Research fellow at UPS-Ludovika in the field of security studies and defense administration with a research area focusing on cultural property protection in conflict zones, the securitization of cultural heritage issues and possibilities of international cooperation in this regard.
The dual nature of cultural goods had early prompted the European Community to introduce a legal ... more The dual nature of cultural goods had early prompted the European Community to introduce a legal basis for harmonized customs procedures, export and import regulations within the customs union, and later the internal market. Through an analysis of the varied terminology employed by the EU concerning cultural goods, this paper argues that the EU’s approach in this domain has undergone significant transformation over time, as evidenced by the evolution of its strategic trade control regime of cultural goods. Early regulation primarily focused on addressing internal market issues, while also endeavoring to preserve national ownership over national treasures and attending to the material aspects of cultural heritage. However, since 2015, in response to the changing security environment and international trends, the EU has expanded its perspective on strategic trade control over cultural goods to encompass a global dimension. This expansion is exemplified by the adoption of Regulation (EU) 2019/880, driven by the imperative of the prevention of looting, plundering, illicit trafficking, and the fight against terrorism financing. Furthermore, the adoption of the 2021 Council conclusions on cultural heritage protection in conflicts and crises marks a significant shift in how cultural heritage can be integrated into the EU's external actions. This evolution reflects cultural heritage’s increasing importance, both in its material and immaterial forms, across the EU’s home affairs, external actions, and internal peace and security agenda as well.
In the light of recent years' armed conflicts and the growing level of terrorist activity globall... more In the light of recent years' armed conflicts and the growing level of terrorist activity globally, the link between illicit trafficking of cultural property and terrorism constitutes a growing concern for war-torn regions as well as for the international community as a whole. Identified as a possible form of terrorismfinancing in recent years, the illegal trade of artefacts contributes to the fuelling of the spiral of violence and by this, to the undermining of the identity of the targeted populations. Due to the effects of the Arab Spring swiping through several African countries resulting in a still-existing destabilisation, power vacuum and the spread of different terrorist groups, these countries are serving an especially timeous example from this point of view. By presenting some examples from North Africa and the Sahel region, the paper aims to give an initial insight into the issue as an increasingly important international security challenge.
Jelen tanulmány a kulturális javak háborúkban való védelmére vonatkozó nemzetközi hadi- és humani... more Jelen tanulmány a kulturális javak háborúkban való védelmére vonatkozó nemzetközi hadi- és humanitárius jog a 20. század meghatározó fegyveres konfliktusaira reflektáló fejlődését, a szabályozás legfontosabb elemeit és trendjeit, illetve azok hazai védelmi igazgatásba való integráltságát kívánja röviden bemutatni, utalva a téma büntetőjogi relevanciáira is.
***
The aim of the present study is to present the development of international laws of war and humanitarian law regarding the protection of cultural property in times of war, reflection on the determining armed conflicts of the 20th century, highlighting the most important elements and trends of the regulations, and their integration in Hungarian defence administration, also referring to the relevance of the topic from penal law perspective.
A hadtudomány aktuális kérdései napjainkban : II. kötet, 2022
A tanulmány a biztonság elsőként a koppenhágai iskola által leírt társadalmi szektorán keresztül ... more A tanulmány a biztonság elsőként a koppenhágai iskola által leírt társadalmi szektorán keresztül a hidegháború lezárulta óta eltelt időszak háborúit vizsgálva arra keresi a választ, hogy a történelmi, vallási, kulturális szempontból fontos épített örökség egyes elemei – mint az adott közösség identitásának szimbólumai – miként válhatnak támadások célpontjává fegyveres konfliktusokban. E támadások akár előrejelzői, akár kísérőelemei is lehetnek az identitáspolitikák által feltüzelt, társadalmi törésvonalak mentén kialakuló ellenséges csoportok közötti, erőszakba torkolló szembenállásnak, például az adott közösség által lakott terület bekebelezését, politikai intézményeik feletti kontroll megszerzését vagy végső soron fizikai megsemmisítésüket célzó törekvések során. Szélsőséges esetben akár a „kulturális genocídium” problémaköre is felmerülhet. A tanulmány a társadalmi biztonság koncepciójának bővítésére tesz kísérletet a kulturális javak ellen elkövetett támadások mint egy egyre növekvő biztonsági kihívás beemelésével.
***
By examining certain wars erupted after the end of the Cold War, the paper aims to explore how elements of historic, cultural, religious built heritage – as symbols of the identity of a certain community – can become target of attacks in armed conflicts. These attacks can either predict or accompany confrontations motivated by identity politics along societal fault-lines, for example through efforts to annex territory, get the control over political institutions or even to eliminate a certain group. In extreme cases we can even talk about „cultural genocide”. The paper aims to expand the concept of societal security by the inclusion of attacks against cultural property as a growing security challenge.
Cultural property protection (CPP) has been raised more and more explicitly to the international ... more Cultural property protection (CPP) has been raised more and more explicitly to the international peace and security agenda in recent years due to the growing volume of international terrorism and identity-based armed conflicts. Along with it, several international organizations recognized the necessity to stand up for the protection of cultural values and sites as an indispensable element of their external activities. By applying an institutional approach, the aim of the paper is to shed light on what international rules and standards exist in the framework of four international organizations critically impacting the European security environment (Council of Europe, EU, NATO, OSCE) regarding cultural property protection in conflict prevention, crisis situations or in post-conflict environments based on publicly available documents and the results of a survey conducted in this regard.
