Libros by Javier Esteban Ríos
Aranzadi, 2023
La tradicional dicotomía entre la ejecución directa e indirecta del Derecho de la Unión, donde el... more La tradicional dicotomía entre la ejecución directa e indirecta del Derecho de la Unión, donde el monopolio operativo se hace recaer, respectivamente, en organismos europeos o nacionales, se ve progresivamente superada por la aparición de una técnica híbrida, en la que ambas clases de sujetos comparten protagonismo.
De este modo se incrementan los espacios para una tercera técnica de ejecución del Derecho de la Unión -la coadministración o administración conjunta- en cuyo seno las prerrogativas y funciones son ejercidas conjuntamente por entes nacionales y europeos. Esta singular solución presenta una notable virtud, pues permite cohonestar una aplicación más uniforme de la regulación europea con el respeto de la autonomía y capacidad de actuación de las autoridades de los Estados miembros.
No obstante, y pese a su utilidad, la coadministración -y los procedimientos administrativos compuestos a través de los que esta actúa- plantean múltiples contingencias jurídicas, relacionadas con su complejidad y con la indefinición de su régimen jurídico. Dichos problemas pivotan sobre cuestiones tales como el surgimiento de asimetrías en los derechos procedimentales, la complicada distribución de responsabilidades entre los sujetos actuantes, las dificultades para determinar la jurisdicción competente o las incógnitas derivadas de la eventual aplicación del Derecho nacional por organismos de la Unión.
Habida cuenta de esta realidad, la monografía pretende proporcionar al lector un conjunto ordenado de conocimiento, que permita la aproximación integral y provechosa a un fenómeno incipiente, pero llamado a tener un papel esencial en el proceso de integración europea. Al respecto, en particular, se estará al origen del fenómeno, a los conflictos jurídicos suscitados por el mismo, a cómo se han de abordar actualmente dichos conflictos y a qué soluciones podrían brindarse a futuro por parte del legislador.
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The traditional dichotomy between direct and indirect implementation of Union law, where the operational monopoly is vested respectively in European or national bodies, is progressively being overcome by the emergence of a hybrid technique, in which both types of subjects share the leading role.
In this way, there is increasing scope for a third technique for implementing Union law - co-administration or joint administration - in which prerogatives and functions are exercised jointly by national and European bodies. This unique solution has a notable virtue in that it makes it possible to reconcile a more uniform application of European regulation with respect for the autonomy and capacity for action of the authorities of the Member States.
However, despite its usefulness, co-administration - and the composite administrative procedures through which it acts - pose multiple legal contingencies, related to its complexity and the lack of definition of its legal regime. These problems revolve around issues such as the emergence of asymmetries in procedural rights, the complicated distribution of responsibilities between the parties involved, the difficulties in determining the competent jurisdiction or the unknowns arising from the possible application of national law by EU bodies.
In view of this reality, the monograph aims to provide the reader with an ordered set of knowledge, which allows a comprehensive and useful approach to an incipient phenomenon, but one that is destined to play an essential role in the process of European integration. In particular, it will focus on the origin of the phenomenon, the legal conflicts it has given rise to, how these conflicts are currently to be dealt with and what solutions could be offered by the legislator in the future.
Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado, 2021
En la obra, a partir de una contextualización de los sectores bancarios español y europeo, se ana... more En la obra, a partir de una contextualización de los sectores bancarios español y europeo, se analizan los múltiples cambios que, en los últimos tiempos, han venido a afectar a la intervención sobre la banca, haciendo especial hincapié en la internacionalización del negocio y del marco regulatorio y supervisor.
En sede de este proceso de internacionalización del control sobre el sector crediticio destaca la implantación del Mecanismo Único de Supervisión que, imponiéndose frente a otras alternativas, ha supuesto la traslación de muy relevantes competencias supervisoras desde las autoridades nacionales hacia el Banco Central Europeo.
