The functional perspective on attitudes suggests that individuals will be more persuaded by adver... more The functional perspective on attitudes suggests that individuals will be more persuaded by advertisements that match their individual needs or attitude functions. Although previous research provided correlational support for this functional approach, the current study aimed to provide a stronger, experimental test. A pilot study validated situational manipulations of the value-expressive and knowledge functions. Experiment 1 revealed that ads that matched situationally induced needs were more appealing than those that did not match. Results suggest the effectiveness of marketers, legislators, and educators situationally arousing or making salient diverse motives in individuals, and then meeting these motives with carefully designed advertisements, political or educational appeals.
We assessed the effects of three interventions, rhythm, robotic, and standard-of-care, on the imi... more We assessed the effects of three interventions, rhythm, robotic, and standard-of-care, on the imitation/praxis, interpersonal synchrony, and overall motor performance of 36 children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) between 5 and 12 years of age. Children were matched on age, level of functioning, and services received, prior to random assignment to one of the three groups. Training was provided for 8 weeks with 4 sessions provided each week. We assessed generalized changes in motor skills from the pretest to the posttest using a standardized test of motor performance, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, 2nd edition (BOT-2). We also assessed training-specific changes in imitation/praxis and interpersonal synchrony during an early and a late session. Consistent with the training activities practiced, the rhythm and robot groups improved on the body coordination composite of the BOT-2, whereas the comparison group improved on the fine manual control composite of the B...
Background: Complex multilimb coordination emerges gradually over development (Getchell and Whita... more Background: Complex multilimb coordination emerges gradually over development (Getchell and Whitall, 2003). Specifically, children progress from performing consistent dual-limb actions such as clapping to consistent, multilimb actions such as march and clap motions. Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) have significant motor impairments in overall coordination as well as imitation and praxis (Green et al., 2008). These impairments will not only affect an autistic child’s solo multilimb synchrony (movements on their own) but also their social multilimb synchrony (movements with a partner). Objectives: In the present study we aimed to develop a novel intervention tool using robot-child interactions to facilitate solo and social synchrony of typically developing (TD) children and children with ASDs between 4 to 8 years of age. Methods: 12 TD children and 4 children with ASDs received 12 training sessions over a period of 6 weeks @ of 2 sessions per week. The training involved...
Background: Dual-limb coordination such as clapping and marching emerges earlier in development t... more Background: Dual-limb coordination such as clapping and marching emerges earlier in development than multilimb coordination, for example marching while clapping (Getchell, 2007). In addition, the difference between self-coordination (actions performed on your own) and social coordination (joint actions done as one follows a leader) within such multilimb motions is unknown. Currently, we are evaluating whether imitation training within a robot-adult-child context facilitates self and social coordination of typically developing children and children with ASDs/ADHD between 4-10 years of age. Objectives: To examine the effects of robot-adult-child interaction training on the self and social coordination of typically developing children and high-functioning children with ASDs/ADHD between 4-10 years of age during dual and multilimb motions. Methods: Eight, 4-6 year olds (group 1) and seven, 6-8 year olds (group 2) were observed before and after training during three conditions: only clap...
This volume highlights control motivation and its effects on social-cognitive processes. By bring... more This volume highlights control motivation and its effects on social-cognitive processes. By bringing together a broad collection of scholars from both the forefront of the psychology of control and research that bridges work on control motivation and social cognition, the editors set out to present the most up-to-date and comprehensive work on this topic. Included in the text are discussions of the major theoretical perspectives on control, the importance of perceived control for social functioning, the effects of control and uncertainty reduction motives on person perception, attitude change, and self-evaluation processes, and finally, the manner in which individual differences in control needs mirror the way people seek out, attend to, process and behave in response to control-relevant information in a variety of domains.
When and why do people seek to explain the actions of others? Theorists (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 19... more When and why do people seek to explain the actions of others? Theorists (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1967) long have suggested that people make causal inferences in order to satisfy a need for effective control. That is, we engage in attributional analyses at least in part to make the social world understandable, predictable, and controllable. As we have seen through out this volume, recent research provides some support for this control motivation-attributional activity hypothesis. Pittman and his colleagues (Pittman & D'Agostino, 1985; Pittman & Pittman, 1980), for example, have provided evidence indicating that control motivation aroused by temporary exposure to uncontrollable events results in increased attri butional activity, an increased need for diagnostic information, and a more careful or deliberate processing of the available information (See Chapter 6 this volume). Noting the strong association between depression and less perceived life control (Garber, Miller, & Seaman, 1979; Marsh & Weary, 1989; Warren & McEachren, 1983; Weisz, Weiss, Wasserman, & Rintoul, 1987), several investigators (e.g., McCaul, 1983; Weary, Jordan & Hill, 1985) have established important parallels between the social information processing effects of experimentally induced control deprivation and naturally occurring depression. More specifically, a number of investigators have found evidence that depressives' expectations of uncontrollability over life events and associated feelings of uncertainty have important effects on their perceptions and cognitions about other people; they motivate a style of social information processing that may be characterized as effortful, vigilant, and detailed. In this chapter, we will present a model of the influence of depressives' generalized expectations of uncontrollability on their social perception processes. We will present the available research findings with respect to this model and will consider possible limitations and alternative interpre tations of the relevant evidence. Finally, we will consider the relationship of research on the social-cognitive consequences of depression with recent work on cognitive processes and moods. Before considering our model
The control-gaining influence of counterfactual thought was examined in a month-long study of rea... more The control-gaining influence of counterfactual thought was examined in a month-long study of real-life exam performances. Participants were contacted immediately after receiving a test grade, the day before their next test, and right after receiving their second grade. Previous research has proposed that upward counterfactuals lead to improved future performance. The present study aimed to identify mediators of this process. Participants who generated more upward counterfactuals were predicted to perceive enhanced control over the environment and to engage in more action on their environment. Subsequent test performance should thus improve. Results showed that the tendency to generate upward counterfactuals was correlated with later changes in circumstances, which in turn, was associated with higher perceptions of control; control perceptions were correlated with better subsequent grades. Implications of results for social cognition, action, and control processes are discussed.