New Approaches to State Security Assurance, 15th Annual Doctoral Conference proceedings, 2021
By applying the concept of societal security as a method of analysis, the aim of this paper is to... more By applying the concept of societal security as a method of analysis, the aim of this paper is to shed a light on how cultural property may become a victim of deliberate destruction in nowadays' armed conflicts evolving along ethnically or religiously defined societal fault-lines, by drawing on examples primarily from Yugoslavian wars, the Armenian-Azeri tensions and destructions perpetrated by ISIL in Iraq. As a more and more significant security challenge at an international level, symbolic attacks on cultural property embodying a certain group's identity can be prompted by various motives ranging from assimilation or acculturation efforts of a certain community, through aspirations to get control over political institutions by minority groups, to a tool of intimidation or propaganda in the hands of terrorist organisations.
A hadtudomány és a 21. század, tanulmánykötet, 2020
Jelen tanulmány a biztonságiasítás koncepcióját alkalmazva kívánja bemutatni a kulturális örökség... more Jelen tanulmány a biztonságiasítás koncepcióját alkalmazva kívánja bemutatni a kulturális örökség konfliktuszónákban való védelmének a nemzetközi béke és biztonság szempontjából is releváns kihívássá válását, amelyet egyrészt a közel-keleti és afrikai régióban tevékenykedő terrorszervezetek által elkövetett cselekmények, másrészt a térségben zajló fegyveres konfliktusok által okozott járulékos veszteségek nagy volumene generált. Három nemzetközi szervezet (ENSZ, UNESCO, EU) retorikájának, illetve döntéseinek vizsgálata alapján jól látszik a nemzetközi elköteleződés mind a kulturális javak fizikai megsemmisítésének megakadályozása, mind az illegális kereskedelem felszámolása érdekében, s azok békefenntartó műveletekbe való integrációja is lehetségessé vált.
***
By applying the concept of securitization, the paper aims to present how the protection of cultural heritage in conflict zones has been becoming a relevant challenge from the point of view of international peace and security, generated by the large volume of both the deliberate destructions of terrorist group active in the Middle Eastern and African region and the collateral damages of the armed conflicts in the area. Through the examination of the rhetoric and decisions of three international organisations (UN, UNESCO, EU), we can clearly see the evolving international commitment to stop both the physical destruction and the illicit trade of cultural property, and also, their integration in peacekeeping operations has become possible.
A nemzetközi terrorizmus eszköztárában szisztematikusan jelenik meg a kulturális örökség célzott ... more A nemzetközi terrorizmus eszköztárában szisztematikusan jelenik meg a kulturális örökség célzott megsemmisítése. Ez lehet egyfajta pszichológiai fegyver az ellenségesnek tekintett etnikai, vallási közösség megtörése, az erőfölény demonstrálása érdekében, vagy ennek hátterében meghúzódó, rablóásatásokkal, lopásokkal, fosztogatásokkal megszerzett kulturális javak illegális kereskedelméből való anyagi haszonszerzés, amely így hozzájárul a konfliktus finanszírozásához. E komplex problémakör felszámolására, megakadályozására kívánatossá vált a kulturális javak védelme szempontjainak, tevékenységeinek integrálása a katonai műveletekbe, a terrorizmus-finanszírozás elleni harcba, amelyet a „kulturális hírszerzés” (CULTINT) is nagyban elősegíthet.
***
The targeted destruction of cultural heritage has been systematically applied by international terrorist organisations. It can be a kind of psychological weapon to break the morale of, to demonstrate one’s dominance over the opposing ethnic, religious community, or to gain financial benefits from the illegal trafficking of cultural property acquired through illegal excavations, thefts, lootings, thus contributing to the financing of the conflict. In order to eliminate and prevent this complex issue, the integration of aspects, activities of cultural property protection (CPP) has become desirable in the fight against terrorism financing. One of the tools supporting this goal can be cultural intelligence (CULTINT).
A hidegháború óta eltelt időszak fegyveres konfliktusaiban a kulturális javak gyakran ke... more A hidegháború óta eltelt időszak fegyveres konfliktusaiban a kulturális javak gyakran kerülnek a harcok kereszttüzébe – akár mint szándékolt célpont az ellenfél megtörése érdekében, akár az adott szervezet erejét és elkötelezettségét demonstrálandó tettként, akár gazdasági érdekből a konfliktus finanszírozására. A nemzetközi közösség egyre tudatosabban lép fel e támadások ellen, ennek elemeként egyre nagyobb elköteleződés mutatkozik a kulturális javak védelmének békeműveletek keretében való érvényesítésére akár a prevenció, akár a konfliktus utáni stabilizáció és tartós béke kiépítése során. Jelen tanulmány a biztonsági környezet megváltozásának bemutatását követően az elfogadott nemzetközi dokumentumok és gyakorlati példák ismertetésével kívánja alátámasztani a kulturális örökségvédelem integrációjának szükségességét békeműveletek tevékenységébe.
In post-Cold War armed conflicts, cultural property is often in the crosshair of struggles – either as an intended target to break the enemy, or as an act to demonstrate the strength and commitment of the organisation, or because of economic interests to fuel the conflict. The international community more and more consciously comes into play against these attacks, and as a part of it, a bigger commitment can be seen to integrate a cultural dimension in peace operations in the course of prevention, post-conflict stabilisation and building of lasting peace. This paper – after describing the change in the security environment – aims to back up the necessity of the integration of cultural property protection in the activity of peace operations by reviewing the adopted international documents and practical examples in this respect.
