The evolution of small‐scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens ... more The evolution of small‐scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens up a new arena of power generation, distribution, and consumption. Operationally, the DC microgrid has attracted significant attention as it offers considerable safety benefits, cost‐effectiveness, energy efficiency, and reliability as compared to traditional AC microgrid systems. Looking at the protection aspects, the DC microgrid has some serious issues both for low‐voltage and mid‐voltage DC system. It needs to be focused on bidirectional power flow, non‐zero crossing point, detection and mitigation of grounding faults, high value of fault current, etc., for an adequate solution. In recent times, these issues are considered by various researchers to arrive at a robust and reliable approach toward protecting the DC microgrid. But certain important areas are still out of sight for researchers. In a blend of conventional and modern approaches, there are many hindrances in developing a flexible universal protective scheme. This work focuses on the protection aspects parallel with the challenges and tried to unearth the loopholes which open up a wider area of research to develop a more robust protective architecture. An extensive review has been done systematically and chronologically keeping in mind the DC microgrid architecture, standards, protection hurdles, traditional as well as latest protective measures, and suggested some reliable improvements. In addition, the futuristic possibility to invent a novel comprehensive approach based on the best technology and techniques is presented in a more secure, reliable, and efficient protection system to combat the power system faults, keeping in view the different modes of operation and configuration of the microgrid.
This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by... more This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by using Kernel Extreme Learning Machine (KELM) based Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT). Firstly, the current signals collected from buses are processed through Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) to obtain the Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs). Subsequently, the most significant IMF is used for the calculation of spectral energy and differential energy of both the buses. Subsequently, the most relevant features for protection aspects like differential energy levels, mean, median, entropy, and standard deviation are recorded for all fault types in a grid-connected environment with both radial and looped structures on IEC microgrid model test system. Further, the Gaussian kernel is used with 70% data points for the training of the neural network and optimization of the random matrix. The optimized values are then analyzed for validation and the efficiency quotient. The accuracy, security, and dependability values clearly illustrate the superiority of this optimized KELM architecture for the detection of a fault in a grid-connected microgrid system.
International Journal of Energy Research (IJER), WILEY, 2021
In the recent power system scenario, the concept of microgrid is evolving rapidly. The architectu... more In the recent power system scenario, the concept of microgrid is evolving rapidly. The architecture should be robust enough to cater the complexity of integration of distributed generation sources, demand-side management, and storage. The fast growth of embedded generation with other advanced power electronic interfaces and components along with energy storage devices change the operating pattern of the integrated power system scenario. In this context, protection is the vital aspect for qualitative uninterrupted power and making the system resilient to adverse, and faulty conditions. Many associated issues, particularly related to AC microgrid systems like the large difference in the short-circuit level between integrated and isolated mode of operation, bidi-rectional power flow, unsynchronized reclosing, the blindness of protection, lack of natural zero-crossing current, and false tripping are needed to be focused. In light of the above factors, it motivates us to survey the previous research works on the existing protection strategies to redesign and present the critical analysis of the predicted protection issues of microgrid protection with upcoming advanced technology and methodology. This article presents a critical review of the issues and protection schemes for the DG integrated AC microgrid extensively. Here, the merits, and demerits of each protection scheme, and visible possibilities for any advancement in protection strategies to enhance the reliability, selectivity, and security of AC microgrid is emphasized keeping in mind the different connections and configurations. In addition , this work also focuses on integrating the intelligent approaches/devices that help to elevate the current protection schemes to be smarter and efficient.
