Archaeologist, specialized in recent Prehistory (6th to 2nd millennia BC) of the Iberian Peninsula, excavations in the last 2 decades at Ambrona (Early Neolithic) and Zambujal (Chalcolithic), in the project Sizandro-Alcabrichel (Early Neolithic and Chalcolithic)
A. Guerra H. Fernandes - N. Simões Rodrigues - M. Aires Horta, Os meus olhos viram todas essas coisas. Estudos em homenagem a José Augusto Ramos, Tomo II, suplemento 4, CADMO Revista de História Antiga- Suplemento 4.2, 2023
From research in Egypt to the megaliths of Western Iberia: Georg Leisner (1870–1957) and the inte... more From research in Egypt to the megaliths of Western Iberia: Georg Leisner (1870–1957) and the international networks of archaeological research
This article briefly presents the first archaeological expedition of Georg Leisner (1870–1950), a German archaeologist who played a decisive role in the study of megalithic tombs in the Iberian Peninsula. With Leo Frobenius (1873–1938), Georg Leisner collaborated in a more or less two months and a half campaign in Egypt (Nubian Desert) in 1926, a mission that is practically unknown. Through documentation from the Leisner Archives and the Frobenius Archives, a first description of the campaign in Nubia is presented and a short analysis of the "orientalist" impact on the work that Georg and Vera Leisner developed in the West of the Iberian Peninsula is carried out.
A. C. Sousa (coord.), Fogo e Morte. Sobre o extremo Sul no 3.º milénio a. n. e., 2024
Abstract:
Among the chalcolithic walled enclosures of the Iberian Peninsula (end of the 4th mille... more Abstract: Among the chalcolithic walled enclosures of the Iberian Peninsula (end of the 4th millennium to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC), such as the Zero do Castelo de Santa Justa, the fortified settlement of Zambujal stands out for the good preservation of a barbican with arrow slits, still 4 m high, and several towers. What is the proof that such settlements with walled enclosures were fortifications? 1) The different phases of Zambujal show different defense strategies. 2) There are more than 1080 arrowheads at Zambujal and more than 6000 at Vila Nova de S. Pedro. Both numbers are much higher Thant the numbers in Neolithic settlements where there are hunting remains; furthermore Zambujal shows, that most of the faunal remains belong to domesticated animals. Everything accumulates at the Bell Beaker epoch, where for the first time some individuals are buried with all the weapons of the time, flint arrowheads, Palmela points and range hilted daggers made of copper, as well as wristguard normally made of stone, to avoid damage from reflex bows. In the 6th millennium BC, the Sahara desertification process gebmn with various climatic changes that accumulated in the 4th millennium, and a much drier climate than before began. Thus, in this region, many Neolithic settlements are abandoned, and an "invasion" is noted in the Nile valley. The horse was also domesticated at this time, and so the III millennium saw great movements of people and cultural exchanges. Characteristic for this period is an accumulation of innovations. The first armies began to exist in the Near East: the oldest examples of wars with armies are the Standard of Ur and the Stele of the Vultures of Lagash (mid III millennium BC), and King Sargon of Akkad conquered the first state in extent in the second half of the III millennium BC. Is the Bell Beaker phenomenon a reflection of these developments in the European diaspora? We also read a lot about social evolution, social change, hierarchization... I think that human society has a core of a biologically prefabricated social structure. In this my definition of war is important: "War is group aggression, involving actual or potential lethal force, with the intention of seizing the positions of power of another group". Innovations and numbers of people make a multiplication effect, which shows itself a hierarchical intensification and more complex social differences. What starts on a large scale are divisions of labour... but everything is not an evolution like the evolution of species, because these are reversible developments.