MIRDEC-15th International Academic Conference Economics, Business, Globalization and Social Science Studies (Global Meeting of Social Science Community) Conference Proceedings Full paper series, 2019
In recent years, the deliberate targeting of cultural heritage in armed conflicts has been receiv... more In recent years, the deliberate targeting of cultural heritage in armed conflicts has been receiving a bigger attention than ever before. Although the phenomenon is not new, the international shock and outrage provoked by the systematic and widely broadcasted iconoclastic destruction and large-scale looting perpetrated by ISIL (also known as Daesh or Islamic State) after expanding its control over territories with a rich millennial heritage in Iraq and Syria, led to an increasing international awareness about the need of an efficient protection regime. The present paper seeks to collect and analyse the political decisions and measures takenby different international organisations (especially UN Security Council, UNESCO) and the proactive role of certain states (particularly France, Italy) in influencing the international agenda primarily in reaction to the violent acts of ISIL against cultural heritage, arguing that there is a stronger political commitment than ever before at an international level for establishing effective norms as well as institutional, financial and military tools as regards prevention, mitigation and retribution for preserving the cultural heritage of humanity in times of armed conflicts, raising the field gradually to the international security agenda at the same time.
International Scientific Journal Security & Future 3 : 3, 2019
Cultural heritage often becomes a victim of armed conflicts either by collateral damage or by del... more Cultural heritage often becomes a victim of armed conflicts either by collateral damage or by deliberate destruction and looting. As a consequence of the terrorist attacks of recent years – especially the large-scale and widely broadcasted iconoclastic destruction perpetrated by ISIL/Daesh in Iraq and Syria – their protection gradually became part of the international security policy agenda. Proving the symbolic significance of these attacks, they have been often claimed both as acts against the peaceful coexistence of different religions and cultures in the region and as an insult against Western civilisation and multilateral bodies which the meticulously drawn-up discourse of the terrorist group strongly underpinned. Using the securitization theory as a framework, the aim of this paper is to analyze through discursive means the reaction of different international political actors – especially France, Italy, UN and UNESCO – over the attacks of the terrorist organisation, arguing that a continuous securitization process has been taking place as regards the safeguarding of cultural heritage.
Az ISIL/DAESH 2014 és 2016 közötti területi terjeszkedése során a terrorszervezet által ... more Az ISIL/DAESH 2014 és 2016 közötti területi terjeszkedése során a terrorszervezet által Irak és Szíria területén véghezvitt erőszakos cselekményekről1online közzétett fényképek és videók sorra sokkolták a nemzetközi közösséget. Ezek az anyagok a gondosan felépített szalafita, szélsőséges ideológiát magas színvonalon és modern technológiák alkalmazásával közvetítették a közösségi médiafelületeken. (Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Telegram, Surespot, JustPaste.it stb.) Jelen tanulmány azt vizsgálja, hogy napjainkban a médiaorientált terrorizmus eszköztárában a kulturális javak ellen elkövetett támadások mennyiben kapnak nagyobb helyet a szervezetek online közvetített propagandáján keresztül.
//
During the territorial expansion of ISIL/DAESH between 2014 and 2016, the photos and videos posted on-line by the organisation depicting their violent acts executed in Syria and Iraq have continuously been shocking the international community. These materials have been transmitting their thoroughly elaborated Salafist, extremist ideology in high quality and with the use of modern technologies, spreadmainly through social media (Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Telegram, Surespot, JustPaste.it etc.). The present paper examines to which extent attacks against cultural property are getting a greater significance in the toolbox of socially-mediated terrorism through the organisations’ online propaganda.
Jelen tanulmány célja a Maliban zajló konfliktus, s még szűkebben a Timbuktuban, 2012 januárja és... more Jelen tanulmány célja a Maliban zajló konfliktus, s még szűkebben a Timbuktuban, 2012 januárja és 2016 szeptembere között bekövetkezett események példáján igazolni, hogy napjaink fegyveres konfliktusai, illetve az egyre nagyobb biztonsági kihívást jelentő terrorizmus következtében kulturális örökségünk minden korábbinál nagyobb veszélyben van, amelynek megakadályozásához széleskörű nemzetközi együttműködés szükséges.
The aim of the present essay is to prove by the example of the Mali conflict, especially the events between January 2012 and September 2016 in Timbuktu that today’s armed conflicts and terrorism mean a greater danger than ever before to our cultural heritage, therefore a widespread international cooperation is needed to to prevent it.
Bár a humanitárius jognak régóta része a polgári javak, és ezen belül a kulturális értékek védelm... more Bár a humanitárius jognak régóta része a polgári javak, és ezen belül a kulturális értékek védelme fegyveres konfliktusok idején, a második világháború borzalmai olyan lökést adtak a nemzetközi szabályozásnak, hogy napjainkra egy sokkal direktebb és részletesebb jog- és eszközrendszer alakult ki a prevenció érdeké-ben, aminek egyik legfőbb szereplője az UNESCO. Az ilyen cselekmények megtorlását nemzetközi szinten elsőként a jugoszláv háborúk során elkövetett mértéktelen pusztítás idézte elő, majd a Nemzetközi Büntetőbíróságot felállító Római Statútum is a háborús bűntettek közé sorolja, így biztosítva lehetőséget az egyén nemzetközi felelősségre vonására kulturális ja-vak, mint az emberiség közös tulajdonának pusztításáért. E tekintetben Bíróság által 2017 szeptemberében elítélt, mali származású Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi ügyében született döntés precedensértékű lehet. Jelen tanulmány célja bemutatni a nemzetközi közösség rendelkezésére álló eszközöket a kulturális javak megóvására fegyveres konfliktusok idején. // Although the protection of civilian objects, including cultural properties in the time of armed conflicts had been part of the humanitarian law for a long time, the hor-rors of the World War II gave such a boost to the international regulation process, that up until now, a much more direct and detailed toolkit and regulation system has been established, of which the main actor is the UNESCO. The retribution of such acts was engendered firstly due to the excessive de-vastation of the Yugoslav wars, then the Rome Statute establishing the Internatio-nal Criminal Court mentions them among the war crimes, thus providing a possibi-lity for holding individuals accountable at an international level for the destruction of cultural property, the common property of humanity. The judgement of the Court made in September 2017 in the case of the Malian Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi can serve as a precedent for the future. The aim of the present paper is to present the tools at an international level for protecting cultural properties in the event of armed conflicts.
