John R. Roberts is a Senior Linguistics Consultant with SIL International. He has a Ph.D. in Linguistics from University College London. From 1978 to 1998 John supervised the Amele language project in Papua New Guinea during which time translations of Genesis and the New Testament were completed. John has taught graduate level linguistics courses in the UK, USA, Sweden, S. Korea and W. Asia. He has published many articles in the domains of descriptive linguistics and Bible translation and several linguistics books. His current research interest is to understand Genesis 1–11 in an ancient Near East context. He became a retired member of SIL in 2016. Address: United Kingdom
In this paper we argue for the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1. First, we show that G... more In this paper we argue for the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1. First, we show that Gen 1.1-2 is marked as background information and vv. 1 and 2 are not in chronological sequence. Then we examine the meanings of the lexical items in Gen 1.1. The noun rēʾšîṯ 'beginning' does not mean "beginning" in the sense of 'first of a chronological sequence.' Gen 1.1 is therefore not reporting an initial historical event. The Hebrew verb bārāʾ in Gen 1.1 means 'create, separate (as by cutting)' (Van Leeuwen, 1997: 728-35). Therefore, this action could not have produced an earth (ʾereṣ) described as tōhû wāḇōhû 'without form and void' in Gen 1.2. The Hebrew noun ʾĕlōhîm 'Elohim' also shows that Gen 1.1 cannot be describing a historical event. The Hebrew language did not exist in the beginning and the plural form ʾĕlōhîm is derived from the singular form ʾēlōah. The expression haššāmayim wəhāʾāreṣ in Gen 1.1 is a spatial merism for the whole of creation. Here haššāmayim must refer to the heavens created in Gen 1.6-7 and hāʾāreṣ must refer to the earth created in 1.9 for haššāmayim wəhāʾāreṣ in Gen 1.1 to function as a spatial merism. We then show that the days of creation are enumerated as an itemized list beginning with cardinal number ʾeḥāḏ 'one.' This means the days of creation are arranged topically rather than chronologically in a pattern of three days of forming functional domains and three days of filling those domains with functionaries. The days of creation are therefore an elaboration on Gen 1.1 and not events chronologically subsequent to Gen 1.1. The Bible uses numbers symbolically to represent concepts such as perfection, completion, fulfilment, totality, wholeness, etc., rather than mathematically to count things. The pattern of 3 + 3 + 1 = 7 is therefore symbolic rather than literal. It is not a count of the days of creation. In the ancient world the act of naming something meant bringing it into existence. God names the fundamental components of the universe created in the first three days and thus brings the heavens and the earth into existence at this stage of the narrative. In Gen 1.1-2.3 God's creation is pronounced as being ṭôḇ meaning 'good, everything in its appropriate place, beneficial' at different stages of the process. This expresses the chaos (disorder) to cosmos (order) motif of Gen 1.1-2.3. This process is completed when the creation is declared to be "very good" (Gen 1.31) and "finished" (Gen 2.1). Many Scriptures (e.g., Exo 20.11, 31.17) affirm that God made the heavens and the earth in six days and not in a single creative event in Gen 1.1. One objection to the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1 is that it presupposes in v. 2 the existence of chaotic pre-existent matter before the work of creation began in v. 3. In the discussion of creation ex nihilo it is argued that the Greek-derived concepts of creation ex nihilo and creation ex materia would have been unknown to Gen 1.1-3.
In this paper we examine the cosmology of the book of Job. First, we look at the passages of Job ... more In this paper we examine the cosmology of the book of Job. First, we look at the passages of Job that have a cosmological reference. Then we examine some aspects of Job's cosmology that can be gleaned from these passages. The cosmology of Job is based on the worldview of the author of the book. The cosmos in Job is tiered from the highest heaven, the celestial heaven where God dwells, to the depths of Sheol where the dead reside. The sky is considered to be a solid dome holding aloft an ocean of water above. This dome is sealed to the disk of the earth at the horizon to prevent the cosmic waters above the sky and below the earth from flooding into the cosmos. There are also storehouses where various celestial and meteorological objects are kept when not in use. This includes the light of day and the darkness of night, the sun and the stars, rain, and winds. Sheol is the place where the dead are "stored." Three mythical creatures are mentioned in Job: Leviathan, Rahab, and Behemoth. They are described as real creatures which only God has control over. Thus, myth is part of the reality of Job's cosmos.
