critics and was strongly influenced
by the style of North American writer Tom Wolfe. This was a conventional novel,
very different from what he would write later on, when he became the spokesman
of the Beat Generation, which was a landmark of counter-culture in the late
1950”s and a starting point for the Hippie movement of the 1960’s.
CONEXÃO
O Movimento Beat produziu efeitos duradouros em diversas áreas da cultura americana
e mundial, influenciando toda uma geração de cultura popular, incluindo os Beatles (o próprio
nome da banda remete à palavra “beat”), Bob Dylan, U2, The Doors, The Clash, etc. Viste o
link abaixo para conhecer mais sobre a influência do Movimento Beat.
<http://www.shmoop.com/beat-literature/>.
After his involvement with a young black woman, he revealed this experience
in the book he said he wrote in only three days and three nights, The Subterraneans
(1958). Nevertheless, the great innovations that he brought to the American
literature would emerge in On the Road (1957), an auto biographical work that
describes his travels through the United States and Mexico.
Under the effects of the use of Benzedrine and coffee, and inspired by jazz, in
1951, Kerouac wrote the first draft of what would become On the Road. Legend
says this first draft was written in three weeks. The spontaneous style of writing
capítulo 4 • 68
resembled the technique called “stream of consciousness”. Despite its innovative
characteristics, the manuscript was refused by several publishing houses. He then
began his interest in Buddhism
Finally, in 1957, On the Road was finally published, after numerous
alterations required by the publishers. In a spontaneous language, he voices the
discontentment and other characteristics of his generation, like love, emphasis
on nature, drug use and mainly a criticism on the social structures of the middle
classes. From this moment on, success came, which made his apprehensive,
since he was a very timid person and he was aware that he would never enjoy an
anonymous life anymore.
©© PEPE ROBLES | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Stereotypical beatnik woman.
The following year, 1958, Kerouac published The Dharma Burns, in an

attempt to reinforce his connection to Buddhism. The book narrates a climb
with a friend in search for spiritual perceptions. In 1959, he published Maggie
Cassidy and, in 1960, Tristessa. From this point on, he became more conservative,
politically speaking, and even criticized the hippies and supported the Vietnam
War.
capítulo 4 • 69
He decided to get isolated in a cabin on the top of a hill, where he spent
several days on his own drinking and having hallucinations. This experience is
the focus of the book The Big Sur, published in 1962. In the same year, he also
published Doctor Sax and, in 1963, Visions of Gerard. Considered by many the
best and more radical of his books, Visions of Cody was published in its full
version only in 1972, after the death of the author.
After two divorces, in 1965, he marries Stela, an old childhood friend, and
moves in with her and his mother to St. Petersburg, Florida, where he dies on
October 21, 1969, at the age of 47, due to a hemorrhage caused by cirrhosis. He
wrote a total of 20 books in prose and 18 books of essays, letters and poetry.
On the road
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
This is the front cover art for the book On the Road written by Jack Kerouac.
The book On the Road presented to the world what was known as “Beat
Generation”, which made Jack Kerouac one of the most famous and controversial
capítulo 4 • 70
writers of his time. He rejected the title of “father of the Beats” and was more
successful among the public than among the critics.
Written in 1957, On the Road is one of the most important books in American
Literature. In the book, it is difficult to point out what is real and what is fiction,
once it is almost entirely autobiographical. It tells the story of the narrator, Sal
Paradise, who is touring throughout the USA. The character Sal Paradise is pretty
much the author’s alter-ego, the same way as the other character from the book,
Neal Moriarty, who is Paradise’s companion, is the alter-ego of Neal Cassady, the
real-life travel companion of Kerouac. Some believe that all the characters from
the book are real, although the names are fictitious.
There is not something that could be called a plot in the book On the Road:
there are some characters and there is a journey, all of them both believable and
larger than life. Paradise and Moriarty spend years traveling through American
roads, hitchhiking without a definite destination. On their journey, they met several
interesting people and others not so much, besides drugs, music, adventures and
sex. But most important of all, they found their own spirituality and a reverential
love for our planet.
O livro On the Road (no Brasil, “Pé na Estrada”) descreve os anos em que Jack Ke-
rouac passou viajando pelos Estados Unidos com seu amigo Neal Cassady. Os per-
sonagens do livro que retratam os personagens verdadeiros são Sal Paradise e Dean
Moriarty, que viajam o país em busca de autoconhecimento e experiências. Na obra, é
possível sentir o amor de Kerouac pelo seu país, sua compaixão pela humanidade em
geral, e o gosto pela música, especialmente jazz. Tudo isso combinado faz de On the
Road um texto inspirador e de importância longeva.
Este livro clássico de Kerouac sobre liberdade e saudade definiu o que significava ser
“beat” e tem servido de inspiração para todas as gerações desde sua primeira publicação.
The prose is quick but accessible, which brings great pleasure to the readers.
All in all, On the Road was a gust of fresh air when compared to the regular
novels of the 1950’s in the United States. One characteristic that made the book
remarkable is the absence of the American hero and American virtues. Instead,
readers would find realism and lack of glamour, besides an eagerness of expressing,
through Kerouac’s writings, the experiences he lived during those journeys.
capítulo 4 • 71
Margaret atwood (1939)
©© LARRY D. MOORE | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Author Margaret Atwood at the 2015 Texas Book Festival.
Born in Ottawa, Canada, Margaret Atwood is a professor, poet, essayist,