Michael Kunst | Martin Bartelheim | Roland Gauß (eds.) From the Object to the Mine. Papers from the Project and Conference "Prehistoric Copper Metallurgy in Zambujal (Portugal)", Früher Bergbau und Metallurgie auf der Iberischen Halbinsel, Faszikel 2, Iberia Archaeologica 15, 2, 2022
The article gives a brief overview of the fortified settlement of Zambujal, whose metallurgical f... more The article gives a brief overview of the fortified settlement of Zambujal, whose metallurgical finds are at the centre of the DFG-funded project, mentioned above, and the different articles in this volume are about. It briefly discusses the history of research, the location and size of the settlement, which is likely to be approximately 26 ha, and its various construction phases. A larger section is devoted to the absolute dating. A series of a total of 26 new radiocarbon dates id presented, the samples of which com from the excavation campaigns from 2002 to 2007 in Section A of the AP area and were analyzed in the laboratories of Kiel and Mannheim (Germany) and Poznań (Poland). On the one hand, a dating error in the laboratory of Kiel was found, and on the other hand, the absolute dating of the construction phases of Zambujal was confirmed: before Phase 1: 2850–2800 cal BC; Phase 1: 2800–2650 cal BC; Phase 2: 2650–2600 cal BC; Phase 3: 2600–2450 cal BC; Phase 4: 2450–1900 cal BC: Phase 5: 1830–1740 cal BC. A comparison with other settlements from the same period shows that Zambujal in the Portuguese Estremadura belongs to one of the so-called agglomeration areas of the Copper Age on the Iberian Peninsula, with its own culture and extensive connections in an 'international' exchange network.
FROM THE OBJECT TO THE MINE. PAPERS FROM THE PROJECT AND CONFERENCE »PRE-HISTORIC COPPER METALLURGY IN Z AMBUJAL (PORTUGAL)«, Früher Bergbau und Metallurgie auf der Iberischen Halbinsel 2, IBERIA ARCHAEOLOGICA 15, 2, 2022
In the course of research history, Zambujal and other comparable fortified Chalcolithic sites of ... more In the course of research history, Zambujal and other comparable fortified Chalcolithic sites of the Iberian Peninsula have been associated with copper production and processing. Until the late 1970s, these sites were interpreted as colonies of Eastern Mediterranean metallurgists. However, especially thanks to the work of Colin Renfrew, it became clear that the chronological primacy of the proposed Eastern Mediterranean archetypes of these fortifications does not exist. This was shown by the introduction of 14C dates and their calibration in large parts of Europe during the 1960s and 1970s. Among the big fortified settlements, Zambujal is one of the best investigated. Due to its well documented stratigraphy, it offers the possibility to investigate the development of metallurgy exemplarily, at least for the Chalcolithic Estremadura (Portugal). Already during the excavations between 1964 an 1973, samples for chemical analysis were taken from the copper artifacts found at the site. After years of intensive research, at least on the Iberian Peninsula, there is a unique data set characterizing the metal assemblage of a Chalcolithic site, including trace element and lead isotope data, as well as metallographic and mineralogical studies. The current paper situates the DFG (German Research Council) project on the metallurgy of Zambujal within the wider context of research history and points out some major conclusions of the recent investigations.
William H. Waldren - Rex Claire Kennard (ed.) Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean, The Oxford International Conference 1986, BAR International Series S331 (Oxford 1987), 1987
In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam... more In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016)
Le site de Zambujal permet a l'A. de dresser la chronologie de la ceramique chalcolithique de... more Le site de Zambujal permet a l'A. de dresser la chronologie de la ceramique chalcolithique de cete region du Portugal. Cette typologie est mise en relation avec les cinq phases d'evolution de ce site fortifie
espanolSe aborda el problema de la transicion entre los rituales funerarios de tipo colectivo y l... more espanolSe aborda el problema de la transicion entre los rituales funerarios de tipo colectivo y las sepulturas individuales, en el Neolitico final- Calcolitico de La Meseta, en el marco del debate peninsular y europeo, pero especialmente a partir de los datos ofrecidos por la excavacion del Tumulo de La Sima, Mino de Medina (Soria, Espana), que presenta una interesante secuencia funeraria, donde dicha transicion puede detectarse con detalle. Se propone una lectura social de este proceso, segun la cual el progresivo desarrollo de un excedente de produccion a lo largo del Neolitico alimento la gestacion de incipientes diferencias sociales, que inicialmente fueron canalizadas dentro de los rituales colectivos megaliticos, pero que acabaron desembocando en la aparicion de lideres durante el Calcolitico, que buscaban legitimar su posicion con la reutilizacion de los monumentos del orden comunal anterior, pero segregando espacialmente su presencia de forma intencionada. EnglishThis paper ...