Esta europeización de competencias de fiscalización plantea diversas cuestiones, no pacíficas, a las que la obra pretende dar respuesta, como serían la suficiencia de la base jurídica escogida, el porqué de la elección del Banco Central Europeo como supervisor, el efectivo alcance subjetivo y territorial de la supervisión de la Unión, la eventual generación de duplicidades o la virtualidad de la aplicación de normas nacionales por parte de una institución comunitaria.
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Based on a contextualisation of the Spanish and European banking sectors, the book analyses the many changes that have recently affected intervention in the banking sector, with particular emphasis on the internationalisation of the business and of the regulatory and supervisory framework.
In the context of this process of internationalisation of control over the credit sector, the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism stands out, which has entailed the transfer of very important supervisory powers from the national authorities to the European Central Bank.
This Europeanisation of supervisory powers raises a number of questions, not all of which have been resolved, to which the book aims to provide answers, such as the sufficiency of the legal basis chosen, the reason for the choice of the European Central Bank as supervisor, the effective subjective and territorial scope of the Union's supervision, the possible generation of duplication or the virtuality of the application of national rules by a Community institution.
Aranzadi, 2021
El régimen de intervención sobre el gobierno corporativo de la banca ha sido objeto de relevantes... more El régimen de intervención sobre el gobierno corporativo de la banca ha sido objeto de relevantes modificaciones en los últimos tiempos. Así, la europeización de potestades, consecuencia directa de la implantación del Mecanismo Único de Supervisión, se ha acompañado de una progresiva publificación del gobierno corporativo de las entidades de crédito, operada a través de la introducción de nuevas, y muy rigurosas, disposiciones jurídico-administrativas en ámbitos tradicionalmente reservados al derecho privado.
En este contexto de cambio, el presente trabajo pretende proporcionar al lector un conjunto ordenado de conocimiento, que permita un provechoso acercamiento al control del gobierno corporativo de las entidades de crédito de la Unión Europea, así como a los principales problemas derivados del mismo.
A tal efecto, a lo largo de la obra se pone el foco sobre los aspectos más controvertidos del nuevo marco de disciplina. En particular, se abordan en profundidad cuestiones tales como el fundamento que justifica la intervención pública sobre el gobierno interno de las entidades de crédito, las disfunciones que esta intervención puede causar o la distribución de funciones de fiscalización entre el Banco Central Europeo y los supervisores nacionales. Asimismo, se analiza el régimen jurídico actualmente vigente en la materia, desarrollándose las concretas obligaciones y requisitos que se imponen por la regulación sobre las más variadas áreas, como las de estructuras, procedimientos, gestión de riesgos, idoneidad, remuneraciones o transparencia.
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The regime of intervention in the corporate governance of banks has undergone significant changes in recent times. Thus, the Europeanisation of powers, a direct consequence of the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, has been accompanied by a progressive introduction of public law in the corporate governance of credit institutions, operated through the introduction of new and very rigorous administrative provisions in areas traditionally reserved for private law.
In this context of change, the present work aims to provide the reader with an ordered set of knowledge that allows a useful approach to the control of corporate governance of credit institutions in the European Union, as well as to the main problems derived from it.
To this end, the book focuses on the most controversial aspects of the new disciplinary framework. In particular, it deals in depth with questions such as the rationale for public intervention in the internal governance of credit institutions, the dysfunctions that this intervention may cause and the distribution of supervisory functions between the European Central Bank and national supervisors. It also analyses the legal regime in force in this area, developing the specific obligations and requirements imposed by regulation in a wide variety of areas, such as structures, procedures, risk management, suitability, remuneration and transparency.
Aranzadi, 2020
La reciente europeización de las potestades de vigilancia sobre las entidades de crédito, a travé... more La reciente europeización de las potestades de vigilancia sobre las entidades de crédito, a través de la implantación del Mecanismo Único de Supervisión, ha llevado a un replanteamiento del alcance y contenido de las muy variadas prerrogativas que se encuentran a disposición de las autoridades supervisoras. Poderes, estos, que en multitud de ocasiones pasarán a contar con un régimen dual, según quién sea el supervisor actuante, en sus vertientes material, procedimental o de garantías.
