This paper reviews the past study on the markets of Jingdezhen Yuan blue-andwhite and proposes a ... more This paper reviews the past study on the markets of Jingdezhen Yuan blue-andwhite and proposes a new picture in the light of archaeological discoveries and recent studies. The aim of this present study is three folds. First, I will investigate the markets of Yuan blue-and-white porcelains and look at the conclusive features of different markets based on recent archaeological findings. Secondly, I will analyze these features according to their consumption in different markets. Thirdly, I will explore the emergence of Yuan blue-and-white porcelains in the existing markets to see their role in the history of ceramic trade.
This paper analyzes a group of rose engine lathe-turned ivory works from the original Qing court ... more This paper analyzes a group of rose engine lathe-turned ivory works from the original Qing court collection, which were previously unknown to museum curators and scholars. The transcultural messages carried by the lathe-turned ivory works and the role that lathe turning machinery in the Qing court played in artistic exchanges and in disseminating technical knowledge between eighteenth-century Europe and China are significant. The recent publication of the Imperial Household archives has made this research possible, and it has been the author’s privilege to work with the National Palace Museum’s digital archive of the collection and with colleagues in the Palace Museum, Beijing, to identify similar works in storage. The turned ivory works by European rose engine lathe in the eighteenth-century Qing court is an interesting and solid case study for the discussion of communication between the East and the West. This paper evaluates imperial archive documents, ivory art works made by European rose engine lathes in the imperial workshops, and the relevant practical techniques brought to the Qing court, to discuss the exchange of art and craftsmanship techniques between the East and the West during the period.
Abstract
The wooden nesting cups of the Qing court are a series of stacked
cups (50, 100 or 150 i... more Abstract The wooden nesting cups of the Qing court are a series of stacked cups (50, 100 or 150 in a set), paper-thin and graduated in size, that were carved entirely from wood and assembled within a wooden goblet. The cups were crafted in southern Germany and traveled extensively, along varied trajectories, from Europe to China in the 17thand 18thcenturies. Such nesting cups are richly endowed in meaning from the perspective of global history and would have impacted visual culture and related knowledge across a wide range of regions. How they are displayed in contemporary museums reflects how they are viewed, interpreted, and organized by curators today; similarly, examining the presence of these wooden nesting cups at the Qing court and the location and manner of their display within the palace grounds provides insight as to how they were regarded in their own time. Who are and were the person(s) most responsible for these perspectives? What impact did these unique objects have on the interaction between China and Europe, at the time of their appearance and in later history? These are some of the specific questions this study will explore. The greater objectives of this study are twofold. First, it aims to use stacked wooden cups as a case study to promote interdisciplinary dialogue across the fields of global history, art history, and material culture studies. Second, it attempts to present the Qianlong emperor’s general attitude towards objects from the “Western Ocean” and, by specifically exploring the context in which the wooden cups found themselves at the Qing court, to determine the thoughts underpinning that attitude.
Keywords: global history, material culture, Western Ocean, wooden goblet, Qing court, Qianlong Emperor
摘要
Abstract
本文旨在探究乾隆時期清宮內務府造辦處檔案中出現許多稱為「仙工」之相關現象(在過去雍正朝的相關檔案中卻極少見有「仙工」的紀錄)。不同於以往傾向將象牙「仙工」放... more 摘要 Abstract
本文旨在探究乾隆時期清宮內務府造辦處檔案中出現許多稱為「仙工」之相關現象(在過去雍正朝的相關檔案中卻極少見有「仙工」的紀錄)。不同於以往傾向將象牙「仙工」放在竹木牙角雕刻研究取徑中,以工藝技術、風格分析及相關製作背景為重點的研究,本文在前人研究的基礎上,回應近年清宮藝術研究成果,提出新的討論架構以導出有意義之觀察。以重新檢視清宮象牙「仙工」作品出發,利用文獻、圖像、收藏與陳設情況等材料,探討它們在清宮內務府整體物品製作之定位,以及收藏與陳設等相關現象,將清宮中的象牙「仙工」放入適當的脈絡中,企圖對此批作品有更深入、完整的理解。最後並藉由梳理中國傳統文化中對巧工、奇器的概念,來觀察乾隆皇帝對所謂「仙工」之態度及理解,探求「仙工」概念在清宮的出現及可能的契機。 This study takes a closer look at phenomena related to the numerous references for “immortal works” that appear in the archives of the workshops for the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court during the Qianlong reign (in related records from the previous Yongzheng reign are extremely few references for “immortal works”). In contrast to the previous custom of placing “immortal works” of ivory within the scope of carving bamboo, wood, ivory, and rhinoceros horn as well as taking technique, stylistic analysis, and related background information as the focus of research, this study builds on the foundation of previous research to take into consideration the results of studies on Qing court art in the last few years to propose a new theoretical framework leading to further meaningful observations. In this reexamination and reappraisal for the appearance of “immortal works” of ivory at the Qing court, documents, images, surviving objects, and displays are all used to determine the status of these objects within the overall situation of works produced by the Qing Imperial Household Department as well as related issues concerning their collection and display. By doing so, “immortal works” of ivory can be assigned to their appropriate place in an attempt to gain a more complete and deeper appreciation of this group of artworks. Finally, by combing through ideas on “intriguing” and “marvelous” works in traditional Chinese culture, we can observe the attitude and understanding of the Qianlong emperor with regards to these so-called “immortal works” and see the turning point of how they appeared at the Qing court. 