I am a clinical psychologist specializing in global mental health and trauma. My primary work right now is equipping leaders for trauma response in countries lacking mental health care and field response to disaster. I am also an adjunct professor at Regent University and conduct research on the effectiveness of a faith-based program for trauma recovery.
Some research has been done on Third Culture Kids (TCKs), those who grow up outside of their pare... more Some research has been done on Third Culture Kids (TCKs), those who grow up outside of their parent's culture and build relationships with the multiple cultures during their developmental years (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). Steps have been taken to address the needs in preparing TCKs for college (Wyse, 1998), but some still face difficulties in adjustment (Cockburn, 2002). This study was designed to look for correlations between the pattern of transitions during childhood and the success in adjustment into college for Missionary Kids (MKs), a subgroup of TCKs. It is hypothesized that MKs who had more negative experiences in earlier transitions would find adjustment to college more difficult, those who have had less interaction with Western peers while growing up and less support when returning to the North America would have greater trouble in the process of transition, and those later in the education process would feel more adjusted than those having recently returned. "While the results supported the first hypothesis, the second two were only partially confirmed. The implications of these and additional findings are discussed. Over the past fifty years, the advent of improved transportation, increased means of international communication, and advanced technology has sparked a multiplication of global interaction (Hill, 2006). Along with such globalization, the number of expatriates raising their children overseas has grown dramatically (Cockburn, 2002). International schools began to emerge in the 1950s, now estimated to be between 1000 and 2000 in number (Hey ward, 2002). With such changes in society emerged a new population of those young people raised in a multi-cultural setting. They are referred to at times as "global nomads" (McCa ig, 1992), but more commonly as Third Culture Kids (TCKs), a term coined by John and Ruth Hill Useem (1976). Pollock and Van Reken (2001) provide the commonly accepted definition: A Third Culture Kid (TCK) is a person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside of the parents' culture. The TCK builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership of any. Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the TCK's life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar background, (p. 19) Being raised in multiple cultures brings both benefits and challenges. TCKs are influenced by various cultures, both on a superficial level of language and traditions, and a deeper level of values and assumptions (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). Pollock and Van Reken present four possible relationships someone has to a surrounding culture according to whether they look alike or different from those around them, and whether they think alike or differently from those around them. TCKs hold distinct relationships with multiple cultures, at times being more connected to the host culture than to the parents' culture. In some contexts what others expect of the TCKs' experience matches reality, such as having a dissimilar perspective in a newly foreign land. But they may feel frustrated and misunderstood when expected to be different because of a foreign appearance, despite having completely adapted to a culture; they may also face inaccurate assumptions that they are the same as their parents' culture based on similar appearance (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). Such conflict and mixed influences of cultures can bring questions and challenges in the development of identity and a sense of belonging (Fail, Thompson, & Walker, 2004; Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). In addition to the cross-cultural elements of their upbringing, TCKs share a mobile lifestyle, finding change to be an ironic constant, whether their own family is moving or other expatriates around them do so (Schaetti & Ramsey, 1999b). Such a lifestyle can have a number of effects. Pollock and Van Reken (2001) describe "rootlessness" and "restlessness" (p. …
There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress di... more There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), especially in low- to middle-income countries such as Nigeria. This study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of a faith-based program in the reduction of PTSD symptoms and the improvement of relationship with God. Participants were all Nigerians living in the middle and northern parts of Nigeria, selected by a local church and a local Christian non-profit organization. Three 5-day workshops were completed in two locations with a total of 41 participants. The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition ( DSM-5) and the Spiritual Assessment Inventory were used as measures implemented pre and post intervention for program evaluation. Paired-sample t-tests showed significant reductions of PTSD symptoms, with a moderate effect on the whole group and a large effect on those who reached the cut-off for PTSD prior to the workshop. Improvement in relationship with God was also evident. Overall, the program appeared beneficial to participants, suggesting that culturally sensitive, faith-based workshops may be a strategic way to address high rates of PTSD in high-conflict areas.
There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress di... more There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), especially in low- to middle-income countries such as Nigeria. This study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of a faith-based program in the reduction of PTSD symptoms and the improvement of relationship with God. Participants were all Nigerians living in the middle and northern parts of Nigeria, selected by a local church and a local Christian non-profit organization. Three 5-day workshops were completed in two locations with a total of 41 participants. The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition ( DSM-5) and the Spiritual Assessment Inventory were used as measures implemented pre and post intervention for program evaluation. Paired-sample t-tests showed significant reductions of PTSD symptoms, with a moderate effect on the whole group and a large effect on those who reached the cut-off for PTSD pr...
While some research has been done on acculturation within the Latino population and the significa... more While some research has been done on acculturation within the Latino population and the significance of spirituality has been included in a number of studies, there is very little research exploring the influence of these two factors in the formation of identity and relationships to others. This is particularly salient in lives of university students, as it is a time of finding their own niche in society and making decisions that shape their future. This study explores the influence of culture and spirituality on the acceptance of self and relation to others among Latino university students. The findings supported the hypothesis that intrinsic spirituality influenced acceptance of self and relations to others, while acculturation and religious community involvement did not appear to have a significant impact. The shift of relational patterns, compared to other studies. In the general Latino population, the study illustrates the importance of creating a campus environment that provides community and acceptance through crossing cultural boundaries.