Partiendo de esta realidad, la presente obra delimita el alcance de las funciones que se atribuyen a las distintas autoridades, con especial mención al Banco Central Europeo y al Banco de España, plantea los principales problemas jurídicos derivados de la internacionalización de potestades y propone diversas soluciones a dichas controversias.
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The recent Europeanisation of supervisory powers over credit institutions, through the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, has led to a rethinking of the scope and content of the very varied prerogatives available to supervisory authorities. These powers are now subject to a dual regime, depending on who the acting supervisor is, in its material, procedural or collateral aspects.
Based on this reality, this work delimits the scope of the functions attributed to the different authorities, with special mention of the European Central Bank and the Bank of Spain, raises the main legal problems arising from the internationalisation of powers and proposes various solutions to these controversies.
Artículos Publicados by Javier Esteban Ríos
Revista Vasca de Administración Pública, 2024
RESUMEN: La progresiva digitalización de las relaciones sociales y económicas implica una tendenc... more RESUMEN: La progresiva digitalización de las relaciones sociales y económicas implica una tendencia a sustituir el efectivo por otros medios de pago de naturaleza digital. Pese a ello, el efectivo todavía es muy relevante para ciertos colectivos, cuenta con algunas características intrínsecas difícilmente replicables y se encuentra garantizado por el Derecho originario. En este contexto, los Estados miembros -y en particular España- han adoptado un enfoque bifronte en relación con el efectivo, de manera que, al mismo tiempo, promueven y restringen su uso por la ciudadanía. Ante esta dispersión en las respuestas nacionales, el legislador comunitario tramita una propuesta normativa, a fin de asegurar que el efectivo sigue siendo una alternativa de pago eficaz. Así, se pretende evitar la erosión del curso legal del efectivo, mediante una definición más precisa de su admisibilidad y a través de un impulso de su accesibilidad por la ciudadanía. Esta promoción del efectivo se inserta en un contexto europeo de transición, en el que también se enmarca la apuesta por el euro digital. Dicha moneda digital, en principio, complementará al efectivo, del que toma algunas de sus características básicas. Sin embargo, el lanzamiento del euro digital aparecería como un paso firme hacia la sustitución del efectivo, siendo la cohabitación entre ambos medios de pago coyuntural.
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ABSTRACT: The progressive digitisation of social and economic relations means that cash is tending to be replaced by other digital means of payment. Despite this, cash is still very relevant for certain groups, has some intrinsic characteristics that are difficult to replicate, and is guaranteed by primary law. In this context, Member States - and in particular Spain - have adopted a two-pronged approach to cash, both promoting and restricting its use by citizens. In response to this dispersion of national responses, the EU legislator is working on a regulatory proposal to ensure that cash remains an effective payment alternative. The aim is to prevent the erosion of the legal tender status of cash by defining its admissibility more precisely and by boosting its accessibility to the public. This promotion of cash is framed within a European context of transition, which also includes the commitment to the digital euro. This digital currency will, in principle, complement cash, from which it takes some of its basic characteristics. However, the launch of the digital euro appears as a firm step towards replacing cash, which means that the cohabitation of the two means of payment would be temporary.
Review of European Administrative Law, 2024
The process of European convergence involves Union institutions and bodies occasionally applying ... more The process of European convergence involves Union institutions and bodies occasionally applying national rules that transpose directives. This updating of the role of the EU framework has raised certain problems of articulation, which, in particular, concern the possible direct effect of the provisions contained in the transposed directives. Despite significant shortcomings, adopting a functional and goal-oriented interpretation would extend the doctrine of the direct effect of directives to the institutions and bodies of the Union, in order to prevent asymmetries and perverse incentives. However, it would be desirable for the EU legislator to explicitly clarify how to approach the most contentious issues, strengthening legal certainty and reducing reliance on interpretations that may stem from disputes before the Court of Justice.