Serial verb constructions (SVCs), are found in Creole languages, in the languages of West Africa,... more Serial verb constructions (SVCs), are found in Creole languages, in the languages of West Africa, Southeast Asia, Amazonia, Oceania, and New Guinea. In this article we examine catenative verb constructions (CVCs) in English from a Role and Reference Grammar perspective and compare them with SVCs. More specifically, based on the set of syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs proposed by Kroeger (2004: 229-230), it will be demonstrated that CVCs in English have all of the characteristic syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs.
‘Impersonal Constructions in Amele’ in Alexandra Y. Aikenvald, R. M. W. Dixon, Masayuki Onishi eds. Non-Canonical Marking of Subjects and Objects, Typological Studies in Language 46, pp. 201–250. , 2001
In this article I describe and analyse the syntax and semantics of so-called impersonal verb cons... more In this article I describe and analyse the syntax and semantics of so-called impersonal verb constructions in the Amele language of Papua New Guinea (PNG), especially with regard to the argument structure of these constructions.
In this article I describe the syntax and semantics of GIVE in the Amele language of Papua New Gu... more In this article I describe the syntax and semantics of GIVE in the Amele language of Papua New Guinea. GIVE is unusual in this language in that there is no overt lexical stem with the meaning ‘to give’. Instead affixes which normally attach to verb stems marking tense, aspect or mood and subject and object agreement appear in the position where the verb would be expected.
Finer (1985b) has proposed that the seemingly exotic phenomenon of switch-reference (SR) found in... more Finer (1985b) has proposed that the seemingly exotic phenomenon of switch-reference (SR) found in a wide range of languages can be accommodated within the generalized theory of binding (Aoun (1981; 1982; 1986)) that is. the extension of the binding principles to Ā positions. The fundamental axiom upon which this analysis rests, however, is a clause that has SR markings must be in a subordinate relation to some other clause for the notion of government, as defined in Government-Binding (GB) Theory, to operate. It is the purpose of this article to show that while Finer’s analysis of SR is relatively elegant as a GB analysis of the phenomenon, it cannot account for certain facts of SR across diverse languages, particularly the Amele language of Papua New Guinea (PNG). It will be demonstrated that for Amele, although SR marking occurs that conforms to the pattern predicted by Finer’s analysis (SR marking on a subordinate clause coreferencing the [NP,S] of an immediately dominating superordinate (matrix) clause), SR marking also occurs which is not predicted and cannot be accounted for under Finer’s analysis (specifically, SR across coordinate clauses and between subordinate and superordinate clauses where the superordinate clause rather than the subordinate clause is marked for SR).
Australian Journal of Linguistics 8, 75–118., 1988
It is argued that switch-reference, as it is exhibited in Papuan languages, is not primarily a sy... more It is argued that switch-reference, as it is exhibited in Papuan languages, is not primarily a syntactic device like reflexivization or verb agreement for indicating nominal reference, but rather its main function is that of a thematic device for linking sentences in text formation, and that coreferencing certain nominals across clauses is included in, but subsidiary to, this basic function.
In the Bible Abraham is revered as the prophet to whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom ... more In the Bible Abraham is revered as the prophet to whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom God initiated a covenant saying, "To you I will give the land of Canaan as your portion for an inheritance." However, most mainstream Bible scholars today consider Genesis to be primarily mythological rather than historical and most historians view the patriarchal age, along with the exodus and the period of the biblical judges, as a late literary construct that does not relate to any particular historical era. In this paper we examine the evidence that Abraham is mythological and compare it to the evidence that Abraham is historical.
Serial verb constructions (SVCs) are found in Creole languages and in the languages of West Afric... more Serial verb constructions (SVCs) are found in Creole languages and in the languages of West Africa, Southeast Asia, Amazonia, Oceania, and New Guinea. In this article we examine catenative verb constructions (CVCs) in English from a Role and Reference Grammar perspective and compare them with SVCs. More specifically, based on the set of syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs proposed by Kroeger (2004: 229–230), it will be demonstrated that CVCs in English have all of the characteristic syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs.