乾隆朝宮廷所稱之「仙工」所指涉的材質雖不以象牙為限,但以象牙製品數量最多、脈絡最為清晰,因此本文便以象牙製品為主要討論對象。這個研究對象在清宮內務府物品製作品類中並非主流,在過去有關清宮藝術的研究中,討論亦不多見。相對於清宮中主流的視覺圖像、工藝製作及大型成做項目,這些奇工小物看似微不足道。我們或許無法精確地回答乾隆皇帝為何對這類物品感到興趣,但卻可以相對持平地評估,「仙工」作品在當時被青睞、重視,入列於代表當朝藝術的收藏中,成為形塑當朝文化藝術成就的一環,是無可否認的事實。而乾隆皇帝御製詩中「自是鬼工手,能傳仙客情」般的論述,似乎意味「仙工」代稱之出現,不但解決了「人欲-天理」、「人巧-天成」之間的緊張感,並且拉抬了它們的藝術地位。更甚者,或許乾隆皇帝正在估算,用渾然天成的「仙工」來合理包裝對奇技的喜愛,不也正是文化品味正統性的展現。 Although the term for “immortal works” at the Qianlong court is not restricted to ivory works, ivory carving is the most numerous and evident in this trend. For this reason, the present study takes ivory carvings as the main topic for discussion. The works of the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court forming the topic of this study, however, were not part of the mainstream and therefore not discussed very much in previous studies on Qing court art. In fact, compared to mainstream visual arts, crafts, and large productions at the Qing court, these small and delicate works appear relatively insignificant. Although we may not be able to explain exactly why the Qianlong emperor was so fascinated with this type of craft, at the same time we can fairly assess that “immortal works” were highly favored and emphasized at the time. They were ranked as representative works of court art and became one of the important links in the achievements of art and culture during the Qing dynasty. This is something that cannot be denied. And with the Qianlong emperor, who described them as “from the hands of spirits, conveying the quality of immortals,” we can see how the term “immortal works” appeared and resolved the dichotomy between “human wishes follow Heavenly principles” and “human ingenuity is like the Heavens,” which raised the status of this type of art. What is more, the Qianlong emperor also perhaps reckoned using the term “immortal works” like the Heavens itself to package this fascinating art he admired with a theoretical underpinning, giving this product of culture an orthodox status.
Cultural Contending: Kangxi Painted Enamelware as Global Competitor
Shih Ching-fei
Associate Prof... more Cultural Contending: Kangxi Painted Enamelware as Global Competitor Shih Ching-fei Associate Professor Graduate Institute of Art History National Taiwan University Abstract: The importation of painted enameling from Europe spurred the development of painted enamels at the Qing court during the late Kangxi era. The Enameling Atelier of the Office of Imperial Manufactories applied the new art form to at least four distinct media (bronze, glass, porcelain, and Yixing stoneware). Guided personally by the emperor, the atelier diligently experimented with new raw materials and technologies to create the distinctive category of imperial painted enamelware. By reexamining the Western style elements and documentary evidence of painted enameling at the Qing court, this paper argues that use of painted enameling by the imperial ateliers did not merely stem from what previous studies have interpreted as the imperial fascination with a new art form, but was in fact a serious attempt on the part of Emperor Kangxi to surpass the painted enamels of Europe and the traditional overglaze enameled porcelains developed in the Ming dynasty.
Local inspirations of the origin of Jingdezhen
Yuan blue-and-white
Ching-Fei Shih National Taiw... more Local inspirations of the origin of Jingdezhen
Yuan blue-and-white
Ching-Fei Shih National Taiwan University
Abstract:
This essay discusses the social forces behind the rise of a new technology, based on the fundamental changes of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan Dynasty, focusing especially on the local inspirations that brought about the emergence of blue-and-white wares. If we place the emergence of Yuan blue-and-white in the context of the
development of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan period, we can certainly see the Jingdezhen potters’ determination to seek changes and to use newly introduced
materials and decorative techniques. It is reasonable to view these innovations as the local workshops’ responses to the adversities of Jingdezhen during late Southern Song to early
Yuan period, which was described in the document Taoji by Jiang Qi. In addition, the establishment of the Fuliang Ceramic Bureau in 1278 in Jingdezhen must have effects
on the recovery of the Jingdezhen ceramic industry as well as its rise in economic status. However, it was the free market and regional demands of the local Jingdezhen society, brought about by the slackening control by the ceramic bureau, which ultimately led to the most revolutionary changes in various aspects of ceramic production in Jingdezhen history.