The dual nature of cultural goods had early prompted the European Community to introduce a legal ... more The dual nature of cultural goods had early prompted the European Community to introduce a legal basis for harmonized customs procedures, export and import regulations within the customs union, and later the internal market. Through an analysis of the varied terminology employed by the EU concerning cultural goods, this paper argues that the EU’s approach in this domain has undergone significant transformation over time, as evidenced by the evolution of its strategic trade control regime of cultural goods. Early regulation primarily focused on addressing internal market issues, while also endeavoring to preserve national ownership over national treasures and attending to the material aspects of cultural heritage. However, since 2015, in response to the changing security environment and international trends, the EU has expanded its perspective on strategic trade control over cultural goods to encompass a global dimension. This expansion is exemplified by the adoption of Regulation (EU) 2019/880, driven by the imperative of the prevention of looting, plundering, illicit trafficking, and the fight against terrorism financing. Furthermore, the adoption of the 2021 Council conclusions on cultural heritage protection in conflicts and crises marks a significant shift in how cultural heritage can be integrated into the EU's external actions. This evolution reflects cultural heritage’s increasing importance, both in its material and immaterial forms, across the EU’s home affairs, external actions, and internal peace and security agenda as well.
In the light of recent years' armed conflicts and the growing level of terrorist activity globall... more In the light of recent years' armed conflicts and the growing level of terrorist activity globally, the link between illicit trafficking of cultural property and terrorism constitutes a growing concern for war-torn regions as well as for the international community as a whole. Identified as a possible form of terrorismfinancing in recent years, the illegal trade of artefacts contributes to the fuelling of the spiral of violence and by this, to the undermining of the identity of the targeted populations. Due to the effects of the Arab Spring swiping through several African countries resulting in a still-existing destabilisation, power vacuum and the spread of different terrorist groups, these countries are serving an especially timeous example from this point of view. By presenting some examples from North Africa and the Sahel region, the paper aims to give an initial insight into the issue as an increasingly important international security challenge.
Jelen tanulmány a kulturális javak háborúkban való védelmére vonatkozó nemzetközi hadi- és humani... more Jelen tanulmány a kulturális javak háborúkban való védelmére vonatkozó nemzetközi hadi- és humanitárius jog a 20. század meghatározó fegyveres konfliktusaira reflektáló fejlődését, a szabályozás legfontosabb elemeit és trendjeit, illetve azok hazai védelmi igazgatásba való integráltságát kívánja röviden bemutatni, utalva a téma büntetőjogi relevanciáira is.
***
The aim of the present study is to present the development of international laws of war and humanitarian law regarding the protection of cultural property in times of war, reflection on the determining armed conflicts of the 20th century, highlighting the most important elements and trends of the regulations, and their integration in Hungarian defence administration, also referring to the relevance of the topic from penal law perspective.
A hadtudomány aktuális kérdései napjainkban : II. kötet, 2022
A tanulmány a biztonság elsőként a koppenhágai iskola által leírt társadalmi szektorán keresztül ... more A tanulmány a biztonság elsőként a koppenhágai iskola által leírt társadalmi szektorán keresztül a hidegháború lezárulta óta eltelt időszak háborúit vizsgálva arra keresi a választ, hogy a történelmi, vallási, kulturális szempontból fontos épített örökség egyes elemei – mint az adott közösség identitásának szimbólumai – miként válhatnak támadások célpontjává fegyveres konfliktusokban. E támadások akár előrejelzői, akár kísérőelemei is lehetnek az identitáspolitikák által feltüzelt, társadalmi törésvonalak mentén kialakuló ellenséges csoportok közötti, erőszakba torkolló szembenállásnak, például az adott közösség által lakott terület bekebelezését, politikai intézményeik feletti kontroll megszerzését vagy végső soron fizikai megsemmisítésüket célzó törekvések során. Szélsőséges esetben akár a „kulturális genocídium” problémaköre is felmerülhet. A tanulmány a társadalmi biztonság koncepciójának bővítésére tesz kísérletet a kulturális javak ellen elkövetett támadások mint egy egyre növekvő biztonsági kihívás beemelésével.
***
By examining certain wars erupted after the end of the Cold War, the paper aims to explore how elements of historic, cultural, religious built heritage – as symbols of the identity of a certain community – can become target of attacks in armed conflicts. These attacks can either predict or accompany confrontations motivated by identity politics along societal fault-lines, for example through efforts to annex territory, get the control over political institutions or even to eliminate a certain group. In extreme cases we can even talk about „cultural genocide”. The paper aims to expand the concept of societal security by the inclusion of attacks against cultural property as a growing security challenge.