Recent research suggests that mildly and moderately depressed individuals are more sensitive to s... more Recent research suggests that mildly and moderately depressed individuals are more sensitive to social information than the non depressed individuals are. The relationship between severity of depression and a measure relevant to this social sensitivity, attributional complexity, was examined. As predicted, a significant quadratic contrast indicated an inverted-U-shaped relationship between depression and attributional complexity. Mildly depressed individuals had the highest attributional complexity scores; nondepressed and severely depressed individuals had the lowest scores. Sex differences for both depression and attributional complexity were replicated. More women than men were depressed, and women also had higher attributional complexity scores. Finally, the relationship between attributional complexity and depression was interpreted as reflecting depressives' responses to heightened contingency uncertainty and expectations of uncontrollability.
Understanding the physical and interpersonal constraints that afford cooperation during real-worl... more Understanding the physical and interpersonal constraints that afford cooperation during real-world tasks requires consideration of the fit between the environment and task-relevant dimensions of coactors and the coactors' fit with each other. In the present study, we examined how cooperation can emerge during ongoing interaction using the simple task of two actors' moving long wooden planks. The system dynamics showed hysteresis: A past-action mode persisted when both solo and joint actions were possible. Moreover, pairs whose arm spans were both short, both long, or mismatched made action-mode transitions at similar points, when scaled by a relational measure. The relational measure of plank length to arm span was dictated by the pair member with the shorter arm span, who, thus, had a greater need to cooperate during the task. The results suggest that understanding affordances for cooperation requires giving more consideration to constraints imposed by the fit between coact...
The functional perspective on attitudes suggests that individuals will be more persuaded by adver... more The functional perspective on attitudes suggests that individuals will be more persuaded by advertisements that match their individual needs or attitude functions. Although previous research provided correlational support for this functional approach, the current study aimed to provide a stronger, experimental test. A pilot study validated situational manipulations of the value-expressive and knowledge functions. Experiment 1 revealed that ads that matched situationally induced needs were more appealing than those that did not match. Results suggest the effectiveness of marketers, legislators, and educators situationally arousing or making salient diverse motives in individuals, and then meeting these motives with carefully designed advertisements, political or educational appeals.
We assessed the effects of three interventions, rhythm, robotic, and standard-of-care, on the imi... more We assessed the effects of three interventions, rhythm, robotic, and standard-of-care, on the imitation/praxis, interpersonal synchrony, and overall motor performance of 36 children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) between 5 and 12 years of age. Children were matched on age, level of functioning, and services received, prior to random assignment to one of the three groups. Training was provided for 8 weeks with 4 sessions provided each week. We assessed generalized changes in motor skills from the pretest to the posttest using a standardized test of motor performance, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, 2nd edition (BOT-2). We also assessed training-specific changes in imitation/praxis and interpersonal synchrony during an early and a late session. Consistent with the training activities practiced, the rhythm and robot groups improved on the body coordination composite of the BOT-2, whereas the comparison group improved on the fine manual control composite of the B...
Background: Complex multilimb coordination emerges gradually over development (Getchell and Whita... more Background: Complex multilimb coordination emerges gradually over development (Getchell and Whitall, 2003). Specifically, children progress from performing consistent dual-limb actions such as clapping to consistent, multilimb actions such as march and clap motions. Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) have significant motor impairments in overall coordination as well as imitation and praxis (Green et al., 2008). These impairments will not only affect an autistic child’s solo multilimb synchrony (movements on their own) but also their social multilimb synchrony (movements with a partner). Objectives: In the present study we aimed to develop a novel intervention tool using robot-child interactions to facilitate solo and social synchrony of typically developing (TD) children and children with ASDs between 4 to 8 years of age. Methods: 12 TD children and 4 children with ASDs received 12 training sessions over a period of 6 weeks @ of 2 sessions per week. The training involved...