Persona e Amministrazione , 2023
La digitalización del sector financiero ha afectado negativamente a varios colectivos, que tienen... more La digitalización del sector financiero ha afectado negativamente a varios colectivos, que tienen dificultades para acceder a los servicios financieros digitales. Para garantizar la inclusión financiera de todos los ciudadanos pueden adoptarse diversas soluciones, justificadas por razones éticas, económicas o jurídicas, que pueden proceder tanto de los agentes del mercado como de las autoridades públicas. Entre estas últimos, como alternativa excepcional, algunos servicios financieros -considerados esenciales- podrían clasificarse como servicios de interés económico general, exigiendo su prestación presencial a través de obligaciones de servicio público.
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Various groups have been adversely affected by the digitalization of the financial sector, as they face difficulties in accessing digital financial services. Several solutions can be adopted to ensure the financial inclusion of all citizens, justified on ethical, economic or legal grounds, and which can come from both market operators and public authorities. Among the latter, as an exceptional alternative, certain financial services -considered essential- could be classified as services of general economic interest, requiring them to be provided in person by means of public service obligations.
Rivista Trimestrale Degli Apalti, 2023
Sebbene la promozione della concorrenza sia una delle colonne portanti degli appalti pubblici, qu... more Sebbene la promozione della concorrenza sia una delle colonne portanti degli appalti pubblici, questo obiettivo deve essere conciliato con la definizione di alcune limitazioni, sia per la partecipazione di operatori nei cui Paesi di origine le gare d'appalto rimangono chiuse agli imprenditori dell'UE, sia per l'accesso di prodotti e servizi ottenuti attraverso un processo produttivo senza pari garanzie. Alla luce di queste considerazioni, e fatte salve le disposizioni degli accordi internazionali approvati a questo scopo, sono state proposte diverse misure correttive. In particolare, sono stati attribuiti alla Commissione europea poteri molto significativi per l'adozione di misure restrittive particolarmente onerose ed è stato posto l'accento sulla promozione della qualità e del rispetto di elevati standard ambientali, sociali e lavorativi.
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Although the promotion of competition is one of the backbones of public procurement, this aim must be reconciled with the establishment of certain limitations on the participation of operators in whose countries tenders remain closed to EU entrepreneurs, as well as on the access of products and services obtained through a production process without equal guarantees. In view of these considerations, and without prejudice to the provisions of the international agreements approved for this purpose, various corrective measures have been proposed. Thus, in particular, the European Commission has been granted very significant powers to adopt particularly onerous restrictive measures and emphasis has been placed on the promotion of quality and compliance with high environmental, social and labor standards.
Revista Catalana de Dret Public, 2023
Tradicionalmente, ciertos mercados de contratación pública internacional se han cerrado a los lic... more Tradicionalmente, ciertos mercados de contratación pública internacional se han cerrado a los licitadores, bienes y servicios europeos. Ante esta situación, los distintos Estados miembros han articulado sus propias respuestas hasta que, recientemente, la Unión Europea ha decidido ofrecer una reacción común mediante la aprobación del Instrumento de Contratación Internacional, que prevé la aplicación de múltiples medidas restrictivas. Dichas medidas cuentan con un efecto represivo –restringiendo la participación de licitadores, bienes y servicios extranjeros–, pero también pretenden fomentar la reciprocidad y la conclusión de acuerdos internacionales. La regulación de la Unión se vincula a la competencia exclusiva sobre política comercial común y desplaza las normas nacionales preexistentes. Sin embargo, los Estados miembros todavía conservan la posibilidad de incidir indirectamente sobre las licitaciones por medio de la introducción de elementos relacionados con la calidad o el fomento de la responsabilidad social y la protección del medio ambiente.
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Traditionally, certain international public procurement markets have remained closed to European bidders, goods and services. Given this, the EU’s different Member States had designed their own responses, until recently, when the Union itself has decided to provide a common reaction in the form of the approval of the International Procurement Instrument, which contemplates the implementation of a wide range of restrictive measures. Said measures have a constraintive effect (by limiting the participation of foreign bidders, goods and services), but also aim to foster reciprocity and the signing of international agreements. This regulation is associated with European Union’s exclusive powers over common trade policy and supersedes pre-existing national rules and regulations. Nevertheless, Member States still retain the ability to have an indirect impact on tenders, with the introduction.