Cultural property protection (CPP) has been raised more and more explicitly to the international ... more Cultural property protection (CPP) has been raised more and more explicitly to the international peace and security agenda in recent years due to the growing volume of international terrorism and identity-based armed conflicts. Along with it, several international organizations recognized the necessity to stand up for the protection of cultural values and sites as an indispensable element of their external activities. By applying an institutional approach, the aim of the paper is to shed light on what international rules and standards exist in the framework of four international organizations critically impacting the European security environment (Council of Europe, EU, NATO, OSCE) regarding cultural property protection in conflict prevention, crisis situations or in post-conflict environments based on publicly available documents and the results of a survey conducted in this regard.
New Approaches to State Security Assurance, 15th Annual Doctoral Conference proceedings, 2021
By applying the concept of societal security as a method of analysis, the aim of this paper is to... more By applying the concept of societal security as a method of analysis, the aim of this paper is to shed a light on how cultural property may become a victim of deliberate destruction in nowadays' armed conflicts evolving along ethnically or religiously defined societal fault-lines, by drawing on examples primarily from Yugoslavian wars, the Armenian-Azeri tensions and destructions perpetrated by ISIL in Iraq. As a more and more significant security challenge at an international level, symbolic attacks on cultural property embodying a certain group's identity can be prompted by various motives ranging from assimilation or acculturation efforts of a certain community, through aspirations to get control over political institutions by minority groups, to a tool of intimidation or propaganda in the hands of terrorist organisations.
A hadtudomány és a 21. század, tanulmánykötet, 2020
Jelen tanulmány a biztonságiasítás koncepcióját alkalmazva kívánja bemutatni a kulturális örökség... more Jelen tanulmány a biztonságiasítás koncepcióját alkalmazva kívánja bemutatni a kulturális örökség konfliktuszónákban való védelmének a nemzetközi béke és biztonság szempontjából is releváns kihívássá válását, amelyet egyrészt a közel-keleti és afrikai régióban tevékenykedő terrorszervezetek által elkövetett cselekmények, másrészt a térségben zajló fegyveres konfliktusok által okozott járulékos veszteségek nagy volumene generált. Három nemzetközi szervezet (ENSZ, UNESCO, EU) retorikájának, illetve döntéseinek vizsgálata alapján jól látszik a nemzetközi elköteleződés mind a kulturális javak fizikai megsemmisítésének megakadályozása, mind az illegális kereskedelem felszámolása érdekében, s azok békefenntartó műveletekbe való integrációja is lehetségessé vált.
***
By applying the concept of securitization, the paper aims to present how the protection of cultural heritage in conflict zones has been becoming a relevant challenge from the point of view of international peace and security, generated by the large volume of both the deliberate destructions of terrorist group active in the Middle Eastern and African region and the collateral damages of the armed conflicts in the area. Through the examination of the rhetoric and decisions of three international organisations (UN, UNESCO, EU), we can clearly see the evolving international commitment to stop both the physical destruction and the illicit trade of cultural property, and also, their integration in peacekeeping operations has become possible.
A nemzetközi terrorizmus eszköztárában szisztematikusan jelenik meg a kulturális örökség célzott ... more A nemzetközi terrorizmus eszköztárában szisztematikusan jelenik meg a kulturális örökség célzott megsemmisítése. Ez lehet egyfajta pszichológiai fegyver az ellenségesnek tekintett etnikai, vallási közösség megtörése, az erőfölény demonstrálása érdekében, vagy ennek hátterében meghúzódó, rablóásatásokkal, lopásokkal, fosztogatásokkal megszerzett kulturális javak illegális kereskedelméből való anyagi haszonszerzés, amely így hozzájárul a konfliktus finanszírozásához. E komplex problémakör felszámolására, megakadályozására kívánatossá vált a kulturális javak védelme szempontjainak, tevékenységeinek integrálása a katonai műveletekbe, a terrorizmus-finanszírozás elleni harcba, amelyet a „kulturális hírszerzés” (CULTINT) is nagyban elősegíthet.
***
The targeted destruction of cultural heritage has been systematically applied by international terrorist organisations. It can be a kind of psychological weapon to break the morale of, to demonstrate one’s dominance over the opposing ethnic, religious community, or to gain financial benefits from the illegal trafficking of cultural property acquired through illegal excavations, thefts, lootings, thus contributing to the financing of the conflict. In order to eliminate and prevent this complex issue, the integration of aspects, activities of cultural property protection (CPP) has become desirable in the fight against terrorism financing. One of the tools supporting this goal can be cultural intelligence (CULTINT).
A hidegháború óta eltelt időszak fegyveres konfliktusaiban a kulturális javak gyakran ke... more A hidegháború óta eltelt időszak fegyveres konfliktusaiban a kulturális javak gyakran kerülnek a harcok kereszttüzébe – akár mint szándékolt célpont az ellenfél megtörése érdekében, akár az adott szervezet erejét és elkötelezettségét demonstrálandó tettként, akár gazdasági érdekből a konfliktus finanszírozására. A nemzetközi közösség egyre tudatosabban lép fel e támadások ellen, ennek elemeként egyre nagyobb elköteleződés mutatkozik a kulturális javak védelmének békeműveletek keretében való érvényesítésére akár a prevenció, akár a konfliktus utáni stabilizáció és tartós béke kiépítése során. Jelen tanulmány a biztonsági környezet megváltozásának bemutatását követően az elfogadott nemzetközi dokumentumok és gyakorlati példák ismertetésével kívánja alátámasztani a kulturális örökségvédelem integrációjának szükségességét békeműveletek tevékenységébe.
