Assistant Professor in Department of History, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack my research interests are religious equations between Buddhism and brahmanical religion in early medieval India, Religions in early medieval Odisha/India, maritime archaeology, especially the boat building tradition.
I obtained my doctoral degree from Centre for Historical Studies, JNU under the supervision of Prof Himanshu Prabha Ray in 2005-06. Phone: 919938002373 Address: Department of History, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack Odisha, India
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 2019, 2022
Using few inscriptions from early medieval period, the paper explores different ways of imagining... more Using few inscriptions from early medieval period, the paper explores different ways of imagining cities
Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 2018
The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine ... more The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine network and convenient anchorages, has enjoyed a sustained maritime history. Nevertheless, the lack of archaeological excavation of ancient watercraft has meant that evidence for water transport in Odisha has come from other sources. This article examines iconographical representations of watercraft found in temples across Odisha, as well as some from palm leaf manuscripts of the 18th and 19th centuries. The vessels depicted are both riverine and seagoing, and sport different types of planking and constructional features—some unique to Odisha. This iconography emphasises the intimate association between the royal families, deities and mariners of Odisha, and the important role that boats and ships traditionally have had in Odishan trade, transportation and warfare, and as a visual symbol of prestige. The traditional boats of Odisha are unique in design and style, but traditional boatbuilding in the region is declining due to rapid industrialisation and incorporation of modern materials. It is urgent, then, to document such craft and their depictions in ancient art, both for posterity and to aid in understanding and interpreting the rich maritime history of the region.
The early medieval period from 5th to 12th centuries AD witnessed several changes in the religiou... more The early medieval period from 5th to 12th centuries AD witnessed several changes in the religious landscape of early medieval Orissa. The brahmanical religions began to construct huge temples in various eco-niches. Temples began to perform several roles in the cultural eco-niches of micro and meso regions. First, temple formed nuclei of appropriation and integration of autochthonous cults. Eschemann’s analysis of the Hinduisation of autochthonous cults in Orissa is one primary example of the role of temple (Eschmann 1978: 84). Further, temple acted as the foci of popularisation of various brahmanical cults. In Orissa, we see the evidence of several cults – Shakti, Saiva, Vaisnava in this period. While temple building in the Indian context can be predated to 2nd century BC, it was only after 5th century AD that temple building became an important component of brahmanical religions. Third, temple also acted as the foci of agricultural expansion. There are not many evidence of land gr...
Four images of different religious/sectarian affiliations, discovered in the thatched shrine cham... more Four images of different religious/sectarian affiliations, discovered in the thatched shrine chamber of Jayadurgā Temple on the backwater of the Bhitarakanika in Odisha, raise significant questions on the origin, circulation and transportation of images, and the possible role of riverine creek as arteries of communication and transportation. By studying the stylistic features of these images for the first time, the present paper argues that they belong to the late 10 th century CE and were possibly transported from a common point to different religious establishments using the creek as artery of communication. The finding also raises questions about memory and religious practices of the local communities who retain sectarian affiliation of certain images unaltered, while transforming that of the others.
External forms and internal materiality of stūpas underwent changes over centuries, and how these... more External forms and internal materiality of stūpas underwent changes over centuries, and how these changes also altered the sacred landscape of a Buddhist site is the subject matter of the paper. Exploring the practices of the worship of the stūpa at the site of Udayagiri in particular and Lalitagiri and Ratnagiri in general in Odisha, the present paper analyses the transformation of material contents and form of stūpas – from that of containing body relics to pratīiyasamutpāda sūtra and then to various dhāraṇīs and finally, in the 8th century CE, a maṇḍala stūpa emerged in Udayagiri I area. The emergence of this maṇḍala Mahāstūpa also coincided with the construction of a new monastery in the same area which asserted its new identity by issuing a new monastic seal, namely Mādhavapura Mahāvihāra, in addition to the prevailing monastic seal, Simhaprasta Mahāvihāra, which came up in early historical period in Udayagiri II. area.
... Buddhism due to the decline of patronage from guild, had to depend on royal patronage and man... more ... Buddhism due to the decline of patronage from guild, had to depend on royal patronage and mandalise its institution and religion ... Mallman has encountered a Halahala Lokesvara, who is worshipped as Brahma and Sarasvati (Mallman 1961: 203-20) goddess Bhattarika and ...