literary critic, and novelist. She is considered one of the most important
personalities of Canadian literature. She began to write at the age of sixteen as a
natural consequence of her passion for books. They were her main companions
during her childhood, since her father was an entomologist who moved from
forest to forest taking his family along. Therefore, letters were, in many ways,
her toys.
Atwood studied English, Philosophy, Arts, and French at the University
of Toronto. She has had a very active career in teaching and writing, including
poetry. The Circle Game (1964) led her to winning the Governor’s General Prize,
devoted to Science Fiction. She also ventured into juvenile literature and, of
course, novels, by which she is highly regarded. An important characteristic of
her personality is her collaboration with ecological and feminist activism, with a
history of important contributions for International Amnesty.
capítulo 4 • 72
The novel Cat’s Eye (1988) brought her world acclaim due to the plot that
deals with the silent cruelty children practice among them. This approach and
theme had no parallel in literature. Because of this book, Atwood was included on
the list of possible winners for the Booker Prize, but she had to wait until 2000 to
finally get the prize, with the book The Blind Assassin.
She has got many other prizes in her long career and every year her name in
on the list of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 2002, she published
Negotiating with the Dead, a collection of conferences in which she deals with the
act of writing, presenting her style and literary techniques.
Atwood has more than 25 published books, some translated into other
languages, and she currently lives in Toronto with her husband, novelist
Graeme Gibson.
Michèle Roberts (1949)
Author Michèle Roberts in South Scotland, 2015.
Michèle Roberts is a novelist and poet that was born in England. Her mother
was a French Catholic and her father an English Protestant. Before going to
Somerville College, in Oxford, and University College, London, she studied at
a convent school. In 1974, she became the poetry editor for Spare Rib Magazine
and, between 1981 and 1983, for City Limits Magazine. In 1992, she joined
the University of East Anglia as a Visiting Fellow in the Department of Creative
capítulo 4 • 73
Writing. She is an active book reviewer besides being Chair of the Literature
Advisory Council at British Council.
Roberts wrote several books, and one of the most famous is Daughters of
the House (1992), which got the WH Smith Literary Award and almost got the
Booker Prize for Fiction. This book describes the whereabouts of Thérèse and
Léonie, two cousins of the same age, but one is French and the other, English.
The story happens after the World War II, when the cousins grow up together in
a house in Normandy.
CONEXÃO
“Michéle Roberts é uma daquelas escritoras que parecem ser descendentes tanto de
Monet e Debussy quanto de Virginia Woolf ou Keats... Ler um livro dela é como saborear
cores, sons e texturas como nunca antes.” (The Times).
Faça um tour pela página pessoal desta importante autora, visitando o link abaixo:
<http://www.micheleroberts.co.uk/>.
Roberts wrote several other books, including A Piece of the Night (1978), The
Visitation (1983), The Wild Girl (1984), The Book of Mrs. Noah (1987), In the
Red Kitchen (1990), Flesh & Blood (1994), Impossible Saints (1997). The novel
Fair Exchange (1999) brings fictional scenes of the lives of William Wordsworth,
the author that introduced Romanticism in the English Literature, and Mary
Wollstonecraft. We can also include in the list The Looking Glass (2000) and
Delusion (2008).
The already mentioned novel Daughters of the House, from 1992, provided
her with the financial means and, as she herself explains in her memories, “changed
her life”, once it allowed her to buy a house in France, her longtime desire.
Besides her books, poetry has also been a very prolific field for Michèle Roberts,
and her frequent themes are food, God, sex, and women’s lives. All the Selves I
Was (1995) is a selection of poetry from a numbers of previously published texts,
in which she honors the roles of women in our society. Her texts present the
recurring topic of the relationship between mothers and daughters, alongside with
family relations.
capítulo 4 • 74
Tracy Chevalier (1962)
©© JON DRORI |WIKIMEDIA.ORG

Tracy Chevalier.
Daughter of Douglas and Helen Chevalier, Tracy Chevalier was born in

Washington, D.C. In 1984, after studying English at Oberlin College, she moved
to England never to return. Until 1993, she worked as an editor for Reference
Book, but realized that her writing career needed an update. Therefore, she studied
for a Master’s Degree in Creative Writing at the University of East Anglia.
During her studies she got inspired and started her first book, The Virgin
Blue, published in 1997. After that, several other books were published, like Girl
with a Pearl Earring (1999), Falling Angels (2001), The Lady and the Unicorn
(2003), Burning Bright (2007), Remarkable Creatures (2009), and The Last
Runaway (2013), about an 19th century English Quaker.
There is no question that her most successful novel so far is Girl with a Pearl
Earring (1999), which became a movie in 2004, starring Scarlett Johansson
and Colin Firth. The novel brings a very creative perspective in order to
tell the background of a very famous portrait painted in the 17th century by
Johannes Vermeer.
capítulo 4 • 75
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
The cover of the first edition of Girl with a Pearl Earring (novel).
Some critics question the reason why Chevalier chose Vermeer as a subject
of her interest. One of the explanations is that his biography is very poor and
full of gaps, which make him a mysterious historical character, with room for
speculation. Although his paintings apparently deal with common people and
objects, they frequently bring a certain level of mystery e intense work with light.
He was a very skilled painter, who was able to capture the essence of his subjects,
especially women, a more frequent subject in his paintings.
Marge Piercy (1936)
Marge Piercy.
capítulo 4 • 76
Marge Piercy wrote Gone to Soldiers, a New York Times bestseller whose story
takes place during the Second World War. Born in Detroit, Michigan, she is an
American poet, social activist and novelist. Her family had been seriously shaken
by the Great Depression but, despite the difficulties, she was the first one in the
family to attend college (University of Michigan). She lives with her husband, Ira
Wood, in the city of Wellfleet, Massachusetts.
She was able to finish college after winning a Hopwood Award for Poetry and
Fiction in 1957, which also allowed her to live in France for a while. After that she
got an M.A. at Northwestern University and published Breaking Camp in 1968,
which was her first book of poems. Piercy developed a passion for reading despite
her indifferent behavior in her early days. One reason for this change was her
health. She got rheumatic fever in her childhood and was not able to do anything
else except read. In an interview in 1984, she said that “it taught me that there's
a different world there, that there were all these horizons that were quite different
from what I could see”.
Among her volumes of poems, we can mention the feminist classic The Moon
is Always Female (1980) and The Art of Blessing the Day (1999). She also wrote
more than fifteen novels and a play, a collection of essays, a nonfiction book, and
more.
With a great variation of settings, Piercy’s works frequently focus on social
concerns and/or feminist issues. She wrote science fiction books, like Body of
Glass, which won the Arthur C. Clark Award, and historical novels, like City
of Light, whose focus fall on the French Revolution. She also wrote books set
on our present time, like Summer People or The Longings of Women. Despite
their apparent differences in themes and settings, all of her novels deal with
women’s lives.
O Arthur C. Clark Award é um prêmio oferecido ao melhor romance de ficção científica

publicado no Reino Unido durante o ano anterior. Este prêmio é uma homenagem ao
autor britânico Arthur C. Clarke (1917 – 2008), que concedeu uma doação para a
fundação deste prêmio em 1987.
Como funciona a premiação: o livro é escolhido por um painel de jurados pertencentes
à Associação Britânica de Ficção Científica, a Fundação de Ficção Científica, e uma
terceira organização, que pode variar de ano para ano. Esta premiação tem sido descri-
ta como o prêmio de ficção científica de maior prestígio no Reino Unido.
capítulo 4 • 77
The science fiction novel Woman on the Edge of Time (1976) includes in the
same story social justice, time travel, mental illnesses, and feminism. This book is
regarded as a utopian science fiction novel that, for some critics, represented the
main inspiration for cyberpunks. Another of her books, Body of Glass (1991),
depicts giant cities in a world environmentally destroyed, with an interesting
description of a futuristic type of internet. Religious references, mysticism, and
family matters permeate this science-fiction thriller.
The poetry of Marge Piercy focuses on feminist and social subjects and is
often written in free verse, with a strong personal touch towards a desire for social
change – a dream to which she shows a great level of commitment.
Ana Castillo (1953)