Among the revolutionary changes are new inventions such as underglaze-painted (including iron, copper and cobalt) ware, over-glazed red and green wares, copper-red/
cobalt-blue glaze wares, and turquoise glazed wares. At the same time, we have noticed that the direct impact of the local and regional demand for commissioned burial objects
and ritual vessels on the development of Jingdezhen’s underglaze-painted wares must not be overlooked. Also, in relation to the development in technical achievements, the stimuli from social forces is not to be overlooked – rather, they are crucial. It is the invention of idea that precedes the development of necessary technology; therefore studying the social stimuli behind the genesis of Yuan blue-and-white will comprehensively enhance our understanding on the choice and use of technology as well as stylistic decisions of Yuan blue-and-white.
This paper reviews the past study on the markets of Jingdezhen Yuan blue-andwhite and proposes a ... more This paper reviews the past study on the markets of Jingdezhen Yuan blue-andwhite and proposes a new picture in the light of archaeological discoveries and recent studies. The aim of this present study is three folds. First, I will investigate the markets of Yuan blue-and-white porcelains and look at the conclusive features of different markets based on recent archaeological findings. Secondly, I will analyze these features according to their consumption in different markets. Thirdly, I will explore the emergence of Yuan blue-and-white porcelains in the existing markets to see their role in the history of ceramic trade.
This paper analyzes a group of rose engine lathe-turned ivory works from the original Qing court ... more This paper analyzes a group of rose engine lathe-turned ivory works from the original Qing court collection, which were previously unknown to museum curators and scholars. The transcultural messages carried by the lathe-turned ivory works and the role that lathe turning machinery in the Qing court played in artistic exchanges and in disseminating technical knowledge between eighteenth-century Europe and China are significant. The recent publication of the Imperial Household archives has made this research possible, and it has been the author’s privilege to work with the National Palace Museum’s digital archive of the collection and with colleagues in the Palace Museum, Beijing, to identify similar works in storage. The turned ivory works by European rose engine lathe in the eighteenth-century Qing court is an interesting and solid case study for the discussion of communication between the East and the West. This paper evaluates imperial archive documents, ivory art works made by European rose engine lathes in the imperial workshops, and the relevant practical techniques brought to the Qing court, to discuss the exchange of art and craftsmanship techniques between the East and the West during the period.
Abstract
The wooden nesting cups of the Qing court are a series of stacked
cups (50, 100 or 150 i... more Abstract The wooden nesting cups of the Qing court are a series of stacked cups (50, 100 or 150 in a set), paper-thin and graduated in size, that were carved entirely from wood and assembled within a wooden goblet. The cups were crafted in southern Germany and traveled extensively, along varied trajectories, from Europe to China in the 17thand 18thcenturies. Such nesting cups are richly endowed in meaning from the perspective of global history and would have impacted visual culture and related knowledge across a wide range of regions. How they are displayed in contemporary museums reflects how they are viewed, interpreted, and organized by curators today; similarly, examining the presence of these wooden nesting cups at the Qing court and the location and manner of their display within the palace grounds provides insight as to how they were regarded in their own time. Who are and were the person(s) most responsible for these perspectives? What impact did these unique objects have on the interaction between China and Europe, at the time of their appearance and in later history? These are some of the specific questions this study will explore. The greater objectives of this study are twofold. First, it aims to use stacked wooden cups as a case study to promote interdisciplinary dialogue across the fields of global history, art history, and material culture studies. Second, it attempts to present the Qianlong emperor’s general attitude towards objects from the “Western Ocean” and, by specifically exploring the context in which the wooden cups found themselves at the Qing court, to determine the thoughts underpinning that attitude.