Background: Dual-limb coordination such as clapping and marching emerges earlier in development t... more Background: Dual-limb coordination such as clapping and marching emerges earlier in development than multilimb coordination, for example marching while clapping (Getchell, 2007). In addition, the difference between self-coordination (actions performed on your own) and social coordination (joint actions done as one follows a leader) within such multilimb motions is unknown. Currently, we are evaluating whether imitation training within a robot-adult-child context facilitates self and social coordination of typically developing children and children with ASDs/ADHD between 4-10 years of age. Objectives: To examine the effects of robot-adult-child interaction training on the self and social coordination of typically developing children and high-functioning children with ASDs/ADHD between 4-10 years of age during dual and multilimb motions. Methods: Eight, 4-6 year olds (group 1) and seven, 6-8 year olds (group 2) were observed before and after training during three conditions: only clap...
This volume highlights control motivation and its effects on social-cognitive processes. By bring... more This volume highlights control motivation and its effects on social-cognitive processes. By bringing together a broad collection of scholars from both the forefront of the psychology of control and research that bridges work on control motivation and social cognition, the editors set out to present the most up-to-date and comprehensive work on this topic. Included in the text are discussions of the major theoretical perspectives on control, the importance of perceived control for social functioning, the effects of control and uncertainty reduction motives on person perception, attitude change, and self-evaluation processes, and finally, the manner in which individual differences in control needs mirror the way people seek out, attend to, process and behave in response to control-relevant information in a variety of domains.
When and why do people seek to explain the actions of others? Theorists (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 19... more When and why do people seek to explain the actions of others? Theorists (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1967) long have suggested that people make causal inferences in order to satisfy a need for effective control. That is, we engage in attributional analyses at least in part to make the social world understandable, predictable, and controllable. As we have seen through out this volume, recent research provides some support for this control motivation-attributional activity hypothesis. Pittman and his colleagues (Pittman & D'Agostino, 1985; Pittman & Pittman, 1980), for example, have provided evidence indicating that control motivation aroused by temporary exposure to uncontrollable events results in increased attri butional activity, an increased need for diagnostic information, and a more careful or deliberate processing of the available information (See Chapter 6 this volume). Noting the strong association between depression and less perceived life control (Garber, Miller, & Seaman, 1979; Marsh & Weary, 1989; Warren & McEachren, 1983; Weisz, Weiss, Wasserman, & Rintoul, 1987), several investigators (e.g., McCaul, 1983; Weary, Jordan & Hill, 1985) have established important parallels between the social information processing effects of experimentally induced control deprivation and naturally occurring depression. More specifically, a number of investigators have found evidence that depressives' expectations of uncontrollability over life events and associated feelings of uncertainty have important effects on their perceptions and cognitions about other people; they motivate a style of social information processing that may be characterized as effortful, vigilant, and detailed. In this chapter, we will present a model of the influence of depressives' generalized expectations of uncontrollability on their social perception processes. We will present the available research findings with respect to this model and will consider possible limitations and alternative interpre tations of the relevant evidence. Finally, we will consider the relationship of research on the social-cognitive consequences of depression with recent work on cognitive processes and moods. Before considering our model
The control-gaining influence of counterfactual thought was examined in a month-long study of rea... more The control-gaining influence of counterfactual thought was examined in a month-long study of real-life exam performances. Participants were contacted immediately after receiving a test grade, the day before their next test, and right after receiving their second grade. Previous research has proposed that upward counterfactuals lead to improved future performance. The present study aimed to identify mediators of this process. Participants who generated more upward counterfactuals were predicted to perceive enhanced control over the environment and to engage in more action on their environment. Subsequent test performance should thus improve. Results showed that the tendency to generate upward counterfactuals was correlated with later changes in circumstances, which in turn, was associated with higher perceptions of control; control perceptions were correlated with better subsequent grades. Implications of results for social cognition, action, and control processes are discussed.
Recent research suggests that mildly and moderately depressed individuals are more sensitive to s... more Recent research suggests that mildly and moderately depressed individuals are more sensitive to social information than the non depressed individuals are. The relationship between severity of depression and a measure relevant to this social sensitivity, attributional complexity, was examined. As predicted, a significant quadratic contrast indicated an inverted-U-shaped relationship between depression and attributional complexity. Mildly depressed individuals had the highest attributional complexity scores; nondepressed and severely depressed individuals had the lowest scores. Sex differences for both depression and attributional complexity were replicated. More women than men were depressed, and women also had higher attributional complexity scores. Finally, the relationship between attributional complexity and depression was interpreted as reflecting depressives' responses to heightened contingency uncertainty and expectations of uncontrollability.
Understanding the physical and interpersonal constraints that afford cooperation during real-worl... more Understanding the physical and interpersonal constraints that afford cooperation during real-world tasks requires consideration of the fit between the environment and task-relevant dimensions of coactors and the coactors' fit with each other. In the present study, we examined how cooperation can emerge during ongoing interaction using the simple task of two actors' moving long wooden planks. The system dynamics showed hysteresis: A past-action mode persisted when both solo and joint actions were possible. Moreover, pairs whose arm spans were both short, both long, or mismatched made action-mode transitions at similar points, when scaled by a relational measure. The relational measure of plank length to arm span was dictated by the pair member with the shorter arm span, who, thus, had a greater need to cooperate during the task. The results suggest that understanding affordances for cooperation requires giving more consideration to constraints imposed by the fit between coact...
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