©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Ana Castillo in New Mexico.
Considered a “Mexican-American Chicana” novelist, short story writer, poet,

playwright, essayist and editor, Ana Castillo is considered a leading voice among
capítulo 4 • 78
Latinos authors due to her experimental style. Castillo’s texts are full of established
literary and oral traditions, with passionate comments on socio-cultural issues,
like gender and race, topics that are present in most of her literary production.
Among several other awards, her first novel, The Mixquiahuala Letters,
received an American Book Award from Before Columbus Foundation. Other
awards were a Mountains and Plains Booksellers Award and a Carl Sandburg
Award. Besides, in 1988 she earned a fellowship from Endowment for the Arts in
Fiction and Poetry. In 1998, the Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum, in Chicago,
gave her a Sor Juana Achievement Award. One of her novels, Sapogonia, was
considered a New York Times Notable Book of the Year.
Castillo works focuses on topics related to racism, classism and identity.
Through these issues she discusses the so-called Chicana Feminism or, in the
author’s own words, Xicanisma. This neologism is used by the author to refer to
the “Chicana feminism” – a way to discuss issues on how Latinos feel about living
in our present society. She also discusses several challenges about being a Latino
in an Angle-Saxon society and the contrasts between gays x straights and blacks
x whites.
For Castillo, Xicanisma is related to our history and culture through a certain
interweaving of cultures that is present in our consciousness, which leads to a
significant way to grasp a perception regarding our position in this ever changing
world. Her approach targets not only people with Latin background, but also
non-Latinos or people who do not belong to any minority group in terms of
gender, sexual orientation, color, religion, etc. She emphasizes that men are not
women’s opponents or opposites.
Castillo considers that Mexicans gave a great contribution to the Literature of
the United States, enriching it and bringing color to a sometimes monochromatic
landscape. Once literature affects the ways we perceive the reality that surrounds
us, her writings take a stand for all women of Mexican or Latino background in
the United States. She insists that Chicanas should fight homophobia, racism,
classism or any other kind of oppression, and assume the possible diversity of
experiences that they could have in the society that sometimes look down on them.
capítulo 4 • 79
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Ana Castillo signing a copy of Massacre of the Dreamers, May 25, 2006.
Ana Castillo writes in English, but most of her work and poetry got Spanish
versions. Her works were influenced by Magical Realism, as the works of authors
like the Colombian Gabriel Garcia Marques. In 1999, she was nominated for
the Greatest Chicagoans of the Century. Most of her original writings are kept
at the University of California, in Santa Barbara, at the California Ethnic and
Multicultural Archives.
In terms of poetry, she published Otro Canto (1977), The Invitation (1979),
Women Are Not Roses (1984), and My Father Was a Toltec (1988). The relevance
of Ana Castillo in the American Literature is also based on the perceptions in our
everyday experiences and how we deal and learn from them.
Castillo frequently uses an interchange of English and Spanish in her writings,
as she did a lot in I Ask the Impossible, a collection of poems, which results in a
lyrical tone for her poems. This mixture of languages is not what most would call
”Spanglish”, a rough and broken form of communication. Instead, her text uses
both languages in a structurally and grammatically correct form.
capítulo 4 • 80
Alice Walker (1944)
©© VIRGINIA DEBOLT | WIKIMEDIA.ORG

Alice Walker speaks - By Virginia DeBolt.
Alice Malsenior Walker was born in the state of Georgia, in the South of the
United States, and is considered a feminist activist. Daughter of farmers who
lived in a small county, she lost the sight of one eye due to an accident. This
situation did not prevent her from going after her dreams and she achieved several
scholarships and got an Arts degree at Sarah Lawrence College in 1965. Her first
book of poetry was called Once, but she achieved world recognition with the
novel The Color Purple (1982).
The Color Purple was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in Fiction and resulted in a
movie directed by Steven Spielberg in 1986, with actress Whoopi Goldberg in
the main role. The story focuses on a Southern black woman, almost illiterate,
who writes letters to God and to her missing sister. She lives a harsh reality, with
oppression, poverty and violence.
Among her several books, she also wrote In Love and Trouble (1973), a
volume composed by voices of black women from the South of the United States.
The book brings several tales, from which we can meet different women with their
different challenges, dreams and fears.
capítulo 4 • 81
Walker has always been an activist for the rights of black people and women in
general, standing against the apartheid and the genital mutilation in some African
countries. In 1984, she founded her own publishing house, the Wild Trees Press.
REFLEXÃO
Como já discutido anteriormente, definir de uma forma direta o que significa “literatura”
é uma tarefa inglória, para dizer o mínimo. Embora o senso comum diga que a literatura se
refere a romances, poesia e até, às vezes, textos teatrais, a natureza do conceito de literatura
ainda traz controvérsias.
Pode-se afirmar que literatura significa escrever com talento e mérito criativo e artístico,
o que incluiria no seu escopo outras áreas como roteiros, livros de não ficção, autoajuda e até
mesmo – por que não? – letras de músicas. Todas essas atividades podem ser consideradas
literatura por aqueles de mente aberta.
No entanto, na abordagem de diversas instituições de ensino que possuem cursos com-
pletos ou pelo menos disciplinas de literatura, o foco recai sobre conceitos mais tradicionais
de literatura. Assim, um curso tradicional de literatura deve trazer em seu currículo poesia,
ficção em prosa, textos teatrais (não podemos deixar de estudar Shakespeare) e outras
formas “clássicas” de literatura.
De qualquer modo, a literatura em língua inglesa tem uma grande variedade de estilos
devido à abrangência geográfica que o colonialismo inglês proporcionou. Não é possível,
assim, buscar definições simplistas e limitadas para algo tão rico e complexo.
LEITURA
A recomendação de leitura deste capítulo não poderia ser outra senão o clássico ame-
ricano On the Road, de Jack Kerouac. Leia a seguir a descrição do livro no site da editora
L&PM (www.lpm.com.br):
“Responsável por uma das maiores revoluções culturais do século XX, ‘On the Road’, tra-
duzido por Eduardo Bueno, mantém intacta sua aura de transgressão, lirismo e loucura. (...) A
obra-prima de Kerouac foi escrita fundindo ação, emoção, sonho, reflexão e ambiente. Nesta
nova literatura, o autor procurou captar a sonoridade das ruas, das planícies e das estradas
americanas para criar um livro que transformaria milhares de cabeças, influenciando definitiva-
mente todos os movimentos de vanguarda, do be bop ao rock, o pop, os hippies, o movimento
capítulo 4 • 82
punk e tudo o mais que sacudiu a arte e o comportamento da juventude na segunda metade
do século XX.”
Título: On the Road – Pé na Estrada
Editora: L&PM
Autor: Jack Kerouac
Tradutor: Eduardo Bueno
Edição: 2004
ATIVIDADE
01. Neste capítulo, foram abordados sete autores e exemplos de suas respectivas obras.
Nesta atividade, você vai ler uma relação de títulos, em grupos de quatro, e deverá indicar o
nome do autor(a) das obras.
Autor das obras abaixo: ___________________