Keywords: global history, material culture, Western Ocean, wooden goblet, Qing court, Qianlong Emperor
摘要
Abstract
本文旨在探究乾隆時期清宮內務府造辦處檔案中出現許多稱為「仙工」之相關現象(在過去雍正朝的相關檔案中卻極少見有「仙工」的紀錄)。不同於以往傾向將象牙「仙工」放... more 摘要 Abstract
本文旨在探究乾隆時期清宮內務府造辦處檔案中出現許多稱為「仙工」之相關現象(在過去雍正朝的相關檔案中卻極少見有「仙工」的紀錄)。不同於以往傾向將象牙「仙工」放在竹木牙角雕刻研究取徑中,以工藝技術、風格分析及相關製作背景為重點的研究,本文在前人研究的基礎上,回應近年清宮藝術研究成果,提出新的討論架構以導出有意義之觀察。以重新檢視清宮象牙「仙工」作品出發,利用文獻、圖像、收藏與陳設情況等材料,探討它們在清宮內務府整體物品製作之定位,以及收藏與陳設等相關現象,將清宮中的象牙「仙工」放入適當的脈絡中,企圖對此批作品有更深入、完整的理解。最後並藉由梳理中國傳統文化中對巧工、奇器的概念,來觀察乾隆皇帝對所謂「仙工」之態度及理解,探求「仙工」概念在清宮的出現及可能的契機。 This study takes a closer look at phenomena related to the numerous references for “immortal works” that appear in the archives of the workshops for the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court during the Qianlong reign (in related records from the previous Yongzheng reign are extremely few references for “immortal works”). In contrast to the previous custom of placing “immortal works” of ivory within the scope of carving bamboo, wood, ivory, and rhinoceros horn as well as taking technique, stylistic analysis, and related background information as the focus of research, this study builds on the foundation of previous research to take into consideration the results of studies on Qing court art in the last few years to propose a new theoretical framework leading to further meaningful observations. In this reexamination and reappraisal for the appearance of “immortal works” of ivory at the Qing court, documents, images, surviving objects, and displays are all used to determine the status of these objects within the overall situation of works produced by the Qing Imperial Household Department as well as related issues concerning their collection and display. By doing so, “immortal works” of ivory can be assigned to their appropriate place in an attempt to gain a more complete and deeper appreciation of this group of artworks. Finally, by combing through ideas on “intriguing” and “marvelous” works in traditional Chinese culture, we can observe the attitude and understanding of the Qianlong emperor with regards to these so-called “immortal works” and see the turning point of how they appeared at the Qing court. 乾隆朝宮廷所稱之「仙工」所指涉的材質雖不以象牙為限,但以象牙製品數量最多、脈絡最為清晰,因此本文便以象牙製品為主要討論對象。這個研究對象在清宮內務府物品製作品類中並非主流,在過去有關清宮藝術的研究中,討論亦不多見。相對於清宮中主流的視覺圖像、工藝製作及大型成做項目,這些奇工小物看似微不足道。我們或許無法精確地回答乾隆皇帝為何對這類物品感到興趣,但卻可以相對持平地評估,「仙工」作品在當時被青睞、重視,入列於代表當朝藝術的收藏中,成為形塑當朝文化藝術成就的一環,是無可否認的事實。而乾隆皇帝御製詩中「自是鬼工手,能傳仙客情」般的論述,似乎意味「仙工」代稱之出現,不但解決了「人欲-天理」、「人巧-天成」之間的緊張感,並且拉抬了它們的藝術地位。更甚者,或許乾隆皇帝正在估算,用渾然天成的「仙工」來合理包裝對奇技的喜愛,不也正是文化品味正統性的展現。 Although the term for “immortal works” at the Qianlong court is not restricted to ivory works, ivory carving is the most numerous and evident in this trend. For this reason, the present study takes ivory carvings as the main topic for discussion. The works of the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court forming the topic of this study, however, were not part of the mainstream and therefore not discussed very much in previous studies on Qing court art. In fact, compared to mainstream visual arts, crafts, and large productions at the Qing court, these small and delicate works appear relatively insignificant. Although we may not be able to explain exactly why the Qianlong emperor was so fascinated with this type of craft, at the same time we can fairly assess that “immortal works” were highly favored and emphasized at the time. They were ranked as representative works of court art and became one of the important links in the achievements of art and culture during the Qing dynasty. This is something that cannot be denied. And with the Qianlong emperor, who described them as “from the hands of spirits, conveying the quality of immortals,” we can see how the term “immortal works” appeared and resolved the dichotomy between “human wishes follow Heavenly principles” and “human ingenuity is like the Heavens,” which raised the status of this type of art. What is more, the Qianlong emperor also perhaps reckoned using the term “immortal works” like the Heavens itself to package this fascinating art he admired with a theoretical underpinning, giving this product of culture an orthodox status.
Cultural Contending: Kangxi Painted Enamelware as Global Competitor
Shih Ching-fei
Associate Prof... more Cultural Contending: Kangxi Painted Enamelware as Global Competitor Shih Ching-fei Associate Professor Graduate Institute of Art History National Taiwan University Abstract: The importation of painted enameling from Europe spurred the development of painted enamels at the Qing court during the late Kangxi era. The Enameling Atelier of the Office of Imperial Manufactories applied the new art form to at least four distinct media (bronze, glass, porcelain, and Yixing stoneware). Guided personally by the emperor, the atelier diligently experimented with new raw materials and technologies to create the distinctive category of imperial painted enamelware. By reexamining the Western style elements and documentary evidence of painted enameling at the Qing court, this paper argues that use of painted enameling by the imperial ateliers did not merely stem from what previous studies have interpreted as the imperial fascination with a new art form, but was in fact a serious attempt on the part of Emperor Kangxi to surpass the painted enamels of Europe and the traditional overglaze enameled porcelains developed in the Ming dynasty.