International journal of energy research (IJER), 2020
The evolution of small-scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens ... more The evolution of small-scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens up a new arena of power generation, distribution, and consumption. Operationally, the DC microgrid has attracted significant attention as it offers considerable safety benefits, cost-effectiveness, energy efficiency , and reliability as compared to traditional AC microgrid systems. Looking at the protection aspects, the DC microgrid has some serious issues both for low-voltage and mid-voltage DC system. It needs to be focused on bidirectional power flow, non-zero crossing point, detection and mitigation of grounding faults, high value of fault current, etc., for an adequate solution. In recent times, these issues are considered by various researchers to arrive at a robust and reliable approach toward protecting the DC microgrid. But certain important areas are still out of sight for researchers. In a blend of conventional and modern approaches, there are many hindrances in developing a flexible universal protective scheme. This work focuses on the protection aspects parallel with the challenges and tried to unearth the loopholes which open up a wider area of research to develop a more robust protective architecture. An extensive review has been done systematically and chronologically keeping in mind the DC microgrid architecture, standards, protection hurdles, traditional as well as latest protective measures, and suggested some reliable improvements. In addition, the futuristic possibility to invent a novel comprehensive approach based on the best technology and techniques is presented in a more secure, reliable, and efficient protection system to combat the power system faults, keeping in view the different modes of operation and configuration of the microgrid.
This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by... more This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by using Kernel Extreme Learning Machine (KELM) based Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT). Firstly, the current signals collected from buses are processed through Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) to obtain the Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs). Subsequently, the most significant IMF is used for the calculation of spectral energy and differential energy of both the buses. Subsequently, the most relevant features for protection aspects like differential energy levels, mean, median, entropy, and standard deviation are recorded for all fault types in a grid-connected environment with both radial and looped structures on IEC microgrid model test system. Further, the Gaussian kernel is used with 70% data points for the training of the neural network and optimization of the random matrix. The optimized values are then analyzed for validation and the efficiency quotient. The accuracy, security, and dependability values clearly illustrate the superiority of this optimized KELM architecture for the detection of a fault in a grid-connected microgrid system.
International Journal of Energy Research (IJER), WILEY, 2020
The integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) with conventional systems emerges as an in... more The integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) with conventional systems emerges as an intelligent solution for providing uninterrupted and secure power even at times of high load demand. Better load management with a mature fault handling mechanism makes AC a viable option which has an efficiency of 78.24%. In contrast with less power loss and slightly better efficiency of 84.6%, DC microgrid is a reliable option in a low power environment. In order to accommodate all operating conditions and load types, a hybrid system can be designed with a theoretical efficiency of more than 90%. Bidirec-tional power flows, low inertia, the transition between different modes of operations are the challenges for the protection of alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) microgrid systems. Power balance fluctuation, absence of zero-crossing currents, selection of suitable grounding, and coordination between different rating devices restrict the hybrid system to achieve the said efficiency constantly. This paper reviews in detail of existing protection along with grid-connected algorithms for both modes of operation. Finally, the limitation , major hurdles, and future course of action for a reliable, efficient, and secure hybrid grid system are figured out. K E Y W O R D S distributed generation, hybrid microgrid protection, microgrid protection mode, protection scheme 1 | INTRODUCTION The alarming concern for eco-friendly architecture and European Union's (EU) deadline to reduce carbon emission to 80% to 90% by 2050 and at least 27% use of renewable sources by 2030 result in the evolution of smart power utilization option, like microgrid. 1 Microgrids are the solutions to incorporate several types of distributed Renewable Energy Sources (RESs), energy storage devices, Electric Vehicle (EV) charging stations, and different types of dynamic and nonlinear load, with the utility grid. 2 The design and deployment of the conventional approach of a microgrid are usually done with the help of the Alternating Current (AC) system. 3 The Direct Current (DC) microgrids are gaining attraction in real-time implementation due to various advantages over AC microgrid like lack of need for synchronization, high power transfer capability, frequency regulation, and support with less interfacing power electronics equipment of DC loads and Distributed Energy Resources (DERs). 4 Considering the presence of both AC and DC DERs and loads in a microgrid, hybrid AC/DC microgrid is well capable to provide reliable and economical solutions that can probably eradicate the multistage AC-to-DC or DC-to-AC reverse conversions. 5 Even though the hybrid AC/DC microgrid has many positive returns, the