... Is come-DS-Is food eat-lp-tod.p 'I came and we ate the food.' The simultane... more ... Is come-DS-Is food eat-lp-tod.p 'I came and we ate the food.' The simultaneous DS verb also makes a distinction between realis and irrealis status (modality) by way of the subject agreement markers. Thus, realis status is indicated ...
... SU food eat-lSG-TODP 'I sat down and ate the food.' b. Ija bil-ece-min saabj-ei-a. ... more ... SU food eat-lSG-TODP 'I sat down and ate the food.' b. Ija bil-ece-min saabj-ei-a. isc sit-os-ISG. ... Likewise, when the subject of the control-ling clause is different to that of the dependent clause the DS morpheme-ece is marked on the dependent clause. ...
In this paper we argue for the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1. First, we show that G... more In this paper we argue for the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1. First, we show that Gen 1.1-2 is marked as background information and vv. 1 and 2 are not in chronological sequence. Then we examine the meanings of the lexical items in Gen 1.1. The noun rēʾšîṯ 'beginning' does not mean "beginning" in the sense of 'first of a chronological sequence.' Gen 1.1 is therefore not reporting an initial historical event. The Hebrew verb bārāʾ in Gen 1.1 means 'create, separate (as by cutting)' (Van Leeuwen, 1997: 728-35). Therefore, this action could not have produced an earth (ʾereṣ) described as tōhû wāḇōhû 'without form and void' in Gen 1.2. The Hebrew noun ʾĕlōhîm 'Elohim' also shows that Gen 1.1 cannot be describing a historical event. The Hebrew language did not exist in the beginning and the plural form ʾĕlōhîm is derived from the singular form ʾēlōah. The expression haššāmayim wəhāʾāreṣ in Gen 1.1 is a spatial merism for the whole of creation. Here haššāmayim must refer to the heavens created in Gen 1.6-7 and hāʾāreṣ must refer to the earth created in 1.9 for haššāmayim wəhāʾāreṣ in Gen 1.1 to function as a spatial merism. We then show that the days of creation are enumerated as an itemized list beginning with cardinal number ʾeḥāḏ 'one.' This means the days of creation are arranged topically rather than chronologically in a pattern of three days of forming functional domains and three days of filling those domains with functionaries. The days of creation are therefore an elaboration on Gen 1.1 and not events chronologically subsequent to Gen 1.1. The Bible uses numbers symbolically to represent concepts such as perfection, completion, fulfilment, totality, wholeness, etc., rather than mathematically to count things. The pattern of 3 + 3 + 1 = 7 is therefore symbolic rather than literal. It is not a count of the days of creation. In the ancient world the act of naming something meant bringing it into existence. God names the fundamental components of the universe created in the first three days and thus brings the heavens and the earth into existence at this stage of the narrative. In Gen 1.1-2.3 God's creation is pronounced as being ṭôḇ meaning 'good, everything in its appropriate place, beneficial' at different stages of the process. This expresses the chaos (disorder) to cosmos (order) motif of Gen 1.1-2.3. This process is completed when the creation is declared to be "very good" (Gen 1.31) and "finished" (Gen 2.1). Many Scriptures (e.g., Exo 20.11, 31.17) affirm that God made the heavens and the earth in six days and not in a single creative event in Gen 1.1. One objection to the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1 is that it presupposes in v. 2 the existence of chaotic pre-existent matter before the work of creation began in v. 3. In the discussion of creation ex nihilo it is argued that the Greek-derived concepts of creation ex nihilo and creation ex materia would have been unknown to Gen 1.1-3.