Revista General de Derecho Administrativo, 2023
La Unión Europea se ha dotado recientemente de un mecanismo que protege frente a las ayudas, brin... more La Unión Europea se ha dotado recientemente de un mecanismo que protege frente a las ayudas, brindadas por Estados terceros, que pueden distorsionar el mercado interior, de modo que se complementan las reglas ya vigentes en sede de ayudas de Estado. Dicho mecanismo ofrece a la Comisión Europea intensas prerrogativas que se van a ejercer en el marco de un procedimiento administrativo establecido al efecto, y que culminará con la imposición de medidas correctoras. El control ejercido por la Comisión se vehicula a través de dos modalidades distintas, bien un control ex post que puede aplicarse en el marco de cualquier actividad económica o bien un control ex ante -más intenso- reservado para ciertas concentraciones empresariales y licitaciones públicas de umbrales económicos elevados.
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The European Union has recently introduced a mechanism to protect against aid provided by third countries that may distort the internal market, thus supplementing the rules already in force on State aid. This mechanism gives the European Commission extensive prerogatives that will be exercised within the framework of an administrative procedure established for this purpose, which will culminate in the imposition of corrective measures. The control exercised by the Commission takes two distinct forms: an ex post control that can be applied in the context of any economic activity, and a more intense ex ante control reserved for certain business concentrations and public tenders with high economic thresholds.
Revista de Derecho Bancario y Bursátil, 2022
La justicia de la Unión se ha pronunciado, finalmente, sobre la regularidad del dispositivo de re... more La justicia de la Unión se ha pronunciado, finalmente, sobre la regularidad del dispositivo de resolución que afectó a la entidad de crédito española Banco Popular. Con motivo de los recursos planteados, se han analizado distintos aspectos esenciales relativos a la idoneidad del Mecanismo Único de Resolución, así como de los procedimientos de recapitalización interna que se aplican en su seno, lo que ha servido para testar la eficacia y solidez de estas estructuras y mecanismos. En este sentido, se ha confirmado la adecuación de la intervención de la Junta Única de Resolución y de la Comisión Europea, dentro de una tendencia general a validar la actuación de las autoridades públicas en el sector bancario. Y es que, tradicionalmente, se han apreciado serias dificultades para asegurar un control efectivo acerca del ejercicio de prerrogativas administrativas sobre las entidades de crédito.
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The EU judiciary has finally ruled on the regularity of the resolution mechanism that affected Banco Popular. The judgments have analysed various essential aspects relating to the suitability of the Single Resolution Mechanism, as well as the internal recapitalisation procedures applied within it, which have served to test the effectiveness and soundness of these structures and mechanisms. In this respect, the appropriateness of the intervention of the Single Resolution Board and the European Commission has been confirmed, within a general tendency to validate the actions of the public authorities in the banking sector. Traditionally, there have been serious difficulties in ensuring effective control over the exercise of administrative prerogatives over credit institutions.
Revista Aragonesa de Administración Pública, 2022
La adecuada protección del medio ambiente exige la efectiva implicación de los empresarios que op... more La adecuada protección del medio ambiente exige la efectiva implicación de los empresarios que operan en los distintos sectores económicos, quienes habrán de integrar criterios de naturaleza medioambiental en sus procesos de toma de decisiones. El trabajo analiza las diferentes alternativas que podrían articularse para alcanzar tal finalidad, así como la oportunidad, ventajas y desventajas de las mismas. Esta asunción de criterios medioambientales por los operadores económicos se llevaría a cabo a través de su introducción en los procedimientos y estructuras de gobierno corporativo, bien de forma voluntaria o bien a través de la imposición de obligaciones jurídicas al efecto. A fin de alcanzar un modelo mesurado, que cohoneste la intervención pública con la autonomía y el dinamismo empresariales, se exigiría adoptar un enfoque mixto. Así, la voluntariedad solamente debería ser sustituida por la imposición de obligaciones cuando el espontáneo actuar de los operadores no permita satisfacer los objetivos medioambientales.