L'Asie du sud est un véritable désert en ce qui concerne les vestige... more L'Asie du sud est un véritable désert en ce qui concerne les vestiges archéologiques de bateaux. On mentionne des radeaux et des bateaux en Inde dans les textes du 1 e siècle apr. J.-C., les moyens de transport par voie navigable sont également cités en termes ...
Australasian Journal of Maritime Archaeology 42 (2018) 39–52, 2018
The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline
facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine ... more The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine network and convenient anchorages, has enjoyed a sustained maritime history. Nevertheless, the lack of archaeological excavation of ancient watercraft has meant that evidence for water transport in Odisha has come from other sources. This article examines iconographical representations of watercraft found in temples across Odisha, as well as some from palm leaf manuscripts of the 18th and 19th centuries. The vessels depicted are both riverine and seagoing, and sport different types of planking and constructional features—some unique to Odisha. This iconography emphasises the intimate association between the royal families, deities and mariners of Odisha, and the important role that boats and ships traditionally have had in Odishan trade, transportation and warfare, and as a visual symbol of prestige. The traditional boats of Odisha are unique in design and style, but traditional boatbuilding in the region is declining due to rapid industrialisation and incorporation of modern materials. It is urgent, then, to document such craft and their depictions in ancient art, both for posterity and to aid in understanding and interpreting the rich maritime history of the region.
The third season of excavation at Deltihuda mounds in Talagarh village in 2016-17 revealed a bea... more The third season of excavation at Deltihuda mounds in Talagarh village in 2016-17 revealed a bead manufacturing workshop with remains of a partially exposed furnace, bead debitage, polishers, and a number of finished and unfinished beads. This is the first evidence of a bead manufacturing centre found in any of the excavated settlements belonging to the Early Farming Culture/societies in the eastern part of Odisha. The paper describes the variety of beads found, and also throws light on the possible manufacturing process through XRD and poly-section analysis under stereomicroscope. Micro ring and disc beads which appear to be steatite to the naked eye revealed quartz alone in XRD analysis, while the drum-shaped beads and ear studs showed quartz with low cristobalite, raised questions about the manufacturing methods. In addition to these micro-beads, beads of different sizes made using agate, chalcedony, jasper, and of other material were also foun
Benudhar Pradhan, a local resident of Radhanagar Kankia in Jajpur district, found a gold coin
fro... more Benudhar Pradhan, a local resident of Radhanagar Kankia in Jajpur district, found a gold coin from his agricultural field, the news of which was published in the local newspaper The Sambad on 5.8.2020. On examination, the coin was found to be a dinara of Kuxapa ruler, Huvixka. The palaeographic and iconographic features of the coin reveal that the coin is an imitated one. This is the first discovery and reporting of imitated gold coin of Kuxapas from Odisha, even though the imitated Kuxapa’s copper coins, known as Puri-Kuxapa coins have been found in hoards from the state. The Murupdas who were the viceroys of the Kuxapas in the eastern provinces, were probably empowered to issue coins, and they were probably responsible for issuing the imitated gold coin.
Visual Representations as Historical Source in Ancient and Early Medieval India: (ed) R. Mahalakshmelhi: Bloomsbury, Chaper 9, page no. D, 2019
Jajpur, known as Virajakṣetra,has been one of the most prominent religious kṣetras(centres) of Or... more Jajpur, known as Virajakṣetra,has been one of the most prominent religious kṣetras(centres) of Orissa since at least the fifth century CE. The kṣetra limit expanded and new centres were added to Viraja-kṣetra throughout the historical period. The Mahabharata refers to the sacred River Vaitaraṇī and presiding deity Virajā, a form of MahiṣāmardinīDurgā. A recension ofthe Brahma Purāṇadevotes 12 ślokas (verses) to Viraja-kṣetra and refers to eight Śaiva tīrthas, goddess Virajā and Viṣṇu Varāha, and mentions the kṣetraas one among the pitṛtīrthas. The kṣetra limit of Virajā further expanded in the thirteenth/fourteenth-century text, Kapila Saṁhitā, a sthala māhātmya on Orissa. Two chapters were devoted to the description of theVirajā Tīrtha. It adds numerous other cults within the kṣetraas well as the sacred place Nābhi Gayā, where oblation is offered to dead ancestors (Ch.7.16–17). Finally, the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, dated to the fourteenthcentury,incorporatedall these earlier versions and developed