In this paper we examine the cosmology of the book of Job. First, we look at the passages of Job ... more In this paper we examine the cosmology of the book of Job. First, we look at the passages of Job that have a cosmological reference. Then we examine some aspects of Job's cosmology that can be gleaned from these passages. The cosmology of Job is based on the worldview of the author of the book. The cosmos in Job is tiered from the highest heaven, the celestial heaven where God dwells, to the depths of Sheol where the dead reside. The sky is considered to be a solid dome holding aloft an ocean of water above. This dome is sealed to the disk of the earth at the horizon to prevent the cosmic waters above the sky and below the earth from flooding into the cosmos. There are also storehouses where various celestial and meteorological objects are kept when not in use. This includes the light of day and the darkness of night, the sun and the stars, rain, and winds. Sheol is the place where the dead are "stored." Three mythical creatures are mentioned in Job: Leviathan, Rahab, and Behemoth. They are described as real creatures which only God has control over. Thus, myth is part of the reality of Job's cosmos.
Serial verb constructions (SVCs), are found in Creole languages, in the languages of West Africa,... more Serial verb constructions (SVCs), are found in Creole languages, in the languages of West Africa, Southeast Asia, Amazonia, Oceania, and New Guinea. In this article we examine catenative verb constructions (CVCs) in English from a Role and Reference Grammar perspective and compare them with SVCs. More specifically, based on the set of syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs proposed by Kroeger (2004: 229-230), it will be demonstrated that CVCs in English have all of the characteristic syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs.
‘Impersonal Constructions in Amele’ in Alexandra Y. Aikenvald, R. M. W. Dixon, Masayuki Onishi eds. Non-Canonical Marking of Subjects and Objects, Typological Studies in Language 46, pp. 201–250. , 2001
In this article I describe and analyse the syntax and semantics of so-called impersonal verb cons... more In this article I describe and analyse the syntax and semantics of so-called impersonal verb constructions in the Amele language of Papua New Guinea (PNG), especially with regard to the argument structure of these constructions.
In this article I describe the syntax and semantics of GIVE in the Amele language of Papua New Gu... more In this article I describe the syntax and semantics of GIVE in the Amele language of Papua New Guinea. GIVE is unusual in this language in that there is no overt lexical stem with the meaning ‘to give’. Instead affixes which normally attach to verb stems marking tense, aspect or mood and subject and object agreement appear in the position where the verb would be expected.
Finer (1985b) has proposed that the seemingly exotic phenomenon of switch-reference (SR) found in... more Finer (1985b) has proposed that the seemingly exotic phenomenon of switch-reference (SR) found in a wide range of languages can be accommodated within the generalized theory of binding (Aoun (1981; 1982; 1986)) that is. the extension of the binding principles to Ā positions. The fundamental axiom upon which this analysis rests, however, is a clause that has SR markings must be in a subordinate relation to some other clause for the notion of government, as defined in Government-Binding (GB) Theory, to operate. It is the purpose of this article to show that while Finer’s analysis of SR is relatively elegant as a GB analysis of the phenomenon, it cannot account for certain facts of SR across diverse languages, particularly the Amele language of Papua New Guinea (PNG). It will be demonstrated that for Amele, although SR marking occurs that conforms to the pattern predicted by Finer’s analysis (SR marking on a subordinate clause coreferencing the [NP,S] of an immediately dominating superordinate (matrix) clause), SR marking also occurs which is not predicted and cannot be accounted for under Finer’s analysis (specifically, SR across coordinate clauses and between subordinate and superordinate clauses where the superordinate clause rather than the subordinate clause is marked for SR).
Australian Journal of Linguistics 8, 75–118., 1988
It is argued that switch-reference, as it is exhibited in Papuan languages, is not primarily a sy... more It is argued that switch-reference, as it is exhibited in Papuan languages, is not primarily a syntactic device like reflexivization or verb agreement for indicating nominal reference, but rather its main function is that of a thematic device for linking sentences in text formation, and that coreferencing certain nominals across clauses is included in, but subsidiary to, this basic function.
In the Bible Abraham is revered as the prophet to whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom ... more In the Bible Abraham is revered as the prophet to whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom God initiated a covenant saying, "To you I will give the land of Canaan as your portion for an inheritance." However, most mainstream Bible scholars today consider Genesis to be primarily mythological rather than historical and most historians view the patriarchal age, along with the exodus and the period of the biblical judges, as a late literary construct that does not relate to any particular historical era. In this paper we examine the evidence that Abraham is mythological and compare it to the evidence that Abraham is historical.