portuguesEm Julho de 2001 iniciou-se uma nova serie de escavacoes no chamado Castro do Zambujal, ... more portuguesEm Julho de 2001 iniciou-se uma nova serie de escavacoes no chamado Castro do Zambujal, no concelho de Torres Vedras, mediante a escavacao de uma quarta linha de muralhas, encontrada nas prospeccoes de 1994 e verificada pelo corte 92 em 1995. O presente texto e uma descricao da continuacao da escavacao deste corte, assim como o inicio da escavacao dos cortes 94, 95, 96, 97 e 98. Nos cortes 92, 94, 96 e 97 encontraram-se restos de uma muralha. Entre os achados arqueologicos destacam-se um copo canelado e uma placa de cerâmica com quatro perfuracoes. A quarta linha de muralha aumenta o espaco fortificado para mais do dobro do conhecido ate agora. EnglishIn July 2001 a new series of excavations in the so-called Castro do Zambujal, in the 'Concelho' of Torres Vedras, has begun with the investigation of a fourth line of fortified walls which was detected during the excavation campaign of 1994 and tested by a first trench, no. 92, in 1995. The following text is a descript...
Información del artículo El Valle de Ambrona: un ejemplo de la primera colonización Neolítica de ... more Información del artículo El Valle de Ambrona: un ejemplo de la primera colonización Neolítica de las tierras del Interior Peninsular.
... neolítico / coord. por Manuel Angel Rojo Guerra, Michael Kunst, 2002, ISBN 84-8448-149-2 , pá... more ... neolítico / coord. por Manuel Angel Rojo Guerra, Michael Kunst, 2002, ISBN 84-8448-149-2 , págs. 21-38. Fundación Dialnet. Acceso de usuarios registrados. Acceso de usuarios registrados Usuario. Contraseña. Entrar. Mi Dialnet. ...
A. Guerra H. Fernandes - N. Simões Rodrigues - M. Aires Horta, Os meus olhos viram todas essas coisas. Estudos em homenagem a José Augusto Ramos, Tomo II, suplemento 4, CADMO Revista de História Antiga- Suplemento 4.2, 2023
From research in Egypt to the megaliths of Western Iberia: Georg Leisner (1870–1957) and the inte... more From research in Egypt to the megaliths of Western Iberia: Georg Leisner (1870–1957) and the international networks of archaeological research
This article briefly presents the first archaeological expedition of Georg Leisner (1870–1950), a German archaeologist who played a decisive role in the study of megalithic tombs in the Iberian Peninsula. With Leo Frobenius (1873–1938), Georg Leisner collaborated in a more or less two months and a half campaign in Egypt (Nubian Desert) in 1926, a mission that is practically unknown. Through documentation from the Leisner Archives and the Frobenius Archives, a first description of the campaign in Nubia is presented and a short analysis of the "orientalist" impact on the work that Georg and Vera Leisner developed in the West of the Iberian Peninsula is carried out.
A. C. Sousa (coord.), Fogo e Morte. Sobre o extremo Sul no 3.º milénio a. n. e., 2024
Abstract:
Among the chalcolithic walled enclosures of the Iberian Peninsula (end of the 4th mille... more Abstract: Among the chalcolithic walled enclosures of the Iberian Peninsula (end of the 4th millennium to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC), such as the Zero do Castelo de Santa Justa, the fortified settlement of Zambujal stands out for the good preservation of a barbican with arrow slits, still 4 m high, and several towers. What is the proof that such settlements with walled enclosures were fortifications? 1) The different phases of Zambujal show different defense strategies. 2) There are more than 1080 arrowheads at Zambujal and more than 6000 at Vila Nova de S. Pedro. Both numbers are much higher Thant the numbers in Neolithic settlements where there are hunting remains; furthermore Zambujal shows, that most of the faunal remains belong to domesticated animals. Everything accumulates at the Bell Beaker epoch, where for the first time some individuals are buried with all the weapons of the time, flint arrowheads, Palmela points and range hilted daggers made of copper, as well as wristguard normally made of stone, to avoid damage from reflex bows. In the 6th millennium BC, the Sahara desertification process gebmn with various climatic changes that accumulated in the 4th millennium, and a much drier climate than before began. Thus, in this region, many Neolithic settlements are abandoned, and an "invasion" is noted in the Nile valley. The horse was also domesticated at this time, and so the III millennium saw great movements of people and cultural exchanges. Characteristic for this period is an accumulation of innovations. The first armies began to exist in the Near East: the oldest examples of wars with armies are the Standard of Ur and the Stele of the Vultures of Lagash (mid III millennium BC), and King Sargon of Akkad conquered the first state in extent in the second half of the III millennium BC. Is the Bell Beaker phenomenon a reflection of these developments in the European diaspora? We also read a lot about social evolution, social change, hierarchization... I think that human society has a core of a biologically prefabricated social structure. In this my definition of war is important: "War is group aggression, involving actual or potential lethal force, with the intention of seizing the positions of power of another group". Innovations and numbers of people make a multiplication effect, which shows itself a hierarchical intensification and more complex social differences. What starts on a large scale are divisions of labour... but everything is not an evolution like the evolution of species, because these are reversible developments.