The Virgin Blue
Girl with a Pearl Earring
Remarkable Creatures
The Last Runaway

Once
The Color Purple
In Love and Trouble
Everyday Use

Daughters of the House
The Visitation
The Wild Girl
Impossible Saints
capítulo 4 • 83
Breaking Camp
The Moon is Always Female
The Art of Blessing the Day
Body of Glass

The Town and the City
The Subterraneans
The Dharma Burns
Visions of Cody

The Circle Game
Cat’s Eye
The Blind Assassin
Negotiating with the Dead

The Mixquiahuala Letters
Women Are Not Roses
Massacre of the Dreamers
The Invitation
capítulo 4 • 84
ALVES, Julia Falivene. A Invasão cultural Norte-Americana. Brasil: Editora Moderna, 2004.
BESSA, Maria Cristina. Panorama da Literatura Norte Americana. Brasil: Alexa Cultural, 2008.
British council. Disponível em: <https://literature.britishcouncil.org/writer/tracy-chevalier>.
Acesso em: 17 set. 2016
Encyclopedia Britannica. Disponível em: <https://global.britannica.com/art/Beat-movement>.
Good Reads. Disponível em: <http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/70401.On_the_Road>.
International Student. Disponível em: <http://www.internationalstudent.com/study-literature/what-is-
english-literature/>. Acesso em: 20 set. 2016
Michele Roberts. Disponível em: <http://www.micheleroberts.co.uk>.Acesso em: 15 set. 2016
Poetry foundation. Disponível em: <https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/
marge-piercy>. Acesso em: 15 set. 2016
capítulo 4 • 85
capítulo 4 • 86
5
Sobre a origem do
teatro e
pós-modernidade
Sobre a origem do teatro e a
pós-modernidade
O teatro foi trazido para o que hoje chamamos de Reino Unido pelos roma-
nos. No entanto, pouca informação sobre a origem do teatro sobreviveu até os dias
de hoje. As informações que temos vêm de decorações, pinturas, murais, artefatos
e hieróglifos que mostram as mudanças de estações, a importância de caçadas
bem-sucedidas e histórias sobre os deuses. A partir disso, podemos ver a importân-
cia de passar adiante experiências dos velhos para os jovens através da arte, eventos
dramatizados e histórias. Essa prática deu aos jovens de uma determinada cultura
um guia e um plano para suas vidas.
A partir do teatro, outras formas de literatura surgiram e foram adotadas pelos
povos que habitavam ou gradativamente fixaram residência nas ilhas britânicas.
Com a chegada do século XX, a Europa viu surgir um movimento artístico-lite-
rário que foi revolucionário para a época, o Modernismo, que propunha o rompi-
mento com as estruturas previamente existentes e que eram consideradas arcaicas.
A partir do final da Segunda Guerra Mundial, no entanto, o mundo viu surgir
um novo movimento que, por sua vez, era um contraponto ao modernismo: o
pós-modernismo. Não é tarefa fácil definir com precisão o que é o pós-modernis-
mo, já que esse conjunto de ideias só se tornou uma área de estudos acadêmicos a
partir dos anos 1980. Pós-modernismo é, portanto, um conceito que abrange um
grande número de áreas de estudo e disciplinas, como arte, arquitetura, música,
cinema, teatro, literatura, sociologia, comunicação, moda e tecnologia. Não pode
ser enquadrado com precisão em recortes temporais ou históricos, já que não é
possível apontar sequer quando esse movimento começa exatamente.
OBJETIVOS
Você vai conhecer um pouco das origens do teatro, essa importante manifestação artís-
tica que guarda uma relação bastante próxima com a literatura.
Você vai também ser apresentado aos conceitos de Modernismo e Pós-Modernismo,
movimentos que surgiram com o objetivo de romper paradigmas e criar algo novo, em vez de
simplesmente modificar o que já existia, como ocorria com outros movimentos no passado.
Para enriquecer a discussão sobre o Pós-Modernismo, neste capítulo será abordado
também o conceito de gêneros textuais. Para fechar este capítulo, serão apresentados três
capítulo 5 • 88
grandes autores de língua inglesa, de diversas origens e gêneros, cujas principais obras
foram publicadas na segunda metade do século XX e que foram agraciados com o prêmio
Nobel de Literatura, devido à relevância do conjunto de suas obras.
The birth of theater
Theater has been present in the history of mankind and, through it, men
could express feelings, tell stories, and worship their gods. Nevertheless, nobody
knows for sure when and how theater was created. Probably it grew along with
cavemen’s curiosity. After watching animals, they were able to imitate them in
order to approach them during a hunt without being noticed, for example. Later
on, the cavemen probably acted their hunts to their colleagues in order to let them
know how it went, once oral language was not yet developed as it is today. This
was theater, but not yet a spectacle.
Nowadays, people who attend theater plays, some of them comedies, cannot
imagine that it was a sacred practice long ago. People believed that through these
rituals it was possible to invoke gods and the powers of nature to bring rain,
make land more fertile, help during hunts, or prevent natural disasters. These
rituals included chanting, dancing, and acting stories related to the gods – all with
the sole purpose of keeping the gods pleased with the tribute and, as a desirable
consequence, merciful towards people.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: two women consult a "witch."
capítulo 5 • 89
Theater in the world
The term “theater” derives from the Greek word “theatron”. Later on, it
became “theatru” in Latin. Theater may have appeared in Egypt approximately
3,000 years before Christ, but plays began in Greece with Homer at about 800
before Christ. Anyway, little is know about the remote past of this art, but many
authors and books have some degree of certainty that theater is almost as old
as mankind.
We may have asked ourselves when people began to act, why they did it, and
how those first performances were. As mentioned before, human beings had a
certain need to act out their joy, sadness, and doubts in a way that other people
and the gods could understand.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Greek Tragic Comic Masks.
As still happens in some Indian tribes, the first theater manifestations focused
on practical things of their routine: animals and their movements, and sounds of
nature like thunder. This was a way to narrate the difficulties in a journey or a hunt
and, through this acting, pay tribute to their ancestors and teach the young. The
words, sounds and gestures of these presentations were learned and memorized,
which was a way to transfer knowledge from one generation to another.
capítulo 5 • 90
Greek theater
Greek theater had its origins in the 6th century B.C. in the festivals that payed
tribute to the god of the grape harvest, winemaking, wine, theater and fertility:
Dionysius. Those celebrations were sacred rituals, with processions and recitals
that would last for days and took place once a year during spring, the period in
which grape harvest occurred in that region.
CONEXÃO
Muitas palavras e termos utilizados nos dias de hoje possuem origem na Grécia Antiga.
A BBC traz um glossário bastante interessante de termos usados na época, cujos conceitos
atravessaram os séculos e estão presentes no nosso dia a dia. Acesse o link abaixo para
visualizar o glossário
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/primaryhistory/ancient_greeks/arts_and_theatre/
glossary/index.shtml>.
Roman theater
Known for its decadence, Roman theater offered to its audience elements of violence
and sex. Greek plays usually did not show violence on stage. When they had to refer to
something horribly violent, they explained it orally, without the use of visual resources.
Roman audience used to enjoy spectacles like combats. As we can imagine,
Romans loved gladiator fights and blood sports. Therefore a realistic theater
presentation would attract and please the audience.
O número de assentos nos locais dos diferentes tipos de entretenimento para a popu-
lação romana é um dado interessante para sabermos o grau de popularidade de cada
modalidade. A arena de combates de gladiadores, o Coliseu, era enorme. Arqueólogos
modernos acreditam que ele acomodava 50.000 espectadores. Outras fontes mais an-
tigas sobem esse número para 87.000. No entanto, a maior procura era para o Circus
Maximus, onde cerca de 250.000 podiam assistir corridas de bigas.
Apesar da popularidade do teatro na época, as apresentações teatrais ficavam num
distante terceiro lugar. O maior teatro de Roma, o de Marcellus, podia acomodar meros
20.500 espectadores.
capítulo 5 • 91
We can assume that such decadence and eagerness for a bloody spectacle was
predominant concerning theater during the Roman Empire. Not many plays were
actually written, and even the plays produced seemed like a plagiarism of Greek
tales and myths that used the equivalent Roman gods.
But there were exceptions: the tragedies of Seneca and the comedies of
Terrence and Plautus. Seneca is today considered the greatest tragedian, but in his
time, Emperor Nero gave Seneca an order: he should kill himself, which he did.
©© LONGBOW4U | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
A well-preserved Roman theater in Bosra (Syria).
Despite that brutal end of a talented playwright, the Roman Empire theater
was not seem as a controversial and passionate form of art. Rome had a very
promiscuous social life and, therefore, nobody would be offended or bothered by
comedies or dramas, even if prominent citizens were mentioned or described in a
ridiculous way.
Discursive genres and post modernism
The terms Postmodernism or Postmodernity are often applied to define