the sthala Purāṇa called Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmya within it, comprising 29 chapters. The kṣetra limit was enlarged in the Māhātmya by including 68 centres within the Viraja-kṣetras. More importantly, Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmyadescribes the Nābhi Gayācentre and contextualises itby bringing in the Gayāsura episode of the Vāyu Purāṇa in Chapter 17, associating Jajpur as the place where the navel portion of Gayāsura fell. Thus, around the fourteenth century, there was a deliberate attemptby Vaisnava religious ideologues to connect Jajpur with the Vaisnavite Gayā and Gayāsura episode. Is the Gayāsura episode an allegory to the domination of Buddhism by Vaisnavism in Orissa in general, and Jajpur in particular? Rajendralala Mitra had argued that the Gayāsura myth is an allegory to the domination of Vaisnavism over Buddhism. There are numerous Buddhist sites in and around Jajpur such as Ratnagiri, Udayagiri and Solampur, which existed and expanded at the same time as Brahmanical religions appeared and progressed in and around the region. These Buddhist sites declined in the thirteenth century, juxtaposed with or followed by the appearance of the Gayāsura theme in the Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmya. This decline was also marked by the emergence of the cult of Jagannātha in Puri as the state cult of Orissa (Utkala). These juxtapositions — the decline of Buddhism on one hand, and emergence of the Vaiṣṇavite Nābhi Gayā theme in Jajpur and Jagannātha cult as an imperial cult, on the other, in the thirteenth/fourteenth centuries— raise several questions. This essay explores the evolution and changes in the religious landscape of Virajakṣetra, the relations between the Buddhist and Brahmanical orders in particular and Orissa in general from the sixth to thirteenth centuries,and the possible context in which the Nābhi Gayā of the Vāyu Purāṇa entered the Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmya, by studying various texts and exploring archaeological and sculptural remains in the 25km-radius of Jajpur town
Pratna Samiksha A Journal of Archaeology New Series Volume 9 2018 CENTRE FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES & TRAINING EASTERN INDIA •KOLKATA, 2018
The present paper reads and analyses some of the inscribed Buddhist images discovered in
differen... more The present paper reads and analyses some of the inscribed Buddhist images discovered in different parts of Odisha during exploration. The analysis of the inscribed images as well as the copperplate donation to Buddhism largely reveals rapaka, samanta (feudatory chiefs) and acaryas as major donors. The increasing evidence of the names of acaryas in early mediaeval Buddhism signifies their increasing roles in the Vajrayana tradition. On the other hand, the evidence on the inscribed images reveals that the rapaka and samanta (feudatory subordinate chiefs) emerged as a major support group of Buddhism in early mediaeval period. These subordinate chiefs were largely from the interior hilly area with substantive tribal populations, and Buddhism while travelling to interior Odisha during the time of the mapdala polity (eighth-eleventh century ce) found support from these subordinate chiefs of tribal origin. In the conflict between Brahamnical religions and Buddhism in early mediaeval Odisha between ninth and twelfth century ce, the Brahmanical religions targeted the tribal origin feudatory chiefs by showing them being trampled by Bhairavas.
ecent years saw a spurt in writings on the forms and processes of changes in Buddhism in early
me... more ecent years saw a spurt in writings on the forms and processes of changes in Buddhism in early medieval India. These changes in Buddhism, studied under the rubric of tantric Buddhism, has been regarded earlier by scholars in various ways ranging from ‘corrupt’ form of the earlier ‘pure Buddhism’ to mere ‘imitation’ of the Puranic Buddhism and therefore was easily amenable to incorporation and eventual extinction in the syncretic Puranic Hinduism. It has also been regarded as too esoteric, which was restricted to serious monkish communities. However, the present article argues that Buddhism in its Vajrayana version had brought about numerous shifts in the religion. These shifts include the emergence of new gods and goddesses within a mandalic structure, emphasis on instrumental aspects of religion, incorporation of folk practices in the Buddhist pantheon structure and emphasis on adept guru. These shifts in Buddhism occurred when Brahamanical religions were constructing temples, expanding pilgrimage and integrating folk cults. Studying the religious landscape of Odisha from circa 7th-12th centuries CE, the paper explores the multiple shifts in Buddhism in its Vajrayana form in response to an expanding Brahamanical religion in Odisha and argues that these shifts in Buddhism occurred in order to make the religion more laity oriented (lokika).
