Sociopolitics of Migrant Death and Repatriation, 2017
This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identi... more This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identification and repatriation. Given significant differences in funding, resources, labor power, institutional support, and time, the timing and movement of bodies through the process are highly variable. In many ways, the fragmentation and differential support for volunteer forensic scientists have produced particular systems-level nodes where bodies may wait “in limbo” for years. This chapter considers constraints faced by forensic scientists and the systemic implications of those individual constraints.
This study highlights complexities associated with postsurgical trauma interpretation of a 76-yea... more This study highlights complexities associated with postsurgical trauma interpretation of a 76-year-old female patient from a psychiatric institution in Mexico. The skeletal analysis identified complications from an unsuccessful surgical operation for an intertrochanteric fracture of the femur. An improperly placed surgical plate resulted in nonunion due to limited contact between fracture margins. However, it is unclear whether this resulted from surgical complications, ineffective postoperative care, or from the decedent's limited ability to follow postoperative care instructions. Additionally, failure of the plate resulted in degenerative changes to the acetabulum. These complications, associated with degenerative changes to upper limb joints, suggest significant mobility issues. The pattern of antemortem trauma and contextual information support a conclusion of postoperative medical neglect, a documented problem in psychiatric institutions in Latin America. This study provides insight into the relevance of detailed trauma assessment of skeletal remains in cases where neglect and human rights violations are suspected.
Cranial morphology has previously been used to estimate phylogenetic relationships among populati... more Cranial morphology has previously been used to estimate phylogenetic relationships among populations, and has been an important tool in the reconstruction of ancient human dispersals across the planet. In the Americas, previous morphological studies support a scenario of people entering the Americas and dispersing from North America into South America through Meso America, making the Mexican territory the natural funnel through which biological diversity entered South America. We explore the cranial morphological affinities of three late Holocene Mexican series, in relation to ancient and modern crania from North and South America, Australo-Melanesia, and East Asia. Morphological affinities were assessed through Mahalanobis Distances, and represented via Multidimensional Scaling and Ward's Linkage Cluster analysis. Minimum FST values were also calculated for each series. Our results show Mexican groups share morphological affinities with the Native American series, but do not cluster together as would be expected. The minimum FST estimates show between-group variation in the Americas is higher than the Asian or Australo-Melanesian populations, and that Mexican series have high between-group variance (FST = 0.124), compared to the geographically larger South America (FST = 0.116) and North America (FST = 0.076). These results show that the Mexican series share morphological affinities with the East Asian series, but maintains high levels of between-group variation, similar to South America. This supports the suggestion that the high phenotypic variation seen the Americas is not a result of its size, as it can be found in more constricted areas, such as the Mexican territory.
Cervids gnawing on bone has been reported in the taphonomic and zooarchaeological literature, but... more Cervids gnawing on bone has been reported in the taphonomic and zooarchaeological literature, but there is no known report of cervids modifying human remains. A body placed at the Forensic Anthropology Research Facility at Texas State University in July 2014 was monitored with a motion-sensitive camera to observe scavenging. At approximately 190 days postmortem, the camera captured multiple images of a young deer gnawing on a human rib bone. The two gnawed ribs had been disarticulated from the thorax and moved less than one meter from the articulated trunk. The ribs exhibited splintering of the sternal ends, which has been characterized as “forking” but no obvious tooth depressions, punctures, or grooves. The forking is characteristic of ungulate damage caused by the deer holding the sternal end of the rib in its mouth parallel to the tooth row and rubbing its teeth against the bone. While cervids do not greatly contribute to the scavenging guild, they should not be overlooked as a ...
Objectives
Thousands of migrants have died along the United States/Mexico border and many remain ... more Objectives Thousands of migrants have died along the United States/Mexico border and many remain unidentified. The purpose of this research is to test whether estimations of population affinity, derived from craniometric data, can facilitate identification of migrant remains and provide a geographic region of origin rather than the broad label Hispanic. The appropriateness of current forensic reference data will also be assessed.