the transitions that occurred in society in the second half of the 20th century,
notably after World War II. The 1960s and 1970s witnessed changes in terms
capítulo 5 • 92
of mass consumerism and also in arts and culture. Critics of that time refer to
a kind of “hybridism” in terms of culture, a state “in between” the traditional
concepts and definitions of “high culture” and “low culture” especially in Western
cultural environments.
Therefore, one can define Postmodernism as the nature of socio-cultural and
aesthetics characteristics that define contemporary capitalism. In this sense, the
term can define all the profound modifications within scientific, artistic and social
segments from the 1950s until the present day.
Postmodernism
Postmodernism can also be labeled “post-industrial”, once it has been

developing worldwide since the end of Modernism. Without a doubt, it is
characterized by the turmoil caused by technological advances, the changes in
the means of communication, the growing influence of the virtual world, and the
consumerism that characterizes out postmodern society.
CONEXÃO
Poucos termos na linguagem contemporânea têm suscitado tanto debate quanto “pós-
modernismo”. Uma das razões é a dificuldade em resumir seu conceito em algo direto e úni-
co. Apesar da instabilidade do termo, a pós-modernidade pode ser definida em uma categoria
ampla. Visite o site abaixo para compreender um pouco mais sobre este conceito.
<http://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/art-and-architecture/
architecture/postmodernism>.
Defining the precise meaning of this concept is never an easy task.

Researchers usually lack the necessary historical detachment to analyze it, once
Postmodernism is a process that is still evolving in the historical context in which
we live. Nevertheless, some researchers, like Jean-François Lyotard, from France,
consider that science has lost much of its credit as a generator of the absolute truth.
Therefore, this contemporary process is classified as the end of all justifications
and imperative assertions. Nothing is absolutely right – everything is relative and
imprecise. On the other hand, Marxist Fredric Jameson believes that this historic
period is nothing more than the third stage of Capitalism.
capítulo 5 • 93
©© BRACHA L. ETTINGER | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Jean-François Lyotard.
The Postmodern man lives in a world full of images, signs and icons, which
are considered of high priority, compared to real objects. In this way, simulation
has substituted reality and brings into the scene the hyperrealism, which intends
to transport to the universe of images an objective reality as the highest expression
of contemporaneity and human uncertainties of our time.
Once hyperrealism is thought of as an illusory condition, it confronts the
concrete everyday existence, which causes a certain disturbance in the psyche of a
person. This is due to the fact that, in a given moment, it is difficult to establish
the borders between reality and fiction. This technique is able to easily dribble
the surveillance of both the emitter of the message and its receiver, who this way
lose their control of the message. This is the universe of turning the TV news, for
example, into a spectacle, with its contents distorted for the sake of the “show”.
In the Postmodernity, everything is fluid. From this concept, Polish
sociologist Zygmunt Bauman coined the expression “liquid modernity”, once
nowadays nothing is really concrete in our time. Time and apace are reduced into
fragments and individuality overcomes society. Human beings are mainly guided
by the ethics of immediate pleasure as their main objective, which leads them to
a hedonistic behavior.
capítulo 5 • 94
Humans are induced to take the concept of freedom to its extreme, confronted
with an infinite array of possibilities that inevitably leads to the perverse vicious
cycle of consumerism. In our postmodern society, subjectivity is uninterruptedly
fractioned. We can only wonder which paths Postmodernism will take, and
whether it will also suffer an inevitable rupture and become, this way, another
socio-cultural movement.
Modernism x postmodernism
The great exchange of immaterial goods, like information and services, besides
the imposition of a relativist mentality, are the main characteristics of the period
we live in today, the Postmodernism. Our time is strongly related to globalization
and consumerism, once these two trends use the means of communication and
cultural industry to melt all cultures to form one single mechanism.
With lots of political, technical, social, literary and artistic innovations,
Postmodernism opposes itself to Modernism, which was a literary and artistic
movement in the beginning of the 20th century which objective was to break
with traditional views of literature and promote aesthetic freedom, constant
experimentation and, mainly, cultural independence. In our present days, society
faces a strong capacity for consumerism and an ability to laugh carelessly about
everything. Therefore, we face the world as a place with no values and meaning.
Sem dúvida, o conceito determinador mais crucial da era pós-moderna e do pós-mo-