Local inspirations of the origin of Jingdezhen
Yuan blue-and-white
Ching-Fei Shih National Taiw... more Local inspirations of the origin of Jingdezhen
Yuan blue-and-white
Ching-Fei Shih National Taiwan University
Abstract:
This essay discusses the social forces behind the rise of a new technology, based on the fundamental changes of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan Dynasty, focusing especially on the local inspirations that brought about the emergence of blue-and-white wares. If we place the emergence of Yuan blue-and-white in the context of the
development of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan period, we can certainly see the Jingdezhen potters’ determination to seek changes and to use newly introduced
materials and decorative techniques. It is reasonable to view these innovations as the local workshops’ responses to the adversities of Jingdezhen during late Southern Song to early
Yuan period, which was described in the document Taoji by Jiang Qi. In addition, the establishment of the Fuliang Ceramic Bureau in 1278 in Jingdezhen must have effects
on the recovery of the Jingdezhen ceramic industry as well as its rise in economic status. However, it was the free market and regional demands of the local Jingdezhen society, brought about by the slackening control by the ceramic bureau, which ultimately led to the most revolutionary changes in various aspects of ceramic production in Jingdezhen history.
Among the revolutionary changes are new inventions such as underglaze-painted (including iron, copper and cobalt) ware, over-glazed red and green wares, copper-red/
cobalt-blue glaze wares, and turquoise glazed wares. At the same time, we have noticed that the direct impact of the local and regional demand for commissioned burial objects
and ritual vessels on the development of Jingdezhen’s underglaze-painted wares must not be overlooked. Also, in relation to the development in technical achievements, the stimuli from social forces is not to be overlooked – rather, they are crucial. It is the invention of idea that precedes the development of necessary technology; therefore studying the social stimuli behind the genesis of Yuan blue-and-white will comprehensively enhance our understanding on the choice and use of technology as well as stylistic decisions of Yuan blue-and-white.
Uploads
The wooden nesting cups of the Qing court are a series of stacked
cups (50, 100 or 150 in a set), paper-thin and graduated in size, that were
carved entirely from wood and assembled within a wooden goblet. The
cups were crafted in southern Germany and traveled extensively, along
varied trajectories, from Europe to China in the 17thand 18thcenturies.
Such nesting cups are richly endowed in meaning from the perspective of global history and would have impacted visual culture and related
knowledge across a wide range of regions. How they are displayed in contemporary museums reflects how they are viewed, interpreted, and organized by curators today; similarly, examining the presence of these wooden nesting cups at the Qing court and the location and manner of their display within the palace grounds provides insight as to how they were regarded in their own time. Who are and were the person(s) most responsible for these perspectives? What impact did these unique objects have on the interaction between China and Europe, at the time of their appearance and in later history? These are some of the specific questions this study will explore.
The greater objectives of this study are twofold. First, it aims to use
stacked wooden cups as a case study to promote interdisciplinary dialogue across the fields of global history, art history, and material culture studies. Second, it attempts to present the Qianlong emperor’s general attitude towards objects from the “Western Ocean” and, by specifically exploring the context in which the wooden cups found themselves at the Qing court, to determine the thoughts underpinning that attitude.
Keywords: global history, material culture, Western Ocean, wooden
goblet, Qing court, Qianlong Emperor
Abstract
本文旨在探究乾隆時期清宮內務府造辦處檔案中出現許多稱為「仙工」之相關現象(在過去雍正朝的相關檔案中卻極少見有「仙工」的紀錄)。不同於以往傾向將象牙「仙工」放在竹木牙角雕刻研究取徑中,以工藝技術、風格分析及相關製作背景為重點的研究,本文在前人研究的基礎上,回應近年清宮藝術研究成果,提出新的討論架構以導出有意義之觀察。以重新檢視清宮象牙「仙工」作品出發,利用文獻、圖像、收藏與陳設情況等材料,探討它們在清宮內務府整體物品製作之定位,以及收藏與陳設等相關現象,將清宮中的象牙「仙工」放入適當的脈絡中,企圖對此批作品有更深入、完整的理解。最後並藉由梳理中國傳統文化中對巧工、奇器的概念,來觀察乾隆皇帝對所謂「仙工」之態度及理解,探求「仙工」概念在清宮的出現及可能的契機。
This study takes a closer look at phenomena related to the numerous references for “immortal works” that appear in the archives of the workshops for the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court during the Qianlong reign (in related records from the previous Yongzheng reign are extremely few references for “immortal works”). In contrast to the previous custom of placing “immortal works” of ivory within the scope of carving bamboo, wood, ivory, and rhinoceros horn as well as taking technique, stylistic analysis, and related background information as the focus of research, this study builds on the foundation of previous research to take into consideration the results of studies on Qing court art in the last few years to propose a new theoretical framework leading to further meaningful observations. In this reexamination and reappraisal for the appearance of “immortal works” of ivory at the Qing court, documents, images, surviving objects, and displays are all used to determine the status of these objects within the overall situation of works produced by the Qing Imperial Household Department as well as related issues concerning their collection and display. By doing so, “immortal works” of ivory can be assigned to their appropriate place in an attempt to gain a more complete and deeper appreciation of this group of artworks. Finally, by combing through ideas on “intriguing” and “marvelous” works in traditional Chinese culture, we can observe the attitude and understanding of the Qianlong emperor with regards to these so-called “immortal works” and see the turning point of how they appeared at the Qing court.