Some research has been done on Third Culture Kids (TCKs), those who grow up outside of their pare... more Some research has been done on Third Culture Kids (TCKs), those who grow up outside of their parent's culture and build relationships with the multiple cultures during their developmental years (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). Steps have been taken to address the needs in preparing TCKs for college (Wyse, 1998), but some still face difficulties in adjustment (Cockburn, 2002). This study was designed to look for correlations between the pattern of transitions during childhood and the success in adjustment into college for Missionary Kids (MKs), a subgroup of TCKs. It is hypothesized that MKs who had more negative experiences in earlier transitions would find adjustment to college more difficult, those who have had less interaction with Western peers while growing up and less support when returning to the North America would have greater trouble in the process of transition, and those later in the education process would feel more adjusted than those having recently returned. "While the results supported the first hypothesis, the second two were only partially confirmed. The implications of these and additional findings are discussed. Over the past fifty years, the advent of improved transportation, increased means of international communication, and advanced technology has sparked a multiplication of global interaction (Hill, 2006). Along with such globalization, the number of expatriates raising their children overseas has grown dramatically (Cockburn, 2002). International schools began to emerge in the 1950s, now estimated to be between 1000 and 2000 in number (Hey ward, 2002). With such changes in society emerged a new population of those young people raised in a multi-cultural setting. They are referred to at times as "global nomads" (McCa ig, 1992), but more commonly as Third Culture Kids (TCKs), a term coined by John and Ruth Hill Useem (1976). Pollock and Van Reken (2001) provide the commonly accepted definition: A Third Culture Kid (TCK) is a person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside of the parents' culture. The TCK builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership of any. Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the TCK's life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar background, (p. 19) Being raised in multiple cultures brings both benefits and challenges. TCKs are influenced by various cultures, both on a superficial level of language and traditions, and a deeper level of values and assumptions (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). Pollock and Van Reken present four possible relationships someone has to a surrounding culture according to whether they look alike or different from those around them, and whether they think alike or differently from those around them. TCKs hold distinct relationships with multiple cultures, at times being more connected to the host culture than to the parents' culture. In some contexts what others expect of the TCKs' experience matches reality, such as having a dissimilar perspective in a newly foreign land. But they may feel frustrated and misunderstood when expected to be different because of a foreign appearance, despite having completely adapted to a culture; they may also face inaccurate assumptions that they are the same as their parents' culture based on similar appearance (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). Such conflict and mixed influences of cultures can bring questions and challenges in the development of identity and a sense of belonging (Fail, Thompson, & Walker, 2004; Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). In addition to the cross-cultural elements of their upbringing, TCKs share a mobile lifestyle, finding change to be an ironic constant, whether their own family is moving or other expatriates around them do so (Schaetti & Ramsey, 1999b). Such a lifestyle can have a number of effects. Pollock and Van Reken (2001) describe "rootlessness" and "restlessness" (p. …
There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress di... more There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), especially in low- to middle-income countries such as Nigeria. This study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of a faith-based program in the reduction of PTSD symptoms and the improvement of relationship with God. Participants were all Nigerians living in the middle and northern parts of Nigeria, selected by a local church and a local Christian non-profit organization. Three 5-day workshops were completed in two locations with a total of 41 participants. The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition ( DSM-5) and the Spiritual Assessment Inventory were used as measures implemented pre and post intervention for program evaluation. Paired-sample t-tests showed significant reductions of PTSD symptoms, with a moderate effect on the whole group and a large effect on those who reached the cut-off for PTSD prior to the workshop. Improvement in relationship with God was also evident. Overall, the program appeared beneficial to participants, suggesting that culturally sensitive, faith-based workshops may be a strategic way to address high rates of PTSD in high-conflict areas.
There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress di... more There is a significant gap in the need for and provision of treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), especially in low- to middle-income countries such as Nigeria. This study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of a faith-based program in the reduction of PTSD symptoms and the improvement of relationship with God. Participants were all Nigerians living in the middle and northern parts of Nigeria, selected by a local church and a local Christian non-profit organization. Three 5-day workshops were completed in two locations with a total of 41 participants. The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition ( DSM-5) and the Spiritual Assessment Inventory were used as measures implemented pre and post intervention for program evaluation. Paired-sample t-tests showed significant reductions of PTSD symptoms, with a moderate effect on the whole group and a large effect on those who reached the cut-off for PTSD pr...
While some research has been done on acculturation within the Latino population and the significa... more While some research has been done on acculturation within the Latino population and the significance of spirituality has been included in a number of studies, there is very little research exploring the influence of these two factors in the formation of identity and relationships to others. This is particularly salient in lives of university students, as it is a time of finding their own niche in society and making decisions that shape their future. This study explores the influence of culture and spirituality on the acceptance of self and relation to others among Latino university students. The findings supported the hypothesis that intrinsic spirituality influenced acceptance of self and relations to others, while acculturation and religious community involvement did not appear to have a significant impact. The shift of relational patterns, compared to other studies. In the general Latino population, the study illustrates the importance of creating a campus environment that provides community and acceptance through crossing cultural boundaries.
Uploads