The evolution of small‐scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens ... more The evolution of small‐scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens up a new arena of power generation, distribution, and consumption. Operationally, the DC microgrid has attracted significant attention as it offers considerable safety benefits, cost‐effectiveness, energy efficiency, and reliability as compared to traditional AC microgrid systems. Looking at the protection aspects, the DC microgrid has some serious issues both for low‐voltage and mid‐voltage DC system. It needs to be focused on bidirectional power flow, non‐zero crossing point, detection and mitigation of grounding faults, high value of fault current, etc., for an adequate solution. In recent times, these issues are considered by various researchers to arrive at a robust and reliable approach toward protecting the DC microgrid. But certain important areas are still out of sight for researchers. In a blend of conventional and modern approaches, there are many hindrances in developing a flexible universal protective scheme. This work focuses on the protection aspects parallel with the challenges and tried to unearth the loopholes which open up a wider area of research to develop a more robust protective architecture. An extensive review has been done systematically and chronologically keeping in mind the DC microgrid architecture, standards, protection hurdles, traditional as well as latest protective measures, and suggested some reliable improvements. In addition, the futuristic possibility to invent a novel comprehensive approach based on the best technology and techniques is presented in a more secure, reliable, and efficient protection system to combat the power system faults, keeping in view the different modes of operation and configuration of the microgrid.
This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by... more This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by using Kernel Extreme Learning Machine (KELM) based Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT). Firstly, the current signals collected from buses are processed through Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) to obtain the Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs). Subsequently, the most significant IMF is used for the calculation of spectral energy and differential energy of both the buses. Subsequently, the most relevant features for protection aspects like differential energy levels, mean, median, entropy, and standard deviation are recorded for all fault types in a grid-connected environment with both radial and looped structures on IEC microgrid model test system. Further, the Gaussian kernel is used with 70% data points for the training of the neural network and optimization of the random matrix. The optimized values are then analyzed for validation and the efficiency quotient. The accuracy, security, and dependability values clearly illustrate the superiority of this optimized KELM architecture for the detection of a fault in a grid-connected microgrid system.
International Journal of Energy Research (IJER), WILEY, 2021
In the recent power system scenario, the concept of microgrid is evolving rapidly. The architectu... more In the recent power system scenario, the concept of microgrid is evolving rapidly. The architecture should be robust enough to cater the complexity of integration of distributed generation sources, demand-side management, and storage. The fast growth of embedded generation with other advanced power electronic interfaces and components along with energy storage devices change the operating pattern of the integrated power system scenario. In this context, protection is the vital aspect for qualitative uninterrupted power and making the system resilient to adverse, and faulty conditions. Many associated issues, particularly related to AC microgrid systems like the large difference in the short-circuit level between integrated and isolated mode of operation, bidi-rectional power flow, unsynchronized reclosing, the blindness of protection, lack of natural zero-crossing current, and false tripping are needed to be focused. In light of the above factors, it motivates us to survey the previous research works on the existing protection strategies to redesign and present the critical analysis of the predicted protection issues of microgrid protection with upcoming advanced technology and methodology. This article presents a critical review of the issues and protection schemes for the DG integrated AC microgrid extensively. Here, the merits, and demerits of each protection scheme, and visible possibilities for any advancement in protection strategies to enhance the reliability, selectivity, and security of AC microgrid is emphasized keeping in mind the different connections and configurations. In addition , this work also focuses on integrating the intelligent approaches/devices that help to elevate the current protection schemes to be smarter and efficient.