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 2019, 2022
Using few inscriptions from early medieval period, the paper explores different ways of imagining... more Using few inscriptions from early medieval period, the paper explores different ways of imagining cities
Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 2018
The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine ... more The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine network and convenient anchorages, has enjoyed a sustained maritime history. Nevertheless, the lack of archaeological excavation of ancient watercraft has meant that evidence for water transport in Odisha has come from other sources. This article examines iconographical representations of watercraft found in temples across Odisha, as well as some from palm leaf manuscripts of the 18th and 19th centuries. The vessels depicted are both riverine and seagoing, and sport different types of planking and constructional features—some unique to Odisha. This iconography emphasises the intimate association between the royal families, deities and mariners of Odisha, and the important role that boats and ships traditionally have had in Odishan trade, transportation and warfare, and as a visual symbol of prestige. The traditional boats of Odisha are unique in design and style, but traditional boatbuilding in the region is declining due to rapid industrialisation and incorporation of modern materials. It is urgent, then, to document such craft and their depictions in ancient art, both for posterity and to aid in understanding and interpreting the rich maritime history of the region.
The early medieval period from 5th to 12th centuries AD witnessed several changes in the religiou... more The early medieval period from 5th to 12th centuries AD witnessed several changes in the religious landscape of early medieval Orissa. The brahmanical religions began to construct huge temples in various eco-niches. Temples began to perform several roles in the cultural eco-niches of micro and meso regions. First, temple formed nuclei of appropriation and integration of autochthonous cults. Eschemann’s analysis of the Hinduisation of autochthonous cults in Orissa is one primary example of the role of temple (Eschmann 1978: 84). Further, temple acted as the foci of popularisation of various brahmanical cults. In Orissa, we see the evidence of several cults – Shakti, Saiva, Vaisnava in this period. While temple building in the Indian context can be predated to 2nd century BC, it was only after 5th century AD that temple building became an important component of brahmanical religions. Third, temple also acted as the foci of agricultural expansion. There are not many evidence of land gr...
Four images of different religious/sectarian affiliations, discovered in the thatched shrine cham... more Four images of different religious/sectarian affiliations, discovered in the thatched shrine chamber of Jayadurgā Temple on the backwater of the Bhitarakanika in Odisha, raise significant questions on the origin, circulation and transportation of images, and the possible role of riverine creek as arteries of communication and transportation. By studying the stylistic features of these images for the first time, the present paper argues that they belong to the late 10 th century CE and were possibly transported from a common point to different religious establishments using the creek as artery of communication. The finding also raises questions about memory and religious practices of the local communities who retain sectarian affiliation of certain images unaltered, while transforming that of the others.
External forms and internal materiality of stūpas underwent changes over centuries, and how these... more External forms and internal materiality of stūpas underwent changes over centuries, and how these changes also altered the sacred landscape of a Buddhist site is the subject matter of the paper. Exploring the practices of the worship of the stūpa at the site of Udayagiri in particular and Lalitagiri and Ratnagiri in general in Odisha, the present paper analyses the transformation of material contents and form of stūpas – from that of containing body relics to pratīiyasamutpāda sūtra and then to various dhāraṇīs and finally, in the 8th century CE, a maṇḍala stūpa emerged in Udayagiri I area. The emergence of this maṇḍala Mahāstūpa also coincided with the construction of a new monastery in the same area which asserted its new identity by issuing a new monastic seal, namely Mādhavapura Mahāvihāra, in addition to the prevailing monastic seal, Simhaprasta Mahāvihāra, which came up in early historical period in Udayagiri II. area.
... Buddhism due to the decline of patronage from guild, had to depend on royal patronage and man... more ... Buddhism due to the decline of patronage from guild, had to depend on royal patronage and mandalise its institution and religion ... Mallman has encountered a Halahala Lokesvara, who is worshipped as Brahma and Sarasvati (Mallman 1961: 203-20) goddess Bhattarika and ...
L'Asie du sud est un véritable désert en ce qui concerne les vestige... more L'Asie du sud est un véritable désert en ce qui concerne les vestiges archéologiques de bateaux. On mentionne des radeaux et des bateaux en Inde dans les textes du 1 e siècle apr. J.-C., les moyens de transport par voie navigable sont également cités en termes ...
Australasian Journal of Maritime Archaeology 42 (2018) 39–52, 2018
The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline
facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine ... more The Indian state of Odisha, with its long coastline facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine network and convenient anchorages, has enjoyed a sustained maritime history. Nevertheless, the lack of archaeological excavation of ancient watercraft has meant that evidence for water transport in Odisha has come from other sources. This article examines iconographical representations of watercraft found in temples across Odisha, as well as some from palm leaf manuscripts of the 18th and 19th centuries. The vessels depicted are both riverine and seagoing, and sport different types of planking and constructional features—some unique to Odisha. This iconography emphasises the intimate association between the royal families, deities and mariners of Odisha, and the important role that boats and ships traditionally have had in Odishan trade, transportation and warfare, and as a visual symbol of prestige. The traditional boats of Odisha are unique in design and style, but traditional boatbuilding in the region is declining due to rapid industrialisation and incorporation of modern materials. It is urgent, then, to document such craft and their depictions in ancient art, both for posterity and to aid in understanding and interpreting the rich maritime history of the region.