In post-Cold War armed conflicts, cultural property is often in the crosshair of struggles – either as an intended target to break the enemy, or as an act to demonstrate the strength and commitment of the organisation, or because of economic interests to fuel the conflict. The international community more and more consciously comes into play against these attacks, and as a part of it, a bigger commitment can be seen to integrate a cultural dimension in peace operations in the course of prevention, post-conflict stabilisation and building of lasting peace. This paper – after describing the change in the security environment – aims to back up the necessity of the integration of cultural property protection in the activity of peace operations by reviewing the adopted international documents and practical examples in this respect.
MIRDEC-15th International Academic Conference Economics, Business, Globalization and Social Science Studies (Global Meeting of Social Science Community) Conference Proceedings Full paper series, 2019
In recent years, the deliberate targeting of cultural heritage in armed conflicts has been receiv... more In recent years, the deliberate targeting of cultural heritage in armed conflicts has been receiving a bigger attention than ever before. Although the phenomenon is not new, the international shock and outrage provoked by the systematic and widely broadcasted iconoclastic destruction and large-scale looting perpetrated by ISIL (also known as Daesh or Islamic State) after expanding its control over territories with a rich millennial heritage in Iraq and Syria, led to an increasing international awareness about the need of an efficient protection regime. The present paper seeks to collect and analyse the political decisions and measures takenby different international organisations (especially UN Security Council, UNESCO) and the proactive role of certain states (particularly France, Italy) in influencing the international agenda primarily in reaction to the violent acts of ISIL against cultural heritage, arguing that there is a stronger political commitment than ever before at an international level for establishing effective norms as well as institutional, financial and military tools as regards prevention, mitigation and retribution for preserving the cultural heritage of humanity in times of armed conflicts, raising the field gradually to the international security agenda at the same time.
International Scientific Journal Security & Future 3 : 3, 2019
Cultural heritage often becomes a victim of armed conflicts either by collateral damage or by del... more Cultural heritage often becomes a victim of armed conflicts either by collateral damage or by deliberate destruction and looting. As a consequence of the terrorist attacks of recent years – especially the large-scale and widely broadcasted iconoclastic destruction perpetrated by ISIL/Daesh in Iraq and Syria – their protection gradually became part of the international security policy agenda. Proving the symbolic significance of these attacks, they have been often claimed both as acts against the peaceful coexistence of different religions and cultures in the region and as an insult against Western civilisation and multilateral bodies which the meticulously drawn-up discourse of the terrorist group strongly underpinned. Using the securitization theory as a framework, the aim of this paper is to analyze through discursive means the reaction of different international political actors – especially France, Italy, UN and UNESCO – over the attacks of the terrorist organisation, arguing that a continuous securitization process has been taking place as regards the safeguarding of cultural heritage.
Az ISIL/DAESH 2014 és 2016 közötti területi terjeszkedése során a terrorszervezet által ... more Az ISIL/DAESH 2014 és 2016 közötti területi terjeszkedése során a terrorszervezet által Irak és Szíria területén véghezvitt erőszakos cselekményekről1online közzétett fényképek és videók sorra sokkolták a nemzetközi közösséget. Ezek az anyagok a gondosan felépített szalafita, szélsőséges ideológiát magas színvonalon és modern technológiák alkalmazásával közvetítették a közösségi médiafelületeken. (Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Telegram, Surespot, JustPaste.it stb.) Jelen tanulmány azt vizsgálja, hogy napjainkban a médiaorientált terrorizmus eszköztárában a kulturális javak ellen elkövetett támadások mennyiben kapnak nagyobb helyet a szervezetek online közvetített propagandáján keresztül.
//
During the territorial expansion of ISIL/DAESH between 2014 and 2016, the photos and videos posted on-line by the organisation depicting their violent acts executed in Syria and Iraq have continuously been shocking the international community. These materials have been transmitting their thoroughly elaborated Salafist, extremist ideology in high quality and with the use of modern technologies, spreadmainly through social media (Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Telegram, Surespot, JustPaste.it etc.). The present paper examines to which extent attacks against cultural property are getting a greater significance in the toolbox of socially-mediated terrorism through the organisations’ online propaganda.
Jelen tanulmány célja a Maliban zajló konfliktus, s még szűkebben a Timbuktuban, 2012 januárja és... more Jelen tanulmány célja a Maliban zajló konfliktus, s még szűkebben a Timbuktuban, 2012 januárja és 2016 szeptembere között bekövetkezett események példáján igazolni, hogy napjaink fegyveres konfliktusai, illetve az egyre nagyobb biztonsági kihívást jelentő terrorizmus következtében kulturális örökségünk minden korábbinál nagyobb veszélyben van, amelynek megakadályozásához széleskörű nemzetközi együttműködés szükséges.
The aim of the present essay is to prove by the example of the Mali conflict, especially the events between January 2012 and September 2016 in Timbuktu that today’s armed conflicts and terrorism mean a greater danger than ever before to our cultural heritage, therefore a widespread international cooperation is needed to to prevent it.