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Adequate environmental protection requires the involvement of economic actors operating in the different economic sectors, who must integrate environmental criteria into their decision-making processes. The paper analyzes the different alternatives that could be implemented to achieve this goal, as well as the opportunity, advantages and disadvantages of such measures. This assumption of environmental criteria by economic operators would be carried out through their introduction into corporate governance procedures and structures, either on a voluntary basis or through the imposition of legal obligations. In order to achieve a measured model that harmonizes public intervention with entrepreneurial autonomy and dynamism, a mixed approach would be required. Thus, voluntariness should only be replaced by the imposition of obligations when the spontaneous actions of the operators do not allow the environmental objectives to be achieved.
Revista Aragonesa de Administración Pública, 2022
La legislación aragonesa recoge un régimen completo y minucioso de las diferentes vicisitudes que... more La legislación aragonesa recoge un régimen completo y minucioso de las diferentes vicisitudes que afectan a los órganos administrativos de la Administración autonómica, así como al ejercicio de las competencias atribuidas a los mismos. A la hora de configurar dicho marco se ha mantenido un escrupuloso respeto de la legislación básica estatal en materia de régimen jurídico de las Administraciones públicas, desarrollando y adaptando la misma a las necesidades y singularidades del sector público autonómico. En cuanto a su contenido, la normativa alcanza muy diversos extremos tales como la creación de órganos administrativos, las técnicas de traslado del ejercicio de competencias, las particularidades que afectan a los órganos colegiados o las causas y procedimientos de abstención y recusación de servidores públicos.
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Aragonese regional legislation contains a complete and detailed regime of the different vicissitudes that affect the administrative bodies of the regional administration, as well as the exercise of their powers. When configuring this framework, scrupulous respect for the state-level legislation has been maintained, developing and adapting it to the needs and singularities of the regional public sector. In particular, a wide range of issues are covered, such as the creation of administrative bodies, the techniques for transferring the exercise of powers, the particularities affecting collegiate bodies and the causes and procedures for abstention and challenge of public servants.
Revista de Derecho del Mercado de Valores, 2022
La protección de los clientes financieros en España incluye una vertiente institucional, vinculad... more La protección de los clientes financieros en España incluye una vertiente institucional, vinculada con la configuración de instancias administrativas que resuelven extrajudicialmente los conflictos entre los operadores financieros y su clientela. El modelo vigente en nuestro país pivota sobre la existencia de unos Departamentos especializados integrados en las distintas autoridades supervisoras. Sin embargo, se defiende la necesidad de sustituir estos Departamentos por una autoridad administrativa independiente habilitada al efecto y que cuente con poderes vinculantes en relación con las controversias planteadas. Ello supondría un cambio sustancial en el enfoque tradicional de control, pues una sola autoridad ejercería las funciones sobre la totalidad de las entidades financieras y se evitarían los riesgos de acumular las competencias de supervisión prudencial y de supervisión de conductas en unos mismos sujetos.
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The protection of financial customers in Spain includes an institutional aspect, linked to the configuration of administrative bodies that resolve out-of-court disputes between financial operators and their customers. The current is based on the existence of specialised departments linked to the different supervisory authorities. However, it is argued that these Departments should be replaced by an independent administrative authority empowered for this purpose and with binding powers in relation to the disputes raised. This would represent a substantial change in the traditional supervisory approach, as a single authority would exercise functions over all financial institutions and because the risks of accumulating prudential and conduct of business supervision in the same subjects would be avoided.
Revista de Derecho del Sistema Financiero: mercados, operadores y contratos , 2022
En los últimos tiempos se ha desarrollado un nuevo enfoque para la intervención pública sobre el ... more En los últimos tiempos se ha desarrollado un nuevo enfoque para la intervención pública sobre el sector bancario. Dicho enfoque pretende, más allá de garantizar la solvencia y liquidez de las entidades de crédito, configurar auténticos derechos a favor de los particulares, de modo que estos puedan obtener prestaciones consistentes en servicios financieros. Esta técnica encuentra su amparo en la consideración de ciertas áreas de la actividad de las entidades de crédito como servicios de interés económico general, así como en el paralelo establecimiento de obligaciones de servicio público por parte de las autoridades, a fin de asegurar determinados niveles de calidad, seguridad, asequibilidad, accesibilidad o igualdad de trato en las prestaciones.