Michael Kunst | Martin Bartelheim | Roland Gauß (eds.) From the Object to the Mine. Papers from the Project and Conference "Prehistoric Copper Metallurgy in Zambujal (Portugal)", Früher Bergbau und Metallurgie auf der Iberischen Halbinsel, Faszikel 2, Iberia Archaeologica 15, 2, 2022
The article gives a brief overview of the fortified settlement of Zambujal, whose metallurgical f... more The article gives a brief overview of the fortified settlement of Zambujal, whose metallurgical finds are at the centre of the DFG-funded project, mentioned above, and the different articles in this volume are about. It briefly discusses the history of research, the location and size of the settlement, which is likely to be approximately 26 ha, and its various construction phases. A larger section is devoted to the absolute dating. A series of a total of 26 new radiocarbon dates id presented, the samples of which com from the excavation campaigns from 2002 to 2007 in Section A of the AP area and were analyzed in the laboratories of Kiel and Mannheim (Germany) and Poznań (Poland). On the one hand, a dating error in the laboratory of Kiel was found, and on the other hand, the absolute dating of the construction phases of Zambujal was confirmed: before Phase 1: 2850–2800 cal BC; Phase 1: 2800–2650 cal BC; Phase 2: 2650–2600 cal BC; Phase 3: 2600–2450 cal BC; Phase 4: 2450–1900 cal BC: Phase 5: 1830–1740 cal BC. A comparison with other settlements from the same period shows that Zambujal in the Portuguese Estremadura belongs to one of the so-called agglomeration areas of the Copper Age on the Iberian Peninsula, with its own culture and extensive connections in an 'international' exchange network.
FROM THE OBJECT TO THE MINE. PAPERS FROM THE PROJECT AND CONFERENCE »PRE-HISTORIC COPPER METALLURGY IN Z AMBUJAL (PORTUGAL)«, Früher Bergbau und Metallurgie auf der Iberischen Halbinsel 2, IBERIA ARCHAEOLOGICA 15, 2, 2022
In the course of research history, Zambujal and other comparable fortified Chalcolithic sites of ... more In the course of research history, Zambujal and other comparable fortified Chalcolithic sites of the Iberian Peninsula have been associated with copper production and processing. Until the late 1970s, these sites were interpreted as colonies of Eastern Mediterranean metallurgists. However, especially thanks to the work of Colin Renfrew, it became clear that the chronological primacy of the proposed Eastern Mediterranean archetypes of these fortifications does not exist. This was shown by the introduction of 14C dates and their calibration in large parts of Europe during the 1960s and 1970s. Among the big fortified settlements, Zambujal is one of the best investigated. Due to its well documented stratigraphy, it offers the possibility to investigate the development of metallurgy exemplarily, at least for the Chalcolithic Estremadura (Portugal). Already during the excavations between 1964 an 1973, samples for chemical analysis were taken from the copper artifacts found at the site. After years of intensive research, at least on the Iberian Peninsula, there is a unique data set characterizing the metal assemblage of a Chalcolithic site, including trace element and lead isotope data, as well as metallographic and mineralogical studies. The current paper situates the DFG (German Research Council) project on the metallurgy of Zambujal within the wider context of research history and points out some major conclusions of the recent investigations.