dernismo é uma incontida e irredutível multiplicidade descentralizada de paradigmas
culturais e cognitivos coexistentes, sem que nenhum deles seja unicamente dominan-
te ou central.
Uma continuidade dos experimentos de narrativa dos modernistas, a primeira geração
de pós-modernistas, escritores americanos e britânicos dos anos 1960 e 1970, produ-
ziu textos que simultaneamente questionavam e violavam as convenções da narrativa
tradicional. Da mesma forma, poetas pós-modernistas lançaram uma linguagem fratu-
rada, sistematicamente desarranjada, destinada a desestabilizar os sistemas – cultural,
intelectual e político - construídos pela linguagem.
The essence of Postmodernism is the copy and images of real objects, erasing
the differences between the real and the imaginary. Television is the best example.
capítulo 5 • 95
Along with computers, these two modern technologies create a hyperreal space - a
spectacle that amuses us daily. Therefore, with a mixture of tendencies and styles,
Postmodernism is open and able to change its aspect in each of its segments. It can
also be ample and plural.
Individualism, which began with Modernism, added a narcissist exaggeration
that undoes principles, rules, values, practices and realities. The hyperreality that
characterizes Postmodernism fascinates, once it is real, but enhanced with colors,
size, and properties, exaggerating expectations and generating seductive images.
Its environment does not inform about the world – instead, redoes it.
Modern societies are programmed to produce more and faster, bringing facilities
for people and opportunities to save time. Another feature of Postmodernism is
the lack of faith in science, once “everything is imprecise and relative”.
Even though Postmodernism was “born” in 1945, it was in the 1960’s that
it witnessed a time of great changes due to improvements in technology, art,
science, architecture, and society. Articles in general began to be mass-produced
and standardized, and economy began to be controlled by information, which sets
the scene for a postmodern world.
Discursive genres
The concept of discursive genres includes an analysis of the text and discourse,
a description of language and society, and tries to answer questions of sociocultural
nature on the use of the language in a general way. The first step is, therefore, to
understand the notion of genre, which is – according to specialists – the same as
understanding the very notion of language.
In every language, there is a countless linguistic diversity, which stratifies
in several forms, more or less stable, which we can call genres. According to
Russian philosopher and semiotician Mikhail Bakhtin, these are manifestations
of the language, described by its formal and recurrent characteristics, related to
different social activities. Therefore, writing is also classified in genres, which is
a conventional form of language to which we attribute some social role, value
or function.
capítulo 5 • 96
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Mikhail Bakhtin in the 1920’s.
It is important to understand the relevance of the concept of genres when we

talk about communication. We speak and write in genres, which means that we
do not learn the language, but some genres of the language. As soon as we are able
to use the language effectively, we begin to use the structure of the language, i.e.,
its diversification of linguistic genres.
Even before literacy, a child uses language to communicate and knows its
structure, although there is no awareness of discursive genres. In order to speak,
we use discursive genres, and everyone possesses a rich repertoire of oral discursive
genres. This means that people possess knowledge about it even though they may
have never studied or even heard about it.
We can say that textual genres possess a form of composition, a theme content,
and a communicative purpose. Therefore, there are certain characteristics of textual
structuring, form, size, language, content, and, mainly, a specific objective. Since
textual genres are related to social practices, during the dynamics of our cultural
and social lives they may vary in terms of thematic units, compositional forms,
and style. They are not, therefore, rigid and tight instruments.
Many researchers agree on the flexibility of textual genres and add that there
is a proliferation of new genres within new technologies, particularly electronic
capítulo 5 • 97
media. Several of these new “emergent genres” are not new, once they constitute a
modification or adaptation of the genres that existed prior to the new media and
new technologies, like the internet.
Postmodern contemporary authors: Harold Pinter

©© ILLUMINATIONS FILMS | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Harold Pinter, December 2005
Harold Pinter was a British playwright, screenwriter, poet, actor, director,

and a political activist, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2005. Pinter
wrote for theater, television, radio, and cinema. His first works were frequently
associated to the theater of the absurd, a genre that attracted writers like Eugène
Ionesco and Samuel Beckett.
Pinter was born in a working class neighborhood in London. When young,
he studied for two semesters in the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, published
poetry, and started working in theater as an actor, under the pseudonym of David
Baron. His first play was The Room, acted out by students from Bristol University.
In 1958, The Birthday Party received good critics in The Sunday Times, but
was not successful. Only in 1960, success came with The Caretaker. His first plays
begin with an apparently innocent fact and end up in an absurd or threatening
situation, almost always due to a peculiar or unusual behavior of one of the
characters. His works strongly reflect the influence of Samuel Beckett, with whom
Pinter maintained a solid friendship.
Pinter started to work as a director in the 1970’s, when he became associated
director of the Royal National Theatre. His later plays are shorter and have strong
capítulo 5 • 98
political connotation, many times using allegories that refer to different dorms of
repression. Therefore, it was in the 1970’s that Pinter assumed clearly his leftist
political position, struggling to attract public attention for violations of human
rights. His texts were very often published in the British newspapers The Guardian
and The Independent.
In 1999, Pinter became an aggressive critic of USA’s external politics and of
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), expressing his disapproval not only
of the bombing of Kosovo, but also of the invasions of Afghanistan, in 2001,
and Iraq, in 2003. In 2005, he announced that he would no longer write for the
theater, focusing his efforts, time, and energy on political activism. After refusing
the title of “Sir”, offered by the British Crown, Pinter received in 2002 the title of
Companion of Honour.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Promotional poster for the 1978 play, Betrayal by Harold Pinter.
In 2005, the Royal Swedish Academy announced that Harold Pinter had won
the Nobel Prize in Literature. Among his most famous plays are Homecoming,
1965, and Betrayal, 1978, both adapted to the cinema. As a screenwriter, his most
capítulo 5 • 99
famous work is the adaptation of the novel The French Lieutenant's Woman,
written by John Fowles.
Postmodern contemporary authors: Doris Lessing