Bár a humanitárius jognak régóta része a polgári javak, és ezen belül a kulturális értékek védelm... more Bár a humanitárius jognak régóta része a polgári javak, és ezen belül a kulturális értékek védelme fegyveres konfliktusok idején, a második világháború borzalmai olyan lökést adtak a nemzetközi szabályozásnak, hogy napjainkra egy sokkal direktebb és részletesebb jog- és eszközrendszer alakult ki a prevenció érdeké-ben, aminek egyik legfőbb szereplője az UNESCO. Az ilyen cselekmények megtorlását nemzetközi szinten elsőként a jugoszláv háborúk során elkövetett mértéktelen pusztítás idézte elő, majd a Nemzetközi Büntetőbíróságot felállító Római Statútum is a háborús bűntettek közé sorolja, így biztosítva lehetőséget az egyén nemzetközi felelősségre vonására kulturális ja-vak, mint az emberiség közös tulajdonának pusztításáért. E tekintetben Bíróság által 2017 szeptemberében elítélt, mali származású Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi ügyében született döntés precedensértékű lehet. Jelen tanulmány célja bemutatni a nemzetközi közösség rendelkezésére álló eszközöket a kulturális javak megóvására fegyveres konfliktusok idején. // Although the protection of civilian objects, including cultural properties in the time of armed conflicts had been part of the humanitarian law for a long time, the hor-rors of the World War II gave such a boost to the international regulation process, that up until now, a much more direct and detailed toolkit and regulation system has been established, of which the main actor is the UNESCO. The retribution of such acts was engendered firstly due to the excessive de-vastation of the Yugoslav wars, then the Rome Statute establishing the Internatio-nal Criminal Court mentions them among the war crimes, thus providing a possibi-lity for holding individuals accountable at an international level for the destruction of cultural property, the common property of humanity. The judgement of the Court made in September 2017 in the case of the Malian Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi can serve as a precedent for the future. The aim of the present paper is to present the tools at an international level for protecting cultural properties in the event of armed conflicts.
Uploads
***
The aim of the present study is to present the development of international laws of war and humanitarian law regarding the protection of cultural property in times of war, reflection on the determining armed conflicts of the 20th century, highlighting the most important elements and trends of the regulations, and their integration in Hungarian defence administration, also referring to the relevance of the topic from penal law perspective.
***
By examining certain wars erupted after the end of the Cold War, the paper aims to explore how elements of historic, cultural, religious built heritage – as symbols of the identity of a certain community – can become target of attacks in armed conflicts. These attacks can either predict or accompany confrontations motivated by identity politics along societal fault-lines, for example through efforts to annex territory, get the control over political institutions or even to eliminate a certain group. In extreme cases we can even talk about „cultural genocide”. The paper aims to expand the concept of societal security by the inclusion of attacks against cultural property as a growing security challenge.
***
By applying the concept of securitization, the paper aims to present how the protection of cultural heritage in conflict zones has been becoming a relevant challenge from the point of view of international peace and security, generated by the large volume of both the deliberate destructions of terrorist group active in the Middle Eastern and African region and the collateral damages of the armed conflicts in the area. Through the examination of the rhetoric and decisions of three international organisations (UN, UNESCO, EU), we can clearly see the evolving international commitment to stop both the physical destruction and the illicit trade of cultural property, and also, their integration in peacekeeping operations has become possible.
***
The targeted destruction of cultural heritage has been systematically applied by international terrorist organisations. It can be a kind of psychological weapon to break the morale of, to demonstrate one’s dominance over the opposing ethnic, religious community, or to gain financial benefits from the illegal trafficking of cultural property acquired through illegal excavations, thefts, lootings, thus contributing to the financing of the conflict. In order to eliminate and prevent this complex issue, the integration of aspects, activities of cultural property protection (CPP) has become desirable in the fight against terrorism financing. One of the tools supporting this goal can be cultural intelligence (CULTINT).
In post-Cold War armed conflicts, cultural property is often in the crosshair of struggles – either as an intended target to break the enemy, or as an act to demonstrate the strength and commitment of the organisation, or because of economic interests to fuel the conflict. The international community more and more consciously comes into play against these attacks, and as a part of it, a bigger commitment can be seen to integrate a cultural dimension in peace operations in the course of prevention, post-conflict stabilisation and building of lasting peace. This paper – after describing the change in the security environment – aims to back up the necessity of the integration of cultural property protection in the activity of peace operations by reviewing the adopted international documents and practical examples in this respect.
//
During the territorial expansion of ISIL/DAESH between 2014 and 2016, the photos and videos posted on-line by the organisation depicting their violent acts executed in Syria and Iraq have continuously been shocking the international community. These materials have been transmitting their thoroughly elaborated Salafist, extremist ideology in high quality and with the use of modern technologies, spreadmainly through social media (Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Telegram, Surespot, JustPaste.it etc.). The present paper examines to which extent attacks against cultural property are getting a greater significance in the toolbox of socially-mediated terrorism through the organisations’ online propaganda.
The aim of the present essay is to prove by the example of the Mali conflict, especially the events between January 2012 and September 2016 in Timbuktu that today’s armed conflicts and terrorism mean a greater danger than ever before to our cultural heritage, therefore a widespread international cooperation is needed to to prevent it.
Az ilyen cselekmények megtorlását nemzetközi szinten elsőként a jugoszláv háborúk során elkövetett mértéktelen pusztítás idézte elő, majd a Nemzetközi Büntetőbíróságot felállító Római Statútum is a háborús bűntettek közé sorolja, így biztosítva lehetőséget az egyén nemzetközi felelősségre vonására kulturális ja-vak, mint az emberiség közös tulajdonának pusztításáért. E tekintetben Bíróság által 2017 szeptemberében elítélt, mali származású Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi ügyében született döntés precedensértékű lehet.
Jelen tanulmány célja bemutatni a nemzetközi közösség rendelkezésére álló eszközöket a kulturális javak megóvására fegyveres konfliktusok idején.