The third season of excavation at Deltihuda mounds in Talagarh village in 2016-17 revealed a bea... more The third season of excavation at Deltihuda mounds in Talagarh village in 2016-17 revealed a bead manufacturing workshop with remains of a partially exposed furnace, bead debitage, polishers, and a number of finished and unfinished beads. This is the first evidence of a bead manufacturing centre found in any of the excavated settlements belonging to the Early Farming Culture/societies in the eastern part of Odisha. The paper describes the variety of beads found, and also throws light on the possible manufacturing process through XRD and poly-section analysis under stereomicroscope. Micro ring and disc beads which appear to be steatite to the naked eye revealed quartz alone in XRD analysis, while the drum-shaped beads and ear studs showed quartz with low cristobalite, raised questions about the manufacturing methods. In addition to these micro-beads, beads of different sizes made using agate, chalcedony, jasper, and of other material were also foun
Benudhar Pradhan, a local resident of Radhanagar Kankia in Jajpur district, found a gold coin
fro... more Benudhar Pradhan, a local resident of Radhanagar Kankia in Jajpur district, found a gold coin from his agricultural field, the news of which was published in the local newspaper The Sambad on 5.8.2020. On examination, the coin was found to be a dinara of Kuxapa ruler, Huvixka. The palaeographic and iconographic features of the coin reveal that the coin is an imitated one. This is the first discovery and reporting of imitated gold coin of Kuxapas from Odisha, even though the imitated Kuxapa’s copper coins, known as Puri-Kuxapa coins have been found in hoards from the state. The Murupdas who were the viceroys of the Kuxapas in the eastern provinces, were probably empowered to issue coins, and they were probably responsible for issuing the imitated gold coin.
Visual Representations as Historical Source in Ancient and Early Medieval India: (ed) R. Mahalakshmelhi: Bloomsbury, Chaper 9, page no. D, 2019
Jajpur, known as Virajakṣetra,has been one of the most prominent religious kṣetras(centres) of Or... more Jajpur, known as Virajakṣetra,has been one of the most prominent religious kṣetras(centres) of Orissa since at least the fifth century CE. The kṣetra limit expanded and new centres were added to Viraja-kṣetra throughout the historical period. The Mahabharata refers to the sacred River Vaitaraṇī and presiding deity Virajā, a form of MahiṣāmardinīDurgā. A recension ofthe Brahma Purāṇadevotes 12 ślokas (verses) to Viraja-kṣetra and refers to eight Śaiva tīrthas, goddess Virajā and Viṣṇu Varāha, and mentions the kṣetraas one among the pitṛtīrthas. The kṣetra limit of Virajā further expanded in the thirteenth/fourteenth-century text, Kapila Saṁhitā, a sthala māhātmya on Orissa. Two chapters were devoted to the description of theVirajā Tīrtha. It adds numerous other cults within the kṣetraas well as the sacred place Nābhi Gayā, where oblation is offered to dead ancestors (Ch.7.16–17). Finally, the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, dated to the fourteenthcentury,incorporatedall these earlier versions and developed the sthala Purāṇa called Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmya within it, comprising 29 chapters. The kṣetra limit was enlarged in the Māhātmya by including 68 centres within the Viraja-kṣetras. More importantly, Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmyadescribes the Nābhi Gayācentre and contextualises itby bringing in the Gayāsura episode of the Vāyu Purāṇa in Chapter 17, associating Jajpur as the place where the navel portion of Gayāsura fell. Thus, around the fourteenth century, there was a deliberate attemptby Vaisnava religious ideologues to connect Jajpur with the Vaisnavite Gayā and Gayāsura episode. Is the Gayāsura episode an allegory to the domination of Buddhism by Vaisnavism in Orissa in general, and Jajpur in particular? Rajendralala Mitra had argued that the Gayāsura myth is an allegory to the domination of Vaisnavism over Buddhism. There are numerous Buddhist sites in and around Jajpur such as Ratnagiri, Udayagiri and Solampur, which existed and expanded at the same time as Brahmanical religions appeared and progressed in and around the region. These Buddhist sites declined in the thirteenth century, juxtaposed with or followed by the appearance of the Gayāsura theme in the Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmya. This decline was also marked by the emergence of the cult of Jagannātha in Puri as the state cult of Orissa (Utkala). These juxtapositions — the decline of Buddhism on one hand, and emergence of the Vaiṣṇavite Nābhi Gayā theme in Jajpur and Jagannātha cult as an imperial cult, on the other, in the thirteenth/fourteenth centuries— raise several questions. This essay explores the evolution and changes in the religious landscape of Virajakṣetra, the relations between the Buddhist and Brahmanical orders in particular and Orissa in general from the sixth to thirteenth centuries,and the possible context in which the Nābhi Gayā of the Vāyu Purāṇa entered the Viraja-kṣetra-māhātmya, by studying various texts and exploring archaeological and sculptural remains in the 25km-radius of Jajpur town