乾隆朝宮廷所稱之「仙工」所指涉的材質雖不以象牙為限,但以象牙製品數量最多、脈絡最為清晰,因此本文便以象牙製品為主要討論對象。這個研究對象在清宮內務府物品製作品類中並非主流,在過去有關清宮藝術的研究中,討論亦不多見。相對於清宮中主流的視覺圖像、工藝製作及大型成做項目,這些奇工小物看似微不足道。我們或許無法精確地回答乾隆皇帝為何對這類物品感到興趣,但卻可以相對持平地評估,「仙工」作品在當時被青睞、重視,入列於代表當朝藝術的收藏中,成為形塑當朝文化藝術成就的一環,是無可否認的事實。而乾隆皇帝御製詩中「自是鬼工手,能傳仙客情」般的論述,似乎意味「仙工」代稱之出現,不但解決了「人欲-天理」、「人巧-天成」之間的緊張感,並且拉抬了它們的藝術地位。更甚者,或許乾隆皇帝正在估算,用渾然天成的「仙工」來合理包裝對奇技的喜愛,不也正是文化品味正統性的展現。
Although the term for “immortal works” at the Qianlong court is not restricted to ivory works, ivory carving is the most numerous and evident in this trend. For this reason, the present study takes ivory carvings as the main topic for discussion. The works of the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court forming the topic of this study, however, were not part of the mainstream and therefore not discussed very much in previous studies on Qing court art. In fact, compared to mainstream visual arts, crafts, and large productions at the Qing court, these small and delicate works appear relatively insignificant. Although we may not be able to explain exactly why the Qianlong emperor was so fascinated with this type of craft, at the same time we can fairly assess that “immortal works” were highly favored and emphasized at the time. They were ranked as representative works of court art and became one of the important links in the achievements of art and culture during the Qing dynasty. This is something that cannot be denied. And with the Qianlong emperor, who described them as “from the hands of spirits, conveying the quality of immortals,” we can see how the term “immortal works” appeared and resolved the dichotomy between “human wishes follow Heavenly principles” and “human ingenuity is like the Heavens,” which raised the status of this type of art. What is more, the Qianlong emperor also perhaps reckoned using the term “immortal works” like the Heavens itself to package this fascinating art he admired with a theoretical underpinning, giving this product of culture an orthodox status.
關鍵字: 乾隆 仙工 象牙 巧工 鬼工 奇器
Keywords: Qianlong, immortal works, ivory, intricate works, ghostly works, marvelous objects
(Translated by Donald E. Brix)
Shih Ching-fei
Associate Professor
Graduate Institute of Art History
National Taiwan University
Abstract: The importation of painted enameling from Europe spurred the development of painted enamels at the Qing court during the late Kangxi era. The Enameling Atelier of the Office of Imperial Manufactories applied the new art form to at least four distinct media (bronze, glass, porcelain, and Yixing stoneware). Guided personally by the emperor, the atelier diligently experimented with new raw materials and
technologies to create the distinctive category of imperial painted enamelware. By reexamining the Western style elements and documentary evidence of painted enameling at the Qing court, this paper argues that use of painted enameling by the imperial ateliers did not merely stem from what previous studies have interpreted as the imperial fascination with a new art form, but was in fact a serious attempt on the part of Emperor Kangxi to surpass the painted enamels of Europe and the traditional overglaze enameled porcelains developed in the Ming dynasty.
Yuan blue-and-white
Ching-Fei Shih National Taiwan University
Abstract:
This essay discusses the social forces behind the rise of a new technology, based on the fundamental changes of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan Dynasty, focusing especially on the local inspirations that brought about the emergence of blue-and-white wares. If we place the emergence of Yuan blue-and-white in the context of the
development of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan period, we can certainly see the Jingdezhen potters’ determination to seek changes and to use newly introduced
materials and decorative techniques. It is reasonable to view these innovations as the local workshops’ responses to the adversities of Jingdezhen during late Southern Song to early
Yuan period, which was described in the document Taoji by Jiang Qi. In addition, the establishment of the Fuliang Ceramic Bureau in 1278 in Jingdezhen must have effects
on the recovery of the Jingdezhen ceramic industry as well as its rise in economic status. However, it was the free market and regional demands of the local Jingdezhen society, brought about by the slackening control by the ceramic bureau, which ultimately led to the most revolutionary changes in various aspects of ceramic production in Jingdezhen history.