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Recently, a new approach to public intervention in the banking sector has been developed. This approach aims not only to ensure the solvency and liquidity of credit institutions, but also to establish rights in favor of individuals, so that they can obtain financial services. This technique is based on the classification of certain areas of the activity of credit institutions as services of general economic interest, and on the parallel establishment of public service obligations by the authorities, in order to guarantee certain levels of quality, safety, affordability, accessibility or equal treatment in the services.
Revista Española de Derecho Administrativo, 2022
Pese a que la promoción de la concurrencia es uno de los ejes vertebradores de la contratación pú... more Pese a que la promoción de la concurrencia es uno de los ejes vertebradores de la contratación pública, esta finalidad debe cohonestarse con la fijación de ciertas limitaciones, tanto a la participación de operadores en cuyos países de origen las licitaciones permanecen cerradas a los empresarios de la Unión, como para el acceso de productos y servicios obtenidos mediante un proceso productivo sin iguales garantías. A la vista de estas consideraciones, y sin perjuicio de lo que se prevea en los acuerdos internacionales aprobados al efecto, se han planteado distintas medidas correctoras. Así, se ha vinculado la capacidad para contratar a la aplicación del principio de reciprocidad en las licitaciones, se ha puesto el acento sobre la promoción de la calidad y el respeto de elevados estándares medioambientales y sociales, se han establecido preferencias a favor de quienes abran sus mercados de contratación, o incluso se ha defendido la introducción de un sistema de incrementos artificiales en el precio de aquellas ofertas que integren prestaciones originarias de países donde existan restricciones.
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Although the promotion of competition is one of the backbones of public procurement, this aim must be reconciled with the establishment of certain limitations on the participation of operators in whose countries tenders remain closed to EU entrepreneurs, as well as on the access of products and services obtained through a production process without equal guarantees. In view of these considerations, and without prejudice to the provisions of the international agreements approved for this purpose, various corrective measures have been proposed. Thus, the capacity to contract has been linked to the application of the principle of reciprocity in tenders, emphasis has been placed on the promotion of quality and respect for high environmental and social standards, preferences have been established in favor of those who open their procurement markets, or even the introduction of artificial price increases for those offers that include services originating in restrictive countries has been advocated.
Revista Aragonesa de Administración Pública, 2021
La tradicional dificultad para absorber los fondos provenientes de programas europeos, junto con ... more La tradicional dificultad para absorber los fondos provenientes de programas europeos, junto con la necesidad ejecutar los cuantiosos caudales derivados del Instrumento Europeo de Recuperación, han llevado a la introducción de modificaciones legislativas que afectan, en particular, a la actividad subvencional. En este sentido, los legisladores estatal y autonómicos, dentro del complejo marco competencial existente, han implementado reformas orientadas a flexibilizar el régimen de tramitación, concesión y justificación de las subvenciones financiables con fondos europeos.
Estas medidas tienen un enfoque amplio, pues no se dirigen exclusivamente a la ejecución de fondos del Instrumento Europeo de Recuperación, sino que, en ocasiones, alcanzan a otros programas europeos. Ello es muestra de que ciertos problemas a los que pretenden responder las reformas tienen naturaleza estructural, cabiendo incluso su eventual traslación a la regulación general de las subvenciones.
En cualquier caso, la agilización en la tramitación de subvenciones habría de garantizar un control suficiente, debería acompañarse de la implementación de técnicas orientadas a alcanzar la máxima eficacia de las ayudas (planificación estratégica, gestión por objetivos, análisis de desviaciones…) y tendría que unirse a un cambio en la cultura de gestión de los caudales públicos.