Pratna Samiksha A Journal of Archaeology New Series Volume 9 2018 CENTRE FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES & TRAINING EASTERN INDIA •KOLKATA, 2018
The present paper reads and analyses some of the inscribed Buddhist images discovered in
differen... more The present paper reads and analyses some of the inscribed Buddhist images discovered in different parts of Odisha during exploration. The analysis of the inscribed images as well as the copperplate donation to Buddhism largely reveals rapaka, samanta (feudatory chiefs) and acaryas as major donors. The increasing evidence of the names of acaryas in early mediaeval Buddhism signifies their increasing roles in the Vajrayana tradition. On the other hand, the evidence on the inscribed images reveals that the rapaka and samanta (feudatory subordinate chiefs) emerged as a major support group of Buddhism in early mediaeval period. These subordinate chiefs were largely from the interior hilly area with substantive tribal populations, and Buddhism while travelling to interior Odisha during the time of the mapdala polity (eighth-eleventh century ce) found support from these subordinate chiefs of tribal origin. In the conflict between Brahamnical religions and Buddhism in early mediaeval Odisha between ninth and twelfth century ce, the Brahmanical religions targeted the tribal origin feudatory chiefs by showing them being trampled by Bhairavas.
ecent years saw a spurt in writings on the forms and processes of changes in Buddhism in early
me... more ecent years saw a spurt in writings on the forms and processes of changes in Buddhism in early medieval India. These changes in Buddhism, studied under the rubric of tantric Buddhism, has been regarded earlier by scholars in various ways ranging from ‘corrupt’ form of the earlier ‘pure Buddhism’ to mere ‘imitation’ of the Puranic Buddhism and therefore was easily amenable to incorporation and eventual extinction in the syncretic Puranic Hinduism. It has also been regarded as too esoteric, which was restricted to serious monkish communities. However, the present article argues that Buddhism in its Vajrayana version had brought about numerous shifts in the religion. These shifts include the emergence of new gods and goddesses within a mandalic structure, emphasis on instrumental aspects of religion, incorporation of folk practices in the Buddhist pantheon structure and emphasis on adept guru. These shifts in Buddhism occurred when Brahamanical religions were constructing temples, expanding pilgrimage and integrating folk cults. Studying the religious landscape of Odisha from circa 7th-12th centuries CE, the paper explores the multiple shifts in Buddhism in its Vajrayana form in response to an expanding Brahamanical religion in Odisha and argues that these shifts in Buddhism occurred in order to make the religion more laity oriented (lokika).
The book explores the threads and traces of the development of complex society from the time of t... more The book explores the threads and traces of the development of complex society from the time of the beginning of the first farming communities in the 2nd millennium BC up to the 4th century CE. Generating and analyzing data from the exploration and excavations of archeological sites, the book employs the conceptual category of heterarchy rather than hierarchy as a more meaningful category to understand the nature of complexities of archaeological settlements, as well as the continuity and changes there in different temporalities. The work pleads for adopting a fruitful theoretical framework to understand periodisation and the nature of the material culture of Odisha. In a sense, this is the first work that tries to construct the past of early farming and the early historical culture of Odisha.
The book explores the threads and traces of the development of complex society from the time of t... more The book explores the threads and traces of the development of complex society from the time of the beginning of the first farming communities in the 2nd millennium BC up to the 4th century CE. Generating and analyzing data from the exploration and excavations of archeological sites, the book employs the conceptual category of heterarchy rather than hierarchy as a more meaningful category to understand the nature of complexities of archeological settlements, as well as the continuity and changes there in different temporalities. The work pleads for adopting a fruitful theoretical framework to understand periodisation and the nature of the material culture of Odisha. In a sense, this is the first work that tries to construct the past of early farming and the early historical culture of Odisha.