//
Although the protection of civilian objects, including cultural properties in the time of armed conflicts had been part of the humanitarian law for a long time, the hor-rors of the World War II gave such a boost to the international regulation process, that up until now, a much more direct and detailed toolkit and regulation system has been established, of which the main actor is the UNESCO.
The retribution of such acts was engendered firstly due to the excessive de-vastation of the Yugoslav wars, then the Rome Statute establishing the Internatio-nal Criminal Court mentions them among the war crimes, thus providing a possibi-lity for holding individuals accountable at an international level for the destruction of cultural property, the common property of humanity. The judgement of the Court made in September 2017 in the case of the Malian Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi can serve as a precedent for the future.
The aim of the present paper is to present the tools at an international level for protecting cultural properties in the event of armed conflicts.
***
The aim of the present study is to present the development of international laws of war and humanitarian law regarding the protection of cultural property in times of war, reflection on the determining armed conflicts of the 20th century, highlighting the most important elements and trends of the regulations, and their integration in Hungarian defence administration, also referring to the relevance of the topic from penal law perspective.
***
By examining certain wars erupted after the end of the Cold War, the paper aims to explore how elements of historic, cultural, religious built heritage – as symbols of the identity of a certain community – can become target of attacks in armed conflicts. These attacks can either predict or accompany confrontations motivated by identity politics along societal fault-lines, for example through efforts to annex territory, get the control over political institutions or even to eliminate a certain group. In extreme cases we can even talk about „cultural genocide”. The paper aims to expand the concept of societal security by the inclusion of attacks against cultural property as a growing security challenge.
***
By applying the concept of securitization, the paper aims to present how the protection of cultural heritage in conflict zones has been becoming a relevant challenge from the point of view of international peace and security, generated by the large volume of both the deliberate destructions of terrorist group active in the Middle Eastern and African region and the collateral damages of the armed conflicts in the area. Through the examination of the rhetoric and decisions of three international organisations (UN, UNESCO, EU), we can clearly see the evolving international commitment to stop both the physical destruction and the illicit trade of cultural property, and also, their integration in peacekeeping operations has become possible.
***
The targeted destruction of cultural heritage has been systematically applied by international terrorist organisations. It can be a kind of psychological weapon to break the morale of, to demonstrate one’s dominance over the opposing ethnic, religious community, or to gain financial benefits from the illegal trafficking of cultural property acquired through illegal excavations, thefts, lootings, thus contributing to the financing of the conflict. In order to eliminate and prevent this complex issue, the integration of aspects, activities of cultural property protection (CPP) has become desirable in the fight against terrorism financing. One of the tools supporting this goal can be cultural intelligence (CULTINT).
In post-Cold War armed conflicts, cultural property is often in the crosshair of struggles – either as an intended target to break the enemy, or as an act to demonstrate the strength and commitment of the organisation, or because of economic interests to fuel the conflict. The international community more and more consciously comes into play against these attacks, and as a part of it, a bigger commitment can be seen to integrate a cultural dimension in peace operations in the course of prevention, post-conflict stabilisation and building of lasting peace. This paper – after describing the change in the security environment – aims to back up the necessity of the integration of cultural property protection in the activity of peace operations by reviewing the adopted international documents and practical examples in this respect.
//
During the territorial expansion of ISIL/DAESH between 2014 and 2016, the photos and videos posted on-line by the organisation depicting their violent acts executed in Syria and Iraq have continuously been shocking the international community. These materials have been transmitting their thoroughly elaborated Salafist, extremist ideology in high quality and with the use of modern technologies, spreadmainly through social media (Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Telegram, Surespot, JustPaste.it etc.). The present paper examines to which extent attacks against cultural property are getting a greater significance in the toolbox of socially-mediated terrorism through the organisations’ online propaganda.
The aim of the present essay is to prove by the example of the Mali conflict, especially the events between January 2012 and September 2016 in Timbuktu that today’s armed conflicts and terrorism mean a greater danger than ever before to our cultural heritage, therefore a widespread international cooperation is needed to to prevent it.
Az ilyen cselekmények megtorlását nemzetközi szinten elsőként a jugoszláv háborúk során elkövetett mértéktelen pusztítás idézte elő, majd a Nemzetközi Büntetőbíróságot felállító Római Statútum is a háborús bűntettek közé sorolja, így biztosítva lehetőséget az egyén nemzetközi felelősségre vonására kulturális ja-vak, mint az emberiség közös tulajdonának pusztításáért. E tekintetben Bíróság által 2017 szeptemberében elítélt, mali származású Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi ügyében született döntés precedensértékű lehet.
Jelen tanulmány célja bemutatni a nemzetközi közösség rendelkezésére álló eszközöket a kulturális javak megóvására fegyveres konfliktusok idején.
//
Although the protection of civilian objects, including cultural properties in the time of armed conflicts had been part of the humanitarian law for a long time, the hor-rors of the World War II gave such a boost to the international regulation process, that up until now, a much more direct and detailed toolkit and regulation system has been established, of which the main actor is the UNESCO.
The retribution of such acts was engendered firstly due to the excessive de-vastation of the Yugoslav wars, then the Rome Statute establishing the Internatio-nal Criminal Court mentions them among the war crimes, thus providing a possibi-lity for holding individuals accountable at an international level for the destruction of cultural property, the common property of humanity. The judgement of the Court made in September 2017 in the case of the Malian Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi can serve as a precedent for the future.
The aim of the present paper is to present the tools at an international level for protecting cultural properties in the event of armed conflicts.