©© ELYA | WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Doris Lessing, British writer.
English writer Doris May Tayler, known as Doris Lessing, was born in
Kermanshah, in Iran, in 1919. At the age of five, she moved with her parents,
Captain Alfred Tayler and Emily Maude Tayler, both born in England, to South
Rhodesia, today Zimbabwe.
At the age of seven, she was sent to a boarding school and, later on, relocated
to an institution only for girls. After marrying twice and divorcing both husbands,
she got frustrated and decided to move to England in 1949 with her son Peter.
Along with her she takes a long experience in political involvement.
In England, Lessing writes her first novel, The Grass is Singing (1950), in
which she describes the profound interaction between the wife of a white farmer
and her black servant. The book was an immediate success in both Europe and the
United States. She wrote a vast array of books, ranging from an autobiography to
science fiction, with touches of Modernist inspiration.
Most of her texts written in the 1950’s and early 1960’s are contextualized
in the African Continent, and she reveals the economic oppression imposed
capítulo 5 • 100
to the black natives by the white colonists. Lessing’s political dare made her an
undesirable person in Zimbabwe and South Africa from 1956 on.
The focus of her novels deals with race, family, and society – especially in the
texts written in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. She also wrote about gender,
which made her an icon among feminists. In the novel The Good Terrorist,
published in 1985, Lessing describes the whereabouts of a community of political
militants acting in London. This book made her win the literary prize WH Smith.
©© WIKIMEDIA.ORG
Front cover of the first UK edition of The Good Terrorist, showing a heavily pixelated picture
of a woman's face.
In the novel The Wind Blows Away Our Words (1987), the writer returns to
her political concerns, aiming at de lack of attention of the Western civilization
with the Afghanistan War, when this country was under the wings of the Soviet
Union. In 1999, Lessing received the title of Companion of Honour from Queen
Elizabeth II.
In 2007, Doris Lessing received her greatest recognition by receiving the
Nobel Prize in Literature. The Swedish Academy explains that she was chosen
as a reward for her ability to translate women’s world in a skeptical, vigorous
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and idealistic way. Lessing was the 11th woman to receive the Nobel Prize in
Literature, and the oldest person to receive this desired prize. Today a great part
of her literary materials are preserved at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research
Center, a department of the University of Texas.
Postmodern contemporary authors: Alice Munro
A escritora Alice Munro, vencedora do Nobel de Literatura (Derek Shapman/Divulgação).
Born in a family of fox farmers in Canada, Alice Munro began writing in her
teenage years. Her first tale, The Dimension of a Shadow, was published in 1950,
while she was still a university student. At the same time, she started earning some
money in occasional jobs, like in restaurants, tobacco farms, or libraries.
Her first collection of short stories, Dance of the Happy Shades, was published
in 1968 and was an immediate success. For this book she won the most important
Canadian literary prize and was praised by the critics. The following book, Lives
of Girls and Women, published in 1971, is until today her only novel, but some
critics consider this novel a succession of short stories linked together. Munro
published more than a dozen collections of short stories, many of them edited in
Portugal, including Dear Life, published in 2012 and translated to Portuguese by
poet José Miguel Silva.
capítulo 5 • 102
Many of Munro’s stories focus on the life in the region of Ontario, and of
the many collections she wrote, we can mention Who Do You Think You Are?
(1978); The Moons of Jupiter (1982); Hateship, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship,
Marriage (2001), Runaway (2004); and The View from Castle Rock (2006). Alice
Munro won the Man Booker International Prize in 2009, in honor for her many
years of great literary production. The short story collection Too Much Happiness
was published in the same year, 2009.
At the age of 82, in 2013, Alice Munro was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature,
and was called "master of the contemporary short story”. Munro is the first
Canadian woman to get a Nobel Prize in Literature. She is also only the 13th
female to receive the literature prize since it was founded in 1901.
When she was told about the Nobel Prize, Munro said: "I knew I was in the
running, yes, but I never thought I would win." Later on, she added: "I would
really hope that this would make people see the short story as an important art,
not just something that you played around with until you'd got a novel written."
Nowadays Munro lives in Clinton, near the place where she was raised, in Ontario.
REFLEXÃO
Pós-modernismo é um daqueles termos que são encontrados e mencionados em diver-
sas situações do nosso mundo atual. Não é nem um pouco incomum ver filmes ou livros ro-
tulados de “pós-modernos”. Desde a arte pop de Andy Warhol até filmes de grande sucesso
como Moulin Rouge ou Pulp Fiction, o pós-modernismo está inevitavelmente ao nosso redor
e em todos os tipos de entretenimento.
A literatura pós-moderna é, portanto, o tipo de literatura marcada, em ideologia e estilo,
em convenções literárias como fragmentação, paradoxo, narradores não confiáveis, enredos
irreais ou totalmente impossíveis, jogos, paródias, paranoia, humor negro, etc. Autores pós-
modernos tendem a rejeitar definições claras para seus romances, histórias ou poemas. Em
vez disso, enfatizam e celebram a possibilidade de sentidos múltiplos, ou até uma completa
ausência de sentido.
A literatura pós-moderna também rejeita as fronteiras entre formas “superiores” e “infe-
riores” de arte e literatura, assim como as distinções entre diferentes gêneros e formas de es-
crita. Muitos críticos e estudiosos preferem definir literatura pós-moderna comparando-a com
o movimento que a precedeu: o Modernismo. De várias maneiras, as ideias e os estilos literá-
rios pós-modernos têm a função de reverter e rejeitar os princípios da literatura modernista.
capítulo 5 • 103
LEITURA
O livro Postmodern Genres aborda a relevância contemporânea dos conceitos tradicio-
nais de gênero, ao mesmo tempo em que discute a aplicação desse conceito na poesia,
música, escultura, fotografia e outras formas de arte. Alguns dos artistas abordados são
Gertrude Stein, Cindy Sherman, Laurie Anderson, Jonathan Borafsky e John Cage,
Título: Postmodern Genres
Autora: Marjorie Perloff
Editora: University of Oklahoma Press
Ano: 1995
ATIVIDADES
As questões abaixo se referem ao conceito de pós-modernismo e à forma com que
textos podem ou não ser rotulados como pós-modernos. Como o objetivo destes exercícios
é expandir seus conhecimentos e a habilidade de pesquisa, para respondê-los você deverá
fazer uma consulta externa.
01. Which French Philosopher argued that there were no meta or grand narratives, only
micro narratives?
a) Jean Baudrillard
b) John the Baptist
c) Jean-François Lyotard
d) Jean Jacques Rousseau
e) Jacques Derrida
02. Which term means that player loses track of time while playing in the hyperreal world of
video games?
a) Submersion
b) Immersion
c) Flow
d) Subversion
e) Sandbox
capítulo 5 • 104
03. Which answer does NOT refer to intertextuality?
a) Parody
b) Cultural references and events such as 9/11
c) Niche audiences
d) Reflexivity
e) Pastiche
04. Baudrillard's simulacra means