Methods A case study combined with craniometric data from positively identified and unidentified migrants from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (n = 489) in Arizona and operation identification (n = 201) in Texas were compared to skeletal data representing Guatemalan (n = 87) and Mexican (n = 65) Mayans. Biological distance and discriminant function analyses were used to assess overall population relationships and classificatory models for forensic anthropological application.
Results The majority of evidence indicates that estimations of population affinity can assist in the facilitation identification of migrant remains, even when a broad classification is used. Biological distances among the groups suggest that positively identified Guatemalan and Mexican migrants are similar to one another but differ from Guatemalan and Mexican Mayans.
Conclusions Population affinity estimations can aid migrant identification, and current reference data used in forensic anthropological practice should be replaced with data from positive identifications. Estimates of geographic origin may be more useful than the broad generic term Hispanic for narrowing down the search for a missing person, but more data and research is needed to achieve this goal. Although, the utility of geographic origin estimates relies on transnational data centralization and sharing, which is not always the case.
Sociopolitics of Migrant Death and Repatriation, 2018
This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identi... more This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identification and repatriation. Given significant differences in funding, resources, labor power, institutional support, and time, the timing and movement of bodies through the process are highly variable. In many ways, the fragmentation and differential support for volunteer forensic scientists have produced particular systems-level nodes where bodies may wait “in limbo” for years. This chapter considers constraints faced by forensic scientists and the systemic implications of those individual constraints.
M. Kate Spradley, Joseph T. Hefner, and Nicholas P. Herrmann. Paper presented at the American Ass... more M. Kate Spradley, Joseph T. Hefner, and Nicholas P. Herrmann. Paper presented at the American Association of Physical Anthropologists meeting, Denver, Colorado, April 2009.
The FDB was created in 1986 with a grant from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). The concep... more The FDB was created in 1986 with a grant from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). The concept of this NIJ funded research initiative was sparked by the need to obtain modern skeletal reference collections: it was clear that the Terry and Hamann-Todd collections did not best represent variation in modern Americans.1 In effect, Dr. Jantz recognized the issue of external validity that would be stressed decades later in the Daubert guidelines. Clyde Snow first commented on the need for modern skeletal reference data and suggested data bank curation as a solution.2 In 1983, a committee appointed by then American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) Physical Anthropology Section President Michael Finnegan further developed the concept. The initial committee consisted of Clyde Snow, Larry Angel, Stanley Rhine, and Richard Jantz, with Douglas Ubelaker replacing Clyde Snow at a later date.3 Ellis Kerley also played a critical role in the development of the FDB, providing external reviewe...
This article focuses on the role of the forensic anthropologist in the identification of migrant ... more This article focuses on the role of the forensic anthropologist in the identification of migrant remains in the American Southwest. These migrant cases present a unique set of circumstances that necessitate a regional approach to identification. The Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME), located in Tucson, Arizona has developed best practices that facilitate high identification rates of migrant deaths. These best practices have provided a foundation for other agencies that are faced with similar issues; namely, developing specific protocols for migrant deaths, working with nongovernmental humanitarian organizations, and sharing information have maximized identification efforts. In 2012, Texas surpassed Arizona in the number of migrant deaths. The Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS) began identification efforts for migrant remains found in Brooks County, Texas in 2013. Informed by best practices from the PCOME, FACTS has made successful identifications. Descriptions of the processes at both the PCOME and FACTS are described in detail. Acad Forensic Pathol. 2016 6(3): 432-438 Bruce E. Anderson PhD, Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner
Sociopolitics of Migrant Death and Repatriation, 2017
This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identi... more This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identification and repatriation. Given significant differences in funding, resources, labor power, institutional support, and time, the timing and movement of bodies through the process are highly variable. In many ways, the fragmentation and differential support for volunteer forensic scientists have produced particular systems-level nodes where bodies may wait “in limbo” for years. This chapter considers constraints faced by forensic scientists and the systemic implications of those individual constraints.