William H. Waldren - Rex Claire Kennard (ed.) Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean, The Oxford International Conference 1986, BAR International Series S331 (Oxford 1987), 1987
In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam... more In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016).In memoriam Edward Sangmeister (1916–2016)
Le site de Zambujal permet a l'A. de dresser la chronologie de la ceramique chalcolithique de... more Le site de Zambujal permet a l'A. de dresser la chronologie de la ceramique chalcolithique de cete region du Portugal. Cette typologie est mise en relation avec les cinq phases d'evolution de ce site fortifie
espanolSe aborda el problema de la transicion entre los rituales funerarios de tipo colectivo y l... more espanolSe aborda el problema de la transicion entre los rituales funerarios de tipo colectivo y las sepulturas individuales, en el Neolitico final- Calcolitico de La Meseta, en el marco del debate peninsular y europeo, pero especialmente a partir de los datos ofrecidos por la excavacion del Tumulo de La Sima, Mino de Medina (Soria, Espana), que presenta una interesante secuencia funeraria, donde dicha transicion puede detectarse con detalle. Se propone una lectura social de este proceso, segun la cual el progresivo desarrollo de un excedente de produccion a lo largo del Neolitico alimento la gestacion de incipientes diferencias sociales, que inicialmente fueron canalizadas dentro de los rituales colectivos megaliticos, pero que acabaron desembocando en la aparicion de lideres durante el Calcolitico, que buscaban legitimar su posicion con la reutilizacion de los monumentos del orden comunal anterior, pero segregando espacialmente su presencia de forma intencionada. EnglishThis paper ...
portuguesEm Julho de 2001 iniciou-se uma nova serie de escavacoes no chamado Castro do Zambujal, ... more portuguesEm Julho de 2001 iniciou-se uma nova serie de escavacoes no chamado Castro do Zambujal, no concelho de Torres Vedras, mediante a escavacao de uma quarta linha de muralhas, encontrada nas prospeccoes de 1994 e verificada pelo corte 92 em 1995. O presente texto e uma descricao da continuacao da escavacao deste corte, assim como o inicio da escavacao dos cortes 94, 95, 96, 97 e 98. Nos cortes 92, 94, 96 e 97 encontraram-se restos de uma muralha. Entre os achados arqueologicos destacam-se um copo canelado e uma placa de cerâmica com quatro perfuracoes. A quarta linha de muralha aumenta o espaco fortificado para mais do dobro do conhecido ate agora. EnglishIn July 2001 a new series of excavations in the so-called Castro do Zambujal, in the 'Concelho' of Torres Vedras, has begun with the investigation of a fourth line of fortified walls which was detected during the excavation campaign of 1994 and tested by a first trench, no. 92, in 1995. The following text is a descript...
Información del artículo El Valle de Ambrona: un ejemplo de la primera colonización Neolítica de ... more Información del artículo El Valle de Ambrona: un ejemplo de la primera colonización Neolítica de las tierras del Interior Peninsular.
... neolítico / coord. por Manuel Angel Rojo Guerra, Michael Kunst, 2002, ISBN 84-8448-149-2 , pá... more ... neolítico / coord. por Manuel Angel Rojo Guerra, Michael Kunst, 2002, ISBN 84-8448-149-2 , págs. 21-38. Fundación Dialnet. Acceso de usuarios registrados. Acceso de usuarios registrados Usuario. Contraseña. Entrar. Mi Dialnet. ...
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This article briefly presents the first archaeological expedition of Georg Leisner (1870–1950), a German archaeologist who played a decisive role in the study of megalithic tombs in the Iberian Peninsula. With Leo Frobenius (1873–1938), Georg Leisner collaborated in a more or less two months and a half campaign in Egypt (Nubian Desert) in 1926, a mission that is practically unknown. Through documentation from the Leisner Archives and the Frobenius Archives, a first description of the campaign in Nubia is presented and a short analysis of the "orientalist" impact on the work that Georg and Vera Leisner developed in the West of the Iberian Peninsula is carried out.
Among the chalcolithic walled enclosures of the Iberian Peninsula (end of the 4th millennium to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC), such as the Zero do Castelo de Santa Justa, the fortified settlement of Zambujal stands out for the good preservation of a barbican with arrow slits, still 4 m high, and several towers.
What is the proof that such settlements with walled enclosures were fortifications?
1) The different phases of Zambujal show different defense strategies.