Among the revolutionary changes are new inventions such as underglaze-painted (including iron, copper and cobalt) ware, over-glazed red and green wares, copper-red/
cobalt-blue glaze wares, and turquoise glazed wares. At the same time, we have noticed that the direct impact of the local and regional demand for commissioned burial objects
and ritual vessels on the development of Jingdezhen’s underglaze-painted wares must not be overlooked. Also, in relation to the development in technical achievements, the stimuli from social forces is not to be overlooked – rather, they are crucial. It is the invention of idea that precedes the development of necessary technology; therefore studying the social stimuli behind the genesis of Yuan blue-and-white will comprehensively enhance our understanding on the choice and use of technology as well as stylistic decisions of Yuan blue-and-white.
The wooden nesting cups of the Qing court are a series of stacked
cups (50, 100 or 150 in a set), paper-thin and graduated in size, that were
carved entirely from wood and assembled within a wooden goblet. The
cups were crafted in southern Germany and traveled extensively, along
varied trajectories, from Europe to China in the 17thand 18thcenturies.
Such nesting cups are richly endowed in meaning from the perspective of global history and would have impacted visual culture and related
knowledge across a wide range of regions. How they are displayed in contemporary museums reflects how they are viewed, interpreted, and organized by curators today; similarly, examining the presence of these wooden nesting cups at the Qing court and the location and manner of their display within the palace grounds provides insight as to how they were regarded in their own time. Who are and were the person(s) most responsible for these perspectives? What impact did these unique objects have on the interaction between China and Europe, at the time of their appearance and in later history? These are some of the specific questions this study will explore.
The greater objectives of this study are twofold. First, it aims to use
stacked wooden cups as a case study to promote interdisciplinary dialogue across the fields of global history, art history, and material culture studies. Second, it attempts to present the Qianlong emperor’s general attitude towards objects from the “Western Ocean” and, by specifically exploring the context in which the wooden cups found themselves at the Qing court, to determine the thoughts underpinning that attitude.
Keywords: global history, material culture, Western Ocean, wooden
goblet, Qing court, Qianlong Emperor
Abstract
本文旨在探究乾隆時期清宮內務府造辦處檔案中出現許多稱為「仙工」之相關現象(在過去雍正朝的相關檔案中卻極少見有「仙工」的紀錄)。不同於以往傾向將象牙「仙工」放在竹木牙角雕刻研究取徑中,以工藝技術、風格分析及相關製作背景為重點的研究,本文在前人研究的基礎上,回應近年清宮藝術研究成果,提出新的討論架構以導出有意義之觀察。以重新檢視清宮象牙「仙工」作品出發,利用文獻、圖像、收藏與陳設情況等材料,探討它們在清宮內務府整體物品製作之定位,以及收藏與陳設等相關現象,將清宮中的象牙「仙工」放入適當的脈絡中,企圖對此批作品有更深入、完整的理解。最後並藉由梳理中國傳統文化中對巧工、奇器的概念,來觀察乾隆皇帝對所謂「仙工」之態度及理解,探求「仙工」概念在清宮的出現及可能的契機。
This study takes a closer look at phenomena related to the numerous references for “immortal works” that appear in the archives of the workshops for the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court during the Qianlong reign (in related records from the previous Yongzheng reign are extremely few references for “immortal works”). In contrast to the previous custom of placing “immortal works” of ivory within the scope of carving bamboo, wood, ivory, and rhinoceros horn as well as taking technique, stylistic analysis, and related background information as the focus of research, this study builds on the foundation of previous research to take into consideration the results of studies on Qing court art in the last few years to propose a new theoretical framework leading to further meaningful observations. In this reexamination and reappraisal for the appearance of “immortal works” of ivory at the Qing court, documents, images, surviving objects, and displays are all used to determine the status of these objects within the overall situation of works produced by the Qing Imperial Household Department as well as related issues concerning their collection and display. By doing so, “immortal works” of ivory can be assigned to their appropriate place in an attempt to gain a more complete and deeper appreciation of this group of artworks. Finally, by combing through ideas on “intriguing” and “marvelous” works in traditional Chinese culture, we can observe the attitude and understanding of the Qianlong emperor with regards to these so-called “immortal works” and see the turning point of how they appeared at the Qing court.