This study highlights complexities associated with postsurgical trauma interpretation of a 76-yea... more This study highlights complexities associated with postsurgical trauma interpretation of a 76-year-old female patient from a psychiatric institution in Mexico. The skeletal analysis identified complications from an unsuccessful surgical operation for an intertrochanteric fracture of the femur. An improperly placed surgical plate resulted in nonunion due to limited contact between fracture margins. However, it is unclear whether this resulted from surgical complications, ineffective postoperative care, or from the decedent's limited ability to follow postoperative care instructions. Additionally, failure of the plate resulted in degenerative changes to the acetabulum. These complications, associated with degenerative changes to upper limb joints, suggest significant mobility issues. The pattern of antemortem trauma and contextual information support a conclusion of postoperative medical neglect, a documented problem in psychiatric institutions in Latin America. This study provides insight into the relevance of detailed trauma assessment of skeletal remains in cases where neglect and human rights violations are suspected.
Cranial morphology has previously been used to estimate phylogenetic relationships among populati... more Cranial morphology has previously been used to estimate phylogenetic relationships among populations, and has been an important tool in the reconstruction of ancient human dispersals across the planet. In the Americas, previous morphological studies support a scenario of people entering the Americas and dispersing from North America into South America through Meso America, making the Mexican territory the natural funnel through which biological diversity entered South America. We explore the cranial morphological affinities of three late Holocene Mexican series, in relation to ancient and modern crania from North and South America, Australo-Melanesia, and East Asia. Morphological affinities were assessed through Mahalanobis Distances, and represented via Multidimensional Scaling and Ward's Linkage Cluster analysis. Minimum FST values were also calculated for each series. Our results show Mexican groups share morphological affinities with the Native American series, but do not cluster together as would be expected. The minimum FST estimates show between-group variation in the Americas is higher than the Asian or Australo-Melanesian populations, and that Mexican series have high between-group variance (FST = 0.124), compared to the geographically larger South America (FST = 0.116) and North America (FST = 0.076). These results show that the Mexican series share morphological affinities with the East Asian series, but maintains high levels of between-group variation, similar to South America. This supports the suggestion that the high phenotypic variation seen the Americas is not a result of its size, as it can be found in more constricted areas, such as the Mexican territory.
Cervids gnawing on bone has been reported in the taphonomic and zooarchaeological literature, but... more Cervids gnawing on bone has been reported in the taphonomic and zooarchaeological literature, but there is no known report of cervids modifying human remains. A body placed at the Forensic Anthropology Research Facility at Texas State University in July 2014 was monitored with a motion-sensitive camera to observe scavenging. At approximately 190 days postmortem, the camera captured multiple images of a young deer gnawing on a human rib bone. The two gnawed ribs had been disarticulated from the thorax and moved less than one meter from the articulated trunk. The ribs exhibited splintering of the sternal ends, which has been characterized as “forking” but no obvious tooth depressions, punctures, or grooves. The forking is characteristic of ungulate damage caused by the deer holding the sternal end of the rib in its mouth parallel to the tooth row and rubbing its teeth against the bone. While cervids do not greatly contribute to the scavenging guild, they should not be overlooked as a ...
Objectives
Thousands of migrants have died along the United States/Mexico border and many remain ... more Objectives Thousands of migrants have died along the United States/Mexico border and many remain unidentified. The purpose of this research is to test whether estimations of population affinity, derived from craniometric data, can facilitate identification of migrant remains and provide a geographic region of origin rather than the broad label Hispanic. The appropriateness of current forensic reference data will also be assessed.
Methods A case study combined with craniometric data from positively identified and unidentified migrants from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (n = 489) in Arizona and operation identification (n = 201) in Texas were compared to skeletal data representing Guatemalan (n = 87) and Mexican (n = 65) Mayans. Biological distance and discriminant function analyses were used to assess overall population relationships and classificatory models for forensic anthropological application.
Results The majority of evidence indicates that estimations of population affinity can assist in the facilitation identification of migrant remains, even when a broad classification is used. Biological distances among the groups suggest that positively identified Guatemalan and Mexican migrants are similar to one another but differ from Guatemalan and Mexican Mayans.
Conclusions Population affinity estimations can aid migrant identification, and current reference data used in forensic anthropological practice should be replaced with data from positive identifications. Estimates of geographic origin may be more useful than the broad generic term Hispanic for narrowing down the search for a missing person, but more data and research is needed to achieve this goal. Although, the utility of geographic origin estimates relies on transnational data centralization and sharing, which is not always the case.