International journal of energy research (IJER), 2020
The evolution of small-scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens ... more The evolution of small-scaled distributed generators and emerging power electronic devices opens up a new arena of power generation, distribution, and consumption. Operationally, the DC microgrid has attracted significant attention as it offers considerable safety benefits, cost-effectiveness, energy efficiency , and reliability as compared to traditional AC microgrid systems. Looking at the protection aspects, the DC microgrid has some serious issues both for low-voltage and mid-voltage DC system. It needs to be focused on bidirectional power flow, non-zero crossing point, detection and mitigation of grounding faults, high value of fault current, etc., for an adequate solution. In recent times, these issues are considered by various researchers to arrive at a robust and reliable approach toward protecting the DC microgrid. But certain important areas are still out of sight for researchers. In a blend of conventional and modern approaches, there are many hindrances in developing a flexible universal protective scheme. This work focuses on the protection aspects parallel with the challenges and tried to unearth the loopholes which open up a wider area of research to develop a more robust protective architecture. An extensive review has been done systematically and chronologically keeping in mind the DC microgrid architecture, standards, protection hurdles, traditional as well as latest protective measures, and suggested some reliable improvements. In addition, the futuristic possibility to invent a novel comprehensive approach based on the best technology and techniques is presented in a more secure, reliable, and efficient protection system to combat the power system faults, keeping in view the different modes of operation and configuration of the microgrid.
This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by... more This work focuses on the protection of distributed generation (DG) integrated microgrid system by using Kernel Extreme Learning Machine (KELM) based Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT). Firstly, the current signals collected from buses are processed through Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) to obtain the Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs). Subsequently, the most significant IMF is used for the calculation of spectral energy and differential energy of both the buses. Subsequently, the most relevant features for protection aspects like differential energy levels, mean, median, entropy, and standard deviation are recorded for all fault types in a grid-connected environment with both radial and looped structures on IEC microgrid model test system. Further, the Gaussian kernel is used with 70% data points for the training of the neural network and optimization of the random matrix. The optimized values are then analyzed for validation and the efficiency quotient. The accuracy, security, and dependability values clearly illustrate the superiority of this optimized KELM architecture for the detection of a fault in a grid-connected microgrid system.
International Journal of Energy Research (IJER), WILEY, 2020
The integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) with conventional systems emerges as an in... more The integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) with conventional systems emerges as an intelligent solution for providing uninterrupted and secure power even at times of high load demand. Better load management with a mature fault handling mechanism makes AC a viable option which has an efficiency of 78.24%. In contrast with less power loss and slightly better efficiency of 84.6%, DC microgrid is a reliable option in a low power environment. In order to accommodate all operating conditions and load types, a hybrid system can be designed with a theoretical efficiency of more than 90%. Bidirec-tional power flows, low inertia, the transition between different modes of operations are the challenges for the protection of alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) microgrid systems. Power balance fluctuation, absence of zero-crossing currents, selection of suitable grounding, and coordination between different rating devices restrict the hybrid system to achieve the said efficiency constantly. This paper reviews in detail of existing protection along with grid-connected algorithms for both modes of operation. Finally, the limitation , major hurdles, and future course of action for a reliable, efficient, and secure hybrid grid system are figured out. K E Y W O R D S distributed generation, hybrid microgrid protection, microgrid protection mode, protection scheme 1 | INTRODUCTION The alarming concern for eco-friendly architecture and European Union's (EU) deadline to reduce carbon emission to 80% to 90% by 2050 and at least 27% use of renewable sources by 2030 result in the evolution of smart power utilization option, like microgrid. 1 Microgrids are the solutions to incorporate several types of distributed Renewable Energy Sources (RESs), energy storage devices, Electric Vehicle (EV) charging stations, and different types of dynamic and nonlinear load, with the utility grid. 2 The design and deployment of the conventional approach of a microgrid are usually done with the help of the Alternating Current (AC) system. 3 The Direct Current (DC) microgrids are gaining attraction in real-time implementation due to various advantages over AC microgrid like lack of need for synchronization, high power transfer capability, frequency regulation, and support with less interfacing power electronics equipment of DC loads and Distributed Energy Resources (DERs). 4 Considering the presence of both AC and DC DERs and loads in a microgrid, hybrid AC/DC microgrid is well capable to provide reliable and economical solutions that can probably eradicate the multistage AC-to-DC or DC-to-AC reverse conversions. 5 Even though the hybrid AC/DC microgrid has many positive returns, the
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