Serial verb constructions (SVCs) are found in Creole languages and in the languages of West Afric... more Serial verb constructions (SVCs) are found in Creole languages and in the languages of West Africa, Southeast Asia, Amazonia, Oceania, and New Guinea. In this article we examine catenative verb constructions (CVCs) in English from a Role and Reference Grammar perspective and compare them with SVCs. More specifically, based on the set of syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs proposed by Kroeger (2004: 229–230), it will be demonstrated that CVCs in English have all of the characteristic syntactic and semantic properties of SVCs.
... Is come-DS-Is food eat-lp-tod.p 'I came and we ate the food.' The simultane... more ... Is come-DS-Is food eat-lp-tod.p 'I came and we ate the food.' The simultaneous DS verb also makes a distinction between realis and irrealis status (modality) by way of the subject agreement markers. Thus, realis status is indicated ...
... SU food eat-lSG-TODP 'I sat down and ate the food.' b. Ija bil-ece-min saabj-ei-a. ... more ... SU food eat-lSG-TODP 'I sat down and ate the food.' b. Ija bil-ece-min saabj-ei-a. isc sit-os-ISG. ... Likewise, when the subject of the control-ling clause is different to that of the dependent clause the DS morpheme-ece is marked on the dependent clause. ...
In this paper we argue for the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1. First, we show that G... more In this paper we argue for the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1. First, we show that Gen 1.1-2 is marked as background information and vv. 1 and 2 are not in chronological sequence. Then we examine the meanings of the lexical items in Gen 1.1. The noun rēʾšîṯ 'beginning' does not mean "beginning" in the sense of 'first of a chronological sequence.' Gen 1.1 is therefore not reporting an initial historical event. The Hebrew verb bārāʾ in Gen 1.1 means 'create, separate (as by cutting)' (Van Leeuwen, 1997: 728-35). Therefore, this action could not have produced an earth (ʾereṣ) described as tōhû wāḇōhû 'without form and void' in Gen 1.2. The Hebrew noun ʾĕlōhîm 'Elohim' also shows that Gen 1.1 cannot be describing a historical event. The Hebrew language did not exist in the beginning and the plural form ʾĕlōhîm is derived from the singular form ʾēlōah. The expression haššāmayim wəhāʾāreṣ in Gen 1.1 is a spatial merism for the whole of creation. Here haššāmayim must refer to the heavens created in Gen 1.6-7 and hāʾāreṣ must refer to the earth created in 1.9 for haššāmayim wəhāʾāreṣ in Gen 1.1 to function as a spatial merism. We then show that the days of creation are enumerated as an itemized list beginning with cardinal number ʾeḥāḏ 'one.' This means the days of creation are arranged topically rather than chronologically in a pattern of three days of forming functional domains and three days of filling those domains with functionaries. The days of creation are therefore an elaboration on Gen 1.1 and not events chronologically subsequent to Gen 1.1. The Bible uses numbers symbolically to represent concepts such as perfection, completion, fulfilment, totality, wholeness, etc., rather than mathematically to count things. The pattern of 3 + 3 + 1 = 7 is therefore symbolic rather than literal. It is not a count of the days of creation. In the ancient world the act of naming something meant bringing it into existence. God names the fundamental components of the universe created in the first three days and thus brings the heavens and the earth into existence at this stage of the narrative. In Gen 1.1-2.3 God's creation is pronounced as being ṭôḇ meaning 'good, everything in its appropriate place, beneficial' at different stages of the process. This expresses the chaos (disorder) to cosmos (order) motif of Gen 1.1-2.3. This process is completed when the creation is declared to be "very good" (Gen 1.31) and "finished" (Gen 2.1). Many Scriptures (e.g., Exo 20.11, 31.17) affirm that God made the heavens and the earth in six days and not in a single creative event in Gen 1.1. One objection to the summary statement interpretation of Gen 1.1 is that it presupposes in v. 2 the existence of chaotic pre-existent matter before the work of creation began in v. 3. In the discussion of creation ex nihilo it is argued that the Greek-derived concepts of creation ex nihilo and creation ex materia would have been unknown to Gen 1.1-3.