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facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine network
and convenient anchorages, has enjoyed a sustained
maritime history. Nevertheless, the lack of archaeological
excavation of ancient watercraft has meant that evidence
for water transport in Odisha has come from other sources.
This article examines iconographical representations
of watercraft found in temples across Odisha, as well
as some from palm leaf manuscripts of the 18th and
19th centuries. The vessels depicted are both riverine
and seagoing, and sport different types of planking and
constructional features—some unique to Odisha. This
iconography emphasises the intimate association between
the royal families, deities and mariners of Odisha, and
the important role that boats and ships traditionally
have had in Odishan trade, transportation and warfare,
and as a visual symbol of prestige. The traditional boats
of Odisha are unique in design and style, but traditional
boatbuilding in the region is declining due to rapid
industrialisation and incorporation of modern materials.
It is urgent, then, to document such craft and their
depictions in ancient art, both for posterity and to aid in
understanding and interpreting the rich maritime history
of the region.
manufacturing workshop with remains of a partially exposed furnace, bead debitage, polishers, and
a number of finished and unfinished beads. This is the first evidence of a bead manufacturing centre
found in any of the excavated settlements belonging to the Early Farming Culture/societies in the
eastern part of Odisha. The paper describes the variety of beads found, and also throws light on the
possible manufacturing process through XRD and poly-section analysis under stereomicroscope.
Micro ring and disc beads which appear to be steatite to the naked eye revealed quartz alone in XRD
analysis, while the drum-shaped beads and ear studs showed quartz with low cristobalite, raised
questions about the manufacturing methods. In addition to these micro-beads, beads of different
sizes made using agate, chalcedony, jasper, and of other material were also foun
from his agricultural field, the news of which was published in the local newspaper The Sambad on 5.8.2020. On
examination, the coin was found to be a dinara of Kuxapa ruler, Huvixka. The palaeographic and iconographic
features of the coin reveal that the coin is an imitated one. This is the first discovery and reporting of imitated
gold coin of Kuxapas from Odisha, even though the imitated Kuxapa’s copper coins, known as Puri-Kuxapa
coins have been found in hoards from the state. The Murupdas who were the viceroys of the Kuxapas in the
eastern provinces, were probably empowered to issue coins, and they were probably responsible for issuing
the imitated gold coin.
different parts of Odisha during exploration. The analysis of the inscribed images as well as the copperplate
donation to Buddhism largely reveals rapaka, samanta (feudatory chiefs) and acaryas as major donors. The
increasing evidence of the names of acaryas in early mediaeval Buddhism signifies their increasing roles in
the Vajrayana tradition. On the other hand, the evidence on the inscribed images reveals that the rapaka and
samanta (feudatory subordinate chiefs) emerged as a major support group of Buddhism in early mediaeval
period. These subordinate chiefs were largely from the interior hilly area with substantive tribal populations,
and Buddhism while travelling to interior Odisha during the time of the mapdala polity (eighth-eleventh
century ce) found support from these subordinate chiefs of tribal origin. In the conflict between Brahamnical
religions and Buddhism in early mediaeval Odisha between ninth and twelfth century ce, the Brahmanical
religions targeted the tribal origin feudatory chiefs by showing them being trampled by Bhairavas.
medieval India. These changes in Buddhism, studied under the rubric of tantric Buddhism, has
been regarded earlier by scholars in various ways ranging from ‘corrupt’ form of the earlier ‘pure
Buddhism’ to mere ‘imitation’ of the Puranic Buddhism and therefore was easily amenable to
incorporation and eventual extinction in the syncretic Puranic Hinduism. It has also been
regarded as too esoteric, which was restricted to serious monkish communities. However, the
present article argues that Buddhism in its Vajrayana version had brought about numerous shifts
in the religion. These shifts include the emergence of new gods and goddesses within a mandalic
structure, emphasis on instrumental aspects of religion, incorporation of folk practices in the
Buddhist pantheon structure and emphasis on adept guru. These shifts in Buddhism occurred
when Brahamanical religions were constructing temples, expanding pilgrimage and integrating
folk cults. Studying the religious landscape of Odisha from circa 7th-12th centuries CE, the paper
explores the multiple shifts in Buddhism in its Vajrayana form in response to an expanding
Brahamanical religion in Odisha and argues that these shifts in Buddhism occurred in order to
make the religion more laity oriented (lokika).
facing the Bay of Bengal, extensive riverine network
and convenient anchorages, has enjoyed a sustained
maritime history. Nevertheless, the lack of archaeological
excavation of ancient watercraft has meant that evidence
for water transport in Odisha has come from other sources.