Sociopolitics of Migrant Death and Repatriation, 2018
This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identi... more This chapter traces the movement of deceased migrants in South Texas through the system of identification and repatriation. Given significant differences in funding, resources, labor power, institutional support, and time, the timing and movement of bodies through the process are highly variable. In many ways, the fragmentation and differential support for volunteer forensic scientists have produced particular systems-level nodes where bodies may wait “in limbo” for years. This chapter considers constraints faced by forensic scientists and the systemic implications of those individual constraints.
M. Kate Spradley, Joseph T. Hefner, and Nicholas P. Herrmann. Paper presented at the American Ass... more M. Kate Spradley, Joseph T. Hefner, and Nicholas P. Herrmann. Paper presented at the American Association of Physical Anthropologists meeting, Denver, Colorado, April 2009.
The FDB was created in 1986 with a grant from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). The concep... more The FDB was created in 1986 with a grant from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). The concept of this NIJ funded research initiative was sparked by the need to obtain modern skeletal reference collections: it was clear that the Terry and Hamann-Todd collections did not best represent variation in modern Americans.1 In effect, Dr. Jantz recognized the issue of external validity that would be stressed decades later in the Daubert guidelines. Clyde Snow first commented on the need for modern skeletal reference data and suggested data bank curation as a solution.2 In 1983, a committee appointed by then American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) Physical Anthropology Section President Michael Finnegan further developed the concept. The initial committee consisted of Clyde Snow, Larry Angel, Stanley Rhine, and Richard Jantz, with Douglas Ubelaker replacing Clyde Snow at a later date.3 Ellis Kerley also played a critical role in the development of the FDB, providing external reviewe...
This article focuses on the role of the forensic anthropologist in the identification of migrant ... more This article focuses on the role of the forensic anthropologist in the identification of migrant remains in the American Southwest. These migrant cases present a unique set of circumstances that necessitate a regional approach to identification. The Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME), located in Tucson, Arizona has developed best practices that facilitate high identification rates of migrant deaths. These best practices have provided a foundation for other agencies that are faced with similar issues; namely, developing specific protocols for migrant deaths, working with nongovernmental humanitarian organizations, and sharing information have maximized identification efforts. In 2012, Texas surpassed Arizona in the number of migrant deaths. The Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS) began identification efforts for migrant remains found in Brooks County, Texas in 2013. Informed by best practices from the PCOME, FACTS has made successful identifications. Descriptions of the processes at both the PCOME and FACTS are described in detail. Acad Forensic Pathol. 2016 6(3): 432-438 Bruce E. Anderson PhD, Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner
After attending this presentation, attendees will better understand the role of the anthropologis... more After attending this presentation, attendees will better understand the role of the anthropologist in the identification and repatriation processes of deceased migrants found along the US-Mexico border. This presentation will impact the forensic science community by highlighting how the role of an anthropologist varies in identification and repatriation processes depending on local and state laws and may extend well beyond skeletal analysis. Often law enforcement may be responsible for identification efforts while an anthropologist provides a report to a medical examiner, law enforcement agency, coroner, or Justice of the Peace (JP). In other circumstances, however, responsibility for identification may fall to the anthropologist. Depending on jurisdiction, these responsibilities vary with the anthropologist taking on new roles. These varied roles will be examined through a survey of three partner organizations of the Forensic Border Coalition (FBC): the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME), and the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS). A generalized description of identification and repatriation processes is given for migrant deaths in Arizona, while case studies will be discussed to illustrate the complexities of these processes in Texas. The EAAF investigates migrant deaths along both sides of the US-Mexico border. Regarding cases of unidentified remains recovered in the US, EAAF facilitates the collection of family reference sample DNA for comparison to DNA samples from remains likely to correspond to migrants. When DNA analysis suggests an identification, the EAAF works with Forensic Data Banks on Missing Migrants or other mechanisms within the migrant’s country of origin to compare all antemortem and postmortem records to confirm an identification. The EAAF writes an identification report and works with the appropriate local US officials to legally recognize the identification. In recent years EAAF has helped identify 65 