In this paper we show there is a difference in how death is regarded in Gen 1 and Gen 2-3. In Gen... more In this paper we show there is a difference in how death is regarded in Gen 1 and Gen 2-3. In Gen 1.1-2.3 it is implied that death is there from the beginning and is fully integrated into the creation. While in Gen 2.4-3.24 it is implied that death is not there from the beginning. Instead the man, Adam, brings death into the creation by eating the forbidden fruit.
In this paper we discuss the historicity of Adam, the first man. In the Bible Adam and Eve are co... more In this paper we discuss the historicity of Adam, the first man. In the Bible Adam and Eve are considered to be real people that were the biological and genealogical ancestors of all human beings. The Bible also testifies that Adam disobeyed God and brought sin and death into the world. However, the scientific evidence from paleontology and human genomic studies denies the biblical Adam. Some say these opposing views of Adam cannot be reconciled. We examine some of the options and conclude that the best option is Peter Enns' suggestion that the story of Adam is a metaphor for YHWH's covenantal relationship with Israel, and their disobedience and exile from the Promised Land.
In this paper NT passages are examined where it is shown that Jesus quotes from the Greek Septuag... more In this paper NT passages are examined where it is shown that Jesus quotes from the Greek Septuagint (LXX) rather than from the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT). We know this because in each example the content of the LXX passage is different to that in the equivalent MT passage. The question raised is that by so doing did Jesus authorise the LXX as scriptural? Since Jesus would have preached in Aramaic he couldn't have quoted directly from the LXX. Instead, it is the Gospel writers who are quoting from the LXX in their reports of what Jesus said. So while Jesus didn't authorise the LXX as scriptural his disciples did.
Interpreting the Life Spans in the Genealogies in Genesis 5 and 11, 2022
In this paper the extraordinary life spans of the patriarchs given in the genealogies in Genesis ... more In this paper the extraordinary life spans of the patriarchs given in the genealogies in Genesis 5 and 11 are examined to determine how they should be interpreted. It is shown that there are three factors that count against the traditional, literal interpretation: (i) the numerical form of the life span figures and ages when a named son is born suggests the figures are manufactured rather than being naturally occurring, (ii) the Bible, both in the Old Testament and New Testament, disconfirms rather than corroborates the reality of the life span figures, (iii) archaeological evidence disconfirms that people lived to a great age in the ancient world. The conclusion reached is that the extraordinary life spans in the genealogies in Genesis 5 and 11 are a product of the ancient Near East cultural milieu concerning origins and do not refer to actual years of life.
In this paper nine sets of NT texts are presented where a coherent translation requires an unders... more In this paper nine sets of NT texts are presented where a coherent translation requires an understanding of the frame of reference of the author of the text in order to translate it in such a way that the new receptor audience understands the text in the same way the original audience understood it. We investigate how salt can lose its saltiness in
This paper examines the "end(s) of the earth" notion expressed primarily in the OT but also in th... more This paper examines the "end(s) of the earth" notion expressed primarily in the OT but also in the NT. It is argued that these expressions can only have meaning if the earth is understood to be a flat, circular disk with physical edges. The OT says the earth ('ereṣ) has "ends". There are various renderings: qəṣēh hā-'āreṣ 'end, extremity; border, outskirts, edge, boundary, brink of the earth', qaṣwê 'ereṣ 'ends of the earth', ʾap̄sê 'āreṣ 'end, extremity of the earth', kənap̄ hā-'āreṣ 'wing, extremity, skirt of the earth', gəḇûlôṯ 'āreṣ 'borders, boundaries of the earth', sôp̄ ʾarəʿāʾ 'end, conclusion of the earth'. The notion that the earth has ends, limits and boundaries also occurs in the NT (see Mat 12.42, Luk 11.31, Act 1.8, 13.7, Rom 10.18). The Greek words used for "end(s)" are πέρας 'end, limit, boundary, conclusion' and ἐσχάτος 'farthest, end, last'. This is consistent with ancient belief about the nature of the earth. In Akkadian literature the phrase "four corners of the earth" which in Akkadian is kap-pat tu-bu-qaat erbitti, can literally be translated "the circle of the four corners". This is a clear reference to the earth being circular. It seems strange that a circle would also have corners, but they meant the extremities in the four cardinal directions North, South, East, and West. In Egyptian drawings the "ends" of the earth are represented by lions which symbolise mountains that are at the edge of the world. Several drawings have twin lions with the sun in the middle. These twin mountains represent the horizon. In Ugaritic literature the ends of the earth seem to be the place where the heaven and earth meet. The peoples of the ancient Near East believed in the reality of the ends of the earth. 1 The four corners of the earth are referred to in Isa 11.12 and Rev 7.1.