乾隆朝宮廷所稱之「仙工」所指涉的材質雖不以象牙為限,但以象牙製品數量最多、脈絡最為清晰,因此本文便以象牙製品為主要討論對象。這個研究對象在清宮內務府物品製作品類中並非主流,在過去有關清宮藝術的研究中,討論亦不多見。相對於清宮中主流的視覺圖像、工藝製作及大型成做項目,這些奇工小物看似微不足道。我們或許無法精確地回答乾隆皇帝為何對這類物品感到興趣,但卻可以相對持平地評估,「仙工」作品在當時被青睞、重視,入列於代表當朝藝術的收藏中,成為形塑當朝文化藝術成就的一環,是無可否認的事實。而乾隆皇帝御製詩中「自是鬼工手,能傳仙客情」般的論述,似乎意味「仙工」代稱之出現,不但解決了「人欲-天理」、「人巧-天成」之間的緊張感,並且拉抬了它們的藝術地位。更甚者,或許乾隆皇帝正在估算,用渾然天成的「仙工」來合理包裝對奇技的喜愛,不也正是文化品味正統性的展現。
Although the term for “immortal works” at the Qianlong court is not restricted to ivory works, ivory carving is the most numerous and evident in this trend. For this reason, the present study takes ivory carvings as the main topic for discussion. The works of the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court forming the topic of this study, however, were not part of the mainstream and therefore not discussed very much in previous studies on Qing court art. In fact, compared to mainstream visual arts, crafts, and large productions at the Qing court, these small and delicate works appear relatively insignificant. Although we may not be able to explain exactly why the Qianlong emperor was so fascinated with this type of craft, at the same time we can fairly assess that “immortal works” were highly favored and emphasized at the time. They were ranked as representative works of court art and became one of the important links in the achievements of art and culture during the Qing dynasty. This is something that cannot be denied. And with the Qianlong emperor, who described them as “from the hands of spirits, conveying the quality of immortals,” we can see how the term “immortal works” appeared and resolved the dichotomy between “human wishes follow Heavenly principles” and “human ingenuity is like the Heavens,” which raised the status of this type of art. What is more, the Qianlong emperor also perhaps reckoned using the term “immortal works” like the Heavens itself to package this fascinating art he admired with a theoretical underpinning, giving this product of culture an orthodox status.
關鍵字: 乾隆 仙工 象牙 巧工 鬼工 奇器
Keywords: Qianlong, immortal works, ivory, intricate works, ghostly works, marvelous objects
(Translated by Donald E. Brix)
Shih Ching-fei
Associate Professor
Graduate Institute of Art History
National Taiwan University
Abstract: The importation of painted enameling from Europe spurred the development of painted enamels at the Qing court during the late Kangxi era. The Enameling Atelier of the Office of Imperial Manufactories applied the new art form to at least four distinct media (bronze, glass, porcelain, and Yixing stoneware). Guided personally by the emperor, the atelier diligently experimented with new raw materials and
technologies to create the distinctive category of imperial painted enamelware. By reexamining the Western style elements and documentary evidence of painted enameling at the Qing court, this paper argues that use of painted enameling by the imperial ateliers did not merely stem from what previous studies have interpreted as the imperial fascination with a new art form, but was in fact a serious attempt on the part of Emperor Kangxi to surpass the painted enamels of Europe and the traditional overglaze enameled porcelains developed in the Ming dynasty.
Yuan blue-and-white
Ching-Fei Shih National Taiwan University
Abstract:
This essay discusses the social forces behind the rise of a new technology, based on the fundamental changes of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan Dynasty, focusing especially on the local inspirations that brought about the emergence of blue-and-white wares. If we place the emergence of Yuan blue-and-white in the context of the
development of Jingdezhen ceramic production of the Yuan period, we can certainly see the Jingdezhen potters’ determination to seek changes and to use newly introduced
materials and decorative techniques. It is reasonable to view these innovations as the local workshops’ responses to the adversities of Jingdezhen during late Southern Song to early
Yuan period, which was described in the document Taoji by Jiang Qi. In addition, the establishment of the Fuliang Ceramic Bureau in 1278 in Jingdezhen must have effects
on the recovery of the Jingdezhen ceramic industry as well as its rise in economic status. However, it was the free market and regional demands of the local Jingdezhen society, brought about by the slackening control by the ceramic bureau, which ultimately led to the most revolutionary changes in various aspects of ceramic production in Jingdezhen history.
Among the revolutionary changes are new inventions such as underglaze-painted (including iron, copper and cobalt) ware, over-glazed red and green wares, copper-red/
cobalt-blue glaze wares, and turquoise glazed wares. At the same time, we have noticed that the direct impact of the local and regional demand for commissioned burial objects
and ritual vessels on the development of Jingdezhen’s underglaze-painted wares must not be overlooked. Also, in relation to the development in technical achievements, the stimuli from social forces is not to be overlooked – rather, they are crucial. It is the invention of idea that precedes the development of necessary technology; therefore studying the social stimuli behind the genesis of Yuan blue-and-white will comprehensively enhance our understanding on the choice and use of technology as well as stylistic decisions of Yuan blue-and-white.