migrants who perished within the US. Repatriation is then handled by a Consulate’s office, overseen by the Foreign Affairs Ministry from the decedent's home county. In Arizona, forensic anthropological investigations of presumed migrants takes place at the PCOME. Between 2001 and 2013, the PCOME received the remains of 2,203 presumed migrants, and successfully identified 1,463. For cases requiring skeletal analysis, anthropologists at the PCOME construct both a biological and cultural profile. Once an identification hypothesis is made, the anthropologist compares all antemortem and postmortem data, writes an identification report, and briefs the Medical Examiner who legally signs off on an identification. If the decedent is to be returned to their country of origin, the local Consulate’s office manages the repatriation of the remains, a process that can take weeks to months. Since 2013, Operation Identification (OpID), housed within FACTS, has received the remains of 87 presumed migrants, many through exhumation efforts carried out by Baylor University and University of Indianapolis. DNA analysis, along with anthropological analyses of the skeletal remains and personal effects, are the primary sources for identification hypotheses. Once a DNA association is reported, anthropologists associated with OpID compare all antemortem and postmortem data, write an identification report, and brief the appropriate JP who legally approves the identification. Since 2014, OpID has helped facilitate nine identifications, however only five of those individuals have been successfully repatriated. The repatriation process for counties without a medical examiner requires the coordinated efforts of Consulate offices, the funeral home handling the repatriation, the funeral home that originally filed the death certificate, and the JP, which can all vary by case. Unlike the Arizona model where these efforts are centralized, in Texas these parties can be vastly separated by geography, culture, and available resources, which can result in a breakdown of communication and stagnation of the repatriation process. In the most egregious example, an individual identified by OpID in August 2014 has still not been repatriated as of July 2016. This unfortunate reality has led to anthropologists in Texas adopting new roles as de facto case managers and stewards of identification and repatriation processes. Anthropologists associated with OpID, with help from other FBC partners, are now facilitating/mediating communication between funeral homes, law enforcement, JPs, Medical Examiners, and the decedent’s family members. It is believed these expanded roles of the anthropologist will help streamline and hasten the repatriation of remains.
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Papers by Kate Spradley
Thousands of migrants have died along the United States/Mexico border and many remain unidentified. The purpose of this research is to test whether estimations of population affinity, derived from craniometric data, can facilitate identification of migrant remains and provide a geographic region of origin rather than the broad label Hispanic. The appropriateness of current forensic reference data will also be assessed.
Methods
A case study combined with craniometric data from positively identified and unidentified migrants from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (n = 489) in Arizona and operation identification (n = 201) in Texas were compared to skeletal data representing Guatemalan (n = 87) and Mexican (n = 65) Mayans. Biological distance and discriminant function analyses were used to assess overall population relationships and classificatory models for forensic anthropological application.
Results
The majority of evidence indicates that estimations of population affinity can assist in the facilitation identification of migrant remains, even when a broad classification is used. Biological distances among the groups suggest that positively identified Guatemalan and Mexican migrants are similar to one another but differ from Guatemalan and Mexican Mayans.
Conclusions
Population affinity estimations can aid migrant identification, and current reference data used in forensic anthropological practice should be replaced with data from positive identifications. Estimates of geographic origin may be more useful than the broad generic term Hispanic for narrowing down the search for a missing person, but more data and research is needed to achieve this goal. Although, the utility of geographic origin estimates relies on transnational data centralization and sharing, which is not always the case.
Thousands of migrants have died along the United States/Mexico border and many remain unidentified. The purpose of this research is to test whether estimations of population affinity, derived from craniometric data, can facilitate identification of migrant remains and provide a geographic region of origin rather than the broad label Hispanic. The appropriateness of current forensic reference data will also be assessed.
Methods
A case study combined with craniometric data from positively identified and unidentified migrants from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (n = 489) in Arizona and operation identification (n = 201) in Texas were compared to skeletal data representing Guatemalan (n = 87) and Mexican (n = 65) Mayans. Biological distance and discriminant function analyses were used to assess overall population relationships and classificatory models for forensic anthropological application.