a) Something unique and individual
b) The sign that creates the perception of reality than reality itself
c) A type of car
d) Truth
e) A lie
About.Education. Disponível em: <http://plays.about.com/od/historyofthestage/a/Theater-In-Ancient-
Rome.htm>. Acesso em: 12 ago, 2016.
BBC: Break a Leg: A History of British Literature. Disponível em: <http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/
zwx9j6f>. Acesso em: 05 ago, 2016.
Georgetown University - Approaches to Po-Mo. Disponível em: <http://faculty.georgetown.edu/
irvinem/theory/pomo.html>. Acesso em: 30 out. 2016.
History.Extra. <http://www.historyextra.com/article/romans/10-surprising-facts-about-romans>.
Infoescola. Disponível em: <http://www.infoescola.com/movimentos-artisticos/pos-modernismo/>.
Journal of Literary Semantics - Discourse Genres . Disponível em:<https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/
bitstream/2123/9446/2/Discourse%20genres.PDF>. Acesso em: 29 out. 2016
Oxford Bibliographies. <http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396584/
obo-9780195396584-0030.xml>. Acesso em: 12 ago, 2016.
capítulo 5 • 105
Recanto das letras. Disponível em: <http://www.recantodasletras.com.br/teorialiteraria/1719601>.
Theater-facts.com. <http://www.theatre-facts.com/history/ancient-greek-theatre-facts.html>.
GABARITO
Capítulo 1
01. 1; 2; 3; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 12; 13; 14; 16; 18; 19; 20
Capítulo 2
01.
THEATRE CAPACITY
APOLLO VICTORIA THEATRE 2384
LONDON PALLADIUM 2286
THEATRE ROYAL, DRURY LANE 2196
LYCEUM THEATRE 2100
DOMINION THEATRE 2001
PRINCE EDWARD THEATRE 1618
VICTORIA PALACE THEATRE 1517
ADELPHI THEATRE 1436
PALACE THEATRE 1400
SHAFTESBURY THEATRE 1400
capítulo 5 • 106
Capítulo 3
01. Há várias respostas possíveis devido a diferentes critérios de classificação. A versão

abaixo servirá, portanto, basicamente como exemplo.
Ayad Akhtar
Tennessee Williams
Rick Elice
August Wilson
Sarah Ruhl
Arthur Miller
John Patrick Shanley
Lauren Gunderson
Mark St. Germain
Dominique Morisseau
Eugene O’Neill
Ken Ludwig
Christopher Durang
Tom Stoppard
Christopher Sergel
Aaron Posner
Jonathan Tolins
Laura Eason
Steve Yockey
Terrence McNally
Capítulo 4
01. Autor das obras abaixo: TRACY CHEVALIER

The Virgin Blue
Girl with a Pearl Earring
Remarkable Creatures
The Last Runaway
Autor das obras abaixo: ALICE WALKER

Once
The Color Purple
In Love and Trouble
capítulo 5 • 107
Everyday Use
Autor das obras abaixo: MICHÈLE ROBERTS

Daughters of the House
The Visitation
The Wild Girl
Impossible Saints
Autor das obras abaixo: MARGE PIERCY

Breaking Camp
The Moon is Always Female
The Art of Blessing the Day
Body of Glass
Autor das obras abaixo: JACK KEROUAC

The Town and the City
The Subterraneans
The Dharma Burns
Visions of Cody
Autor das obras abaixo: MARGARET ATWOOD

The Circle Game
Cat’s Eye
The Blind Assassin
Negotiating with the Dead
Autor das obras abaixo: ANA CASTILLO

The Mixquiahuala Letters
Women Are Not Roses
Massacre of the Dreamers
The Invitation
capítulo 5 • 108
Capítulo 5
01. C
02. B
03. C
04. B
capítulo 5 • 109
ANOTAÇÕES
capítulo 5 • 110
ANOTAÇÕES
capítulo 5 • 111
ANOTAÇÕES
capítulo 5 • 112

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LITERATURAS

Autor do original hélcio de pádua lanzoni

Projeto editorial roberto paes

Coordenação de produção luciana varga, paula r. de a. machado e aline karina

Projeto gráfico paulo vitor bastos

Diagramação bfs media

Revisão linguística marianna la vega

Revisão de conteúdo fellipe fernandes cavallero

Imagem de capa joe dunckley | shutterstock.com

Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (cip)

L297l Lanzoni, Hélcio de Pádua

1. Lingua inglesa. 2. Literatura. 3. Teatro inglês. 4. Teatro norte-

Diretoria de Ensino — Fábrica de Conhecimento

1. A expansão da língua e literaturas em

English language literatures around the world 16

Twentieth century English theater 37

Post war British drama 39

American theater in the 19th century 54

American theater in the 20th century 60

4. Grandes autores contemporâneos 65

5. Sobre a origem do teatro e pós-modernidade 87

Discursive genres and post modernism 92

Postmodern contemporary authors: Harold Pinter 98

Postmodern contemporary authors: Doris Lessing 100

Postmodern contemporary authors: Alice Munro 102

Esta disciplina tem o objetivo de fornecer subsídios aos alunos do curso de

Não é nenhuma novidade afirmar que o inglês é o idioma mais ensinado ao

English language in the world

Countries where English is spoken natively by the majority of the population.

Some linguists and applied linguists still defend an ideological resistance

©© PATRICK GRUBAN | WIKIMEDIA.ORG

UN General Assembly hall.

The new imperialism

The end of the empire

The growth of the nationalist and anticolonialist movements in the British

Para melhor compreender o significado do Commonwealth e a posição atual da Grã-

English language literatures around the world

Indian writer - R. K. Narayan .

Nadine Gordimer at the Göteborg Book Fair 2010.

In 1995, Nadine Gordimer, from South Africa, won a Nobel Prize in

Literatures in English: the Pacific Islands

What is called Pacific Islands is a group of up to 30,000 islands, depending

Literatures in English: Australia

Oodgero Noonuccal (Kath Walker), March 1975.

Considered a reference in terms or widening the relevance of Aboriginal

Wole Soyinka, in 1986.

Literatures in English: South Africa

the first ones to emerge in South

When we study History it is possible to notice that Renaissance meant not

The School of Athens by Raphael.

Renaissance is the period in which classical art is rediscovered and revalued.

The evolutional origin of Renaissance theater began under the influence

According to information available, right after the development of drama

Elizabethan theater – historical context

The Portrait of Elizabeth I, 1592.

It was a moment of rapid transformations in all sectors of society. The sea

A 1596 sketch of a rehearsal in progress

The audiences in the London theaters were composed of princes, intellectuals,

The most expressive representatives of Elizabethan Theater were William