In this paper we discuss the issue of how the tower of Babel story in Gen 11.1-9 relates to the t... more In this paper we discuss the issue of how the tower of Babel story in Gen 11.1-9 relates to the table of nations genealogy in Gen 10. Specifically, we discuss the question of when did the Babel confusion of languages event occur with respect to the table of nations genealogy? It could not have happened after all the nations were formed (e.g., Gen 10.32) as they are each differentiated by their own language, and it could not have happened before the nations were formed (e.g., Gen 10.1-2) as then there would only have been Noah and his family. It is proposed that firstly the tower of Babel story and the table of nations genealogy have different sources. The first has a J source and the second has a P source. They are separate accounts independent of each other. Secondly, it is proposed that the author follows the de novo creation logic of the biblical text which requires us to know how we went from the single language of Adam and Eve to the multiple languages of the nations. The tower of Babel story fulfils that requirement. In the end it does not matter that juxtaposing the table of nations genealogy with the tower of Babel story makes for a contradictory account. Nor does it matter that the biblical account of the origins of the world's languages does not agree with the archaeological and linguistic research into these origins. The author of Gen 10 and 11 has achieved his purpose of accounting for how things went from a single world language to a multilingual world.
Orthodox Christian belief maintains that the creation account in Gen 1 is synoptic and the creati... more Orthodox Christian belief maintains that the creation account in Gen 1 is synoptic and the creation account in Gen 2 expands on the activities performed on day 6. However, many biblical scholars have observed that there are significant differences between these creation accounts which make the synopticexpansion relationship of Gen 1 and Gen 2 not straightforward. In this paper, the first creation account (defined as Gen 1.1-2.3) is compared and contrasted with the second creation account (defined as Gen 2.4-3.24). Some 36 parameters are used to make the comparison. This includes the comparison of literary structures, such as literary framework, literary style and plotline, and the comparison of literary contents, such as the portrait of God and the portrait of mankind, in the two creation accounts. The study shows that whatever parameter is applied there are significant differences. For example, in Gen 1.1-2.3 ʾāḏām refers to mankind (plural), while in Gen 2.4-3.24 ʾāḏām refers to an individual man. With many of the parameters there is not only a significant difference between the accounts, but there is also a conflict between the differences such that both accounts cannot be true. For example, in Gen 1.1-2.3 God (Elohim) is portrayed as transcendent and sovereign over, and separate from his creation. In Gen 2.4-3.24, God (YHWH Elohim) is portrayed as immanent and actively involved in his creation. These portraits of God are mutually contradictory. The final conclusion of this comparative study is that Gen 2.4-3.24 conflicts with Gen 1.1-2.3 in multiple ways. Thus, the proposition that Gen 1.1-2.3 is synoptic and Gen 2.4-3.24 (or even Gen 2.4-25) is a resumption-expansion of this synopsis is untenable. Gen 1.1-2.3 and Gen 2.4-3.24 should be regarded as separate and independent creation stories.
In this paper the angelic hierarchy is described and discussed. The nature of the snake in the ga... more In this paper the angelic hierarchy is described and discussed. The nature of the snake in the garden of Eden is also discussed.