Results
The majority of evidence indicates that estimations of population affinity can assist in the facilitation identification of migrant remains, even when a broad classification is used. Biological distances among the groups suggest that positively identified Guatemalan and Mexican migrants are similar to one another but differ from Guatemalan and Mexican Mayans.
Conclusions
Population affinity estimations can aid migrant identification, and current reference data used in forensic anthropological practice should be replaced with data from positive identifications. Estimates of geographic origin may be more useful than the broad generic term Hispanic for narrowing down the search for a missing person, but more data and research is needed to achieve this goal. Although, the utility of geographic origin estimates relies on transnational data centralization and sharing, which is not always the case.
This presentation will impact the forensic science community by highlighting how the role of an anthropologist varies in identification and repatriation processes depending on local and state laws and may extend well beyond skeletal analysis.
Often law enforcement may be responsible for identification efforts while an anthropologist provides a report to a medical examiner, law enforcement agency, coroner, or Justice of the Peace (JP). In other circumstances, however, responsibility for identification may fall to the anthropologist. Depending on jurisdiction, these responsibilities vary with the anthropologist taking on new roles.
These varied roles will be examined through a survey of three partner organizations of the Forensic Border Coalition (FBC): the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME), and the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS). A generalized description of identification and repatriation processes is given for migrant deaths in Arizona, while case studies will be discussed to illustrate the complexities of these processes in Texas.
The EAAF investigates migrant deaths along both sides of the US-Mexico border. Regarding cases of unidentified remains recovered in the US, EAAF facilitates the collection of family reference sample DNA for comparison to DNA samples from remains likely to correspond to migrants. When DNA analysis suggests an identification, the EAAF works with Forensic Data Banks on Missing Migrants or other mechanisms within the migrant’s country of origin to compare all antemortem and postmortem records to confirm an identification. The EAAF writes an identification report and works with the appropriate local US officials to legally recognize the identification. In recent years EAAF has helped identify 65 migrants who perished within the US. Repatriation is then handled by a Consulate’s office, overseen by the Foreign Affairs Ministry from the decedent's home county.
In Arizona, forensic anthropological investigations of presumed migrants takes place at the PCOME. Between 2001 and 2013, the PCOME received the remains of 2,203 presumed migrants, and successfully identified 1,463. For cases requiring skeletal analysis, anthropologists at the PCOME construct both a biological and cultural profile. Once an identification hypothesis is made, the anthropologist compares all antemortem and postmortem data, writes an identification report, and briefs the Medical Examiner who legally signs off on an identification. If the decedent is to be returned to their country of origin, the local Consulate’s office manages the repatriation of the remains, a process that can take weeks to months.
Since 2013, Operation Identification (OpID), housed within FACTS, has received the remains of 87 presumed migrants, many through exhumation efforts carried out by Baylor University and University of Indianapolis. DNA analysis, along with anthropological analyses of the skeletal remains and personal effects, are the primary sources for identification hypotheses. Once a DNA association is reported, anthropologists associated with OpID compare all antemortem and postmortem data, write an identification report, and brief the appropriate JP who legally approves the identification. Since 2014, OpID has helped facilitate nine identifications, however only five of those individuals have been successfully repatriated. The repatriation process for counties without a medical examiner requires the coordinated efforts of Consulate offices, the funeral home handling the repatriation, the funeral home that originally filed the death certificate, and the JP, which can all vary by case. Unlike the Arizona model where these efforts are centralized, in Texas these parties can be vastly separated by geography, culture, and available resources, which can result in a breakdown of communication and stagnation of the repatriation process. In the most egregious example, an individual identified by OpID in August 2014 has still not been repatriated as of July 2016.
This unfortunate reality has led to anthropologists in Texas adopting new roles as de facto case managers and stewards of identification and repatriation processes. Anthropologists associated with OpID, with help from other FBC partners, are now facilitating/mediating communication between funeral homes, law enforcement, JPs, Medical Examiners, and the decedent’s family members. It is believed these expanded roles of the anthropologist will help streamline and hasten the repatriation of remains.