This article examines iconographical representations
of watercraft found in temples across Odisha, as well
as some from palm leaf manuscripts of the 18th and
19th centuries. The vessels depicted are both riverine
and seagoing, and sport different types of planking and
constructional features—some unique to Odisha. This
iconography emphasises the intimate association between
the royal families, deities and mariners of Odisha, and
the important role that boats and ships traditionally
have had in Odishan trade, transportation and warfare,
and as a visual symbol of prestige. The traditional boats
of Odisha are unique in design and style, but traditional
boatbuilding in the region is declining due to rapid
industrialisation and incorporation of modern materials.
It is urgent, then, to document such craft and their
depictions in ancient art, both for posterity and to aid in
understanding and interpreting the rich maritime history
of the region.
manufacturing workshop with remains of a partially exposed furnace, bead debitage, polishers, and
a number of finished and unfinished beads. This is the first evidence of a bead manufacturing centre
found in any of the excavated settlements belonging to the Early Farming Culture/societies in the
eastern part of Odisha. The paper describes the variety of beads found, and also throws light on the
possible manufacturing process through XRD and poly-section analysis under stereomicroscope.
Micro ring and disc beads which appear to be steatite to the naked eye revealed quartz alone in XRD
analysis, while the drum-shaped beads and ear studs showed quartz with low cristobalite, raised
questions about the manufacturing methods. In addition to these micro-beads, beads of different
sizes made using agate, chalcedony, jasper, and of other material were also foun
from his agricultural field, the news of which was published in the local newspaper The Sambad on 5.8.2020. On
examination, the coin was found to be a dinara of Kuxapa ruler, Huvixka. The palaeographic and iconographic
features of the coin reveal that the coin is an imitated one. This is the first discovery and reporting of imitated
gold coin of Kuxapas from Odisha, even though the imitated Kuxapa’s copper coins, known as Puri-Kuxapa
coins have been found in hoards from the state. The Murupdas who were the viceroys of the Kuxapas in the
eastern provinces, were probably empowered to issue coins, and they were probably responsible for issuing
the imitated gold coin.
different parts of Odisha during exploration. The analysis of the inscribed images as well as the copperplate
donation to Buddhism largely reveals rapaka, samanta (feudatory chiefs) and acaryas as major donors. The
increasing evidence of the names of acaryas in early mediaeval Buddhism signifies their increasing roles in
the Vajrayana tradition. On the other hand, the evidence on the inscribed images reveals that the rapaka and
samanta (feudatory subordinate chiefs) emerged as a major support group of Buddhism in early mediaeval
period. These subordinate chiefs were largely from the interior hilly area with substantive tribal populations,
and Buddhism while travelling to interior Odisha during the time of the mapdala polity (eighth-eleventh
century ce) found support from these subordinate chiefs of tribal origin. In the conflict between Brahamnical
religions and Buddhism in early mediaeval Odisha between ninth and twelfth century ce, the Brahmanical
religions targeted the tribal origin feudatory chiefs by showing them being trampled by Bhairavas.
medieval India. These changes in Buddhism, studied under the rubric of tantric Buddhism, has
been regarded earlier by scholars in various ways ranging from ‘corrupt’ form of the earlier ‘pure
Buddhism’ to mere ‘imitation’ of the Puranic Buddhism and therefore was easily amenable to
incorporation and eventual extinction in the syncretic Puranic Hinduism. It has also been
regarded as too esoteric, which was restricted to serious monkish communities. However, the
present article argues that Buddhism in its Vajrayana version had brought about numerous shifts
in the religion. These shifts include the emergence of new gods and goddesses within a mandalic
structure, emphasis on instrumental aspects of religion, incorporation of folk practices in the
Buddhist pantheon structure and emphasis on adept guru. These shifts in Buddhism occurred
when Brahamanical religions were constructing temples, expanding pilgrimage and integrating
folk cults. Studying the religious landscape of Odisha from circa 7th-12th centuries CE, the paper
explores the multiple shifts in Buddhism in its Vajrayana form in response to an expanding
Brahamanical religion in Odisha and argues that these shifts in Buddhism occurred in order to
make the religion more laity oriented (lokika).