Illustrating han-nāḥāš in the Garden of Eden, 2021
This paper looks at how han-nāḥāš 'the snake' in Gen 3.1-7 has been represented pictorially from ... more This paper looks at how han-nāḥāš 'the snake' in Gen 3.1-7 has been represented pictorially from Roman times to the present. The 435+ pictorial representations of the Fall of Man scene in Gen 3.1-7 gathered by Cummings (2020) show that han-nāḥāš is represented primarily as a real snake. However, from the 12th century through to the Michelangelo fresco in the 16th century han-nāḥāš is also depicted as Lilith, the female demonic figure in Judaic mythology. There are also some images of the garden of Eden scene where han-nāḥāš appears as a dragon. Basically, the artist has to choose one interpretation of who or what hannāḥāš is and portray that understanding pictorially. The picture then fixes the interpretation of the text to that chosen by the artist. However, when the intricacies of the various characterizations of "the snake" (hannāḥāš) in Gen 3.1-5 are examined in order to decide if this is (a) a real snake, (b) a seraph (or other celestial being), (c) a real snake possessed by Satan, or (d) Satan appearing as a snake there are conflicting facets of each characterization which render each of the possible interpretations incoherent.
Translating the Cosmology of the Biblical Flood, 2021
The commentaries are divided as to how to interpret "the windows of heaven were opened" and "the ... more The commentaries are divided as to how to interpret "the windows of heaven were opened" and "the fountains of the great deep burst forth" in Gen 7.11. Some understand Gen 7.11 to be describing an anticosmogony or uncreation where the waters separated in Gen 1.6-8 pour back into the cosmos. Other commentators try to interpret "the windows of heaven were opened" and "the fountains of the great deep burst forth" in Gen 7.11 within the context of how we understand the cosmos to be today. With regard to translation, those English versions that translate "the windows of heaven" and "the fountains of the great deep" literally are coherent if it is made known that the text is set in an ancient cosmological context. If this is not made known then the translation is incoherent to a modern audience. However, for those English versions that translate "the windows of heaven" and "the fountains of the great deep" as natural language equivalents it is not possible to make the translation coherent as the alternative referents for "the windows of heaven" as a cloud burst and "the fountains of the great deep" as an eruption of underground water cannot perform the role assigned to them in the narrative and the account does not make sense. A translation that brings the audience to the text is therefore preferred to a translation that brings the text to the audience.
Traditionally and historically, both Jews and Christians have held that Moses was the author or c... more Traditionally and historically, both Jews and Christians have held that Moses was the author or compiler of the first five books of the Old Testament (the Pentateuch) including Genesis. This tradition also maintains that Moses most likely wrote the bulk of the Pentateuch during the forty-year period of Israel’s wanderings in the desert, which the OT indicates lasted from ca. 1446 to ca. 1406 BCE. However, some scholars who want to maintain the historicity of the biblical account suggest that Exo 1.11 indicates the pharaoh who ruled Egypt at the time of the Exodus was Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE) and that the Exodus occurred during his reign. In this paper four pieces of historical evidence are presented which suggest that Genesis must have been written after 1200 BCE. These evidences are the history of the Hebrew language, the history of writing, the history of iron smelting and an understanding that the 480 years in 1 Kgs 6.1 should be interpreted as twelve generations. There is also a section on intertextuality which discusses the perspective from which Gen 1–3 was written.
In this paper it is shown that biblical anthropology is based on ancient beliefs about the biolog... more In this paper it is shown that biblical anthropology is based on ancient beliefs about the biological and physiological characteristics of a human being. The ancient Mesopotamians believed the heart is the seat of the intellect, the liver of affectivity, the stomach of cunning, the uterus of compassion, and the ears and the eyes of attention. The ancient Egyptians believed the heart to be the seat of intelligence despite a report by a battlefield surgeon on soldiers with severe head injuries which indicated that it was the brain that controlled mental activities. In the Bible the kidneys are viewed as controlling temperament or character and as being the seat of desires, the bowels are viewed as being the seat of deep emotions such as pity, compassion and distress, and the heart is viewed as the seat of the intellect and mind, the inner self of conscience where inclinations, resolutions and determinations of the will are made. Thus, biblical anthropology follows ancient scientific beliefs. The biblical view that a person has a soul and a spirit, both of which depart the body when a person dies, is also shown to be in alignment with ancient anthropological beliefs.
This paper examines the first three days of creation narrated in Genesis 1. It is demonstrated th... more This paper examines the first three days of creation narrated in Genesis 1. It is demonstrated that the cosmos created in Genesis 1 conforms to how ancient people thought the cosmos to be.
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