2) There are more than 1080 arrowheads at Zambujal and more than 6000 at Vila Nova de S. Pedro. Both numbers are much higher Thant the numbers in Neolithic settlements where there are hunting remains; furthermore Zambujal shows, that most of the faunal remains belong to domesticated animals.
Everything accumulates at the Bell Beaker epoch, where for the first time some individuals are buried with all the weapons of the time, flint arrowheads, Palmela points and range hilted daggers made of copper, as well as wristguard normally made of stone, to avoid damage from reflex bows.
In the 6th millennium BC, the Sahara desertification process gebmn with various climatic changes that accumulated in the 4th millennium, and a much drier climate than before began. Thus, in this region, many Neolithic settlements are abandoned, and an "invasion" is noted in the Nile valley.
The horse was also domesticated at this time, and so the III millennium saw great movements of people and cultural exchanges. Characteristic for this period is an accumulation of innovations.
The first armies began to exist in the Near East: the oldest examples of wars with armies are the Standard of Ur and the Stele of the Vultures of Lagash (mid III millennium BC), and King Sargon of Akkad conquered the first state in extent in the second half of the III millennium BC. Is the Bell Beaker phenomenon a reflection of these developments in the European diaspora?
We also read a lot about social evolution, social change, hierarchization...
I think that human society has a core of a biologically prefabricated social structure. In this my definition of war is important: "War is group aggression, involving actual or potential lethal force, with the intention of seizing the positions of power of another group".
Innovations and numbers of people make a multiplication effect, which shows itself a hierarchical intensification and more complex social differences.
What starts on a large scale are divisions of labour... but everything is not an evolution like the evolution of species, because these are reversible developments.
This article briefly presents the first archaeological expedition of Georg Leisner (1870–1950), a German archaeologist who played a decisive role in the study of megalithic tombs in the Iberian Peninsula. With Leo Frobenius (1873–1938), Georg Leisner collaborated in a more or less two months and a half campaign in Egypt (Nubian Desert) in 1926, a mission that is practically unknown. Through documentation from the Leisner Archives and the Frobenius Archives, a first description of the campaign in Nubia is presented and a short analysis of the "orientalist" impact on the work that Georg and Vera Leisner developed in the West of the Iberian Peninsula is carried out.
Among the chalcolithic walled enclosures of the Iberian Peninsula (end of the 4th millennium to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC), such as the Zero do Castelo de Santa Justa, the fortified settlement of Zambujal stands out for the good preservation of a barbican with arrow slits, still 4 m high, and several towers.
What is the proof that such settlements with walled enclosures were fortifications?
1) The different phases of Zambujal show different defense strategies.
2) There are more than 1080 arrowheads at Zambujal and more than 6000 at Vila Nova de S. Pedro. Both numbers are much higher Thant the numbers in Neolithic settlements where there are hunting remains; furthermore Zambujal shows, that most of the faunal remains belong to domesticated animals.
Everything accumulates at the Bell Beaker epoch, where for the first time some individuals are buried with all the weapons of the time, flint arrowheads, Palmela points and range hilted daggers made of copper, as well as wristguard normally made of stone, to avoid damage from reflex bows.
In the 6th millennium BC, the Sahara desertification process gebmn with various climatic changes that accumulated in the 4th millennium, and a much drier climate than before began. Thus, in this region, many Neolithic settlements are abandoned, and an "invasion" is noted in the Nile valley.
The horse was also domesticated at this time, and so the III millennium saw great movements of people and cultural exchanges. Characteristic for this period is an accumulation of innovations.
The first armies began to exist in the Near East: the oldest examples of wars with armies are the Standard of Ur and the Stele of the Vultures of Lagash (mid III millennium BC), and King Sargon of Akkad conquered the first state in extent in the second half of the III millennium BC. Is the Bell Beaker phenomenon a reflection of these developments in the European diaspora?
We also read a lot about social evolution, social change, hierarchization...
I think that human society has a core of a biologically prefabricated social structure. In this my definition of war is important: "War is group aggression, involving actual or potential lethal force, with the intention of seizing the positions of power of another group".
Innovations and numbers of people make a multiplication effect, which shows itself a hierarchical intensification and more complex social differences.
What starts on a large scale are divisions of labour... but everything is not an evolution like the evolution of species, because these are reversible developments.