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The traditional difficulty in absorbing funds from European programs, together with the need to execute the amounts stemming from the European Union Recovery Instrument, have led to the introduction of legislative modifications that affect, in particular, state subsidies. In this sense, national and regional legislators, within the complex framework of powers, have implemented reforms aimed at making the system for processing, granting and justifying subsidies financed with European funds more flexible.
These measures have a broad approach, since they are not exclusively directed at executing funds from the European Recovery Instrument. In fact, they sometimes reach other European programs, which indicates that some of the problems to which the reforms are intended to respond are structural in nature.
In any case, the streamlining of the processing of subsidies should guarantee sufficient control, should be accompanied by the implementation of techniques aimed at achieving maximum aid efficiency (strategic planning, management by objectives, deviation analysis, etc.) and should be combined with a change in the culture of public funds management.
Revista Vasca de Administración Pública, 2021
Existen distintos modelos de financiación para el mantenimiento y conservación de las carreteras ... more Existen distintos modelos de financiación para el mantenimiento y conservación de las carreteras españolas, que se sustentan bien en la gratuidad para los usuarios de las vías o bien en el pago por el uso de dichas infraestructuras. Con independencia de la alternativa escogida, las características esenciales con las que ha de cumplir todo sistema de financiación son idénticas, exigiéndose el sometimiento a criterios estables, predecibles y proporcionales. En este sentido, el presente trabajo aborda las distintas fórmulas de financiación posibles, tratando de poner de manifiesto las dificultades y virtudes de las mismas, así como ofreciendo herramientas jurídicas para mitigar los problemas que pudieran constatarse. En particular, se analizará la financiación de carreteras con cargo a presupuestos generales o el recurso a tasas —vinculadas a la duración del uso de las vías— o a peajes —que gravan la distancia recorrida por los usuarios.
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There are different financing models for the maintenance of Spanish roads, which are based either on gratuity for road users or on payment for the use of such infrastructures. Regardless of the alternative chosen, the essential characteristic which any financing system must meet are identical, requiring submission to stable, predictable and proportional criteria. In this sense, the paper addresses the different financing formula, trying to highlight their difficulties and virtues, as well as offering legal tools in order to mitigate any problems that may arise. In particular, the work will analyse the financing of roads from general budgets, the implementation of user charges - linked to the duration of road use - or the use of tolls - which are levied on the distance travelled by road users.
Revista General de Derecho Administrativo, 2020
Para limitar los efectos perjudiciales que la pervivencia de distintas prácticas supervisoras cau... more Para limitar los efectos perjudiciales que la pervivencia de distintas prácticas supervisoras causaba en el mercado común de los servicios financieros, se ha implantado un Mecanismo Único de Supervisión a escala de la Unión. No obstante, el alcance de esta supervisión única se encuentra restringido a nivel territorial y subjetivo, y la atribución de competencias supervisoras al BCE plantea problemas de base jurídica, estructura organizativa y confusión de objetivos entre las políticas monetaria y supervisora. Teniendo en cuenta estas premisas, se procede al análisis de los rasgos característicos y de los puntos más conflictivos del establecimiento del Mecanismo Único de Supervisión, para concluir afirmando que el mismo es ciertamente útil para promover la solvencia y disciplina de las entidades de crédito, pero requiere también de ciertas adaptaciones y reformas.
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A Single Supervisory Mechanism was established in order to limit the adverse effects on the single market for financial services caused by the existence of different supervisory practices. However, the scope of this single supervision is restricted at a territorial or subjective level, and the attribution of supervisory powers to the ECB raises problems of legal basis, organizational structure and confusion between the purposes of monetary and supervisory policies. Taking these premises into account, this article analyses the most characteristic features and the sticking points of the establishment of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, concluding that the tool is really useful to promote solvency and discipline of credit institutions, but also deducing that it requires some reforms and adaptations.
Revista de Derecho Bancario y Bursátil, 2020
La exclusión financiera es un fenómeno que genera múltiples perjuicios, tanto a nivel individual ... more La exclusión financiera es un fenómeno que genera múltiples perjuicios, tanto a nivel individual como para el conjunto de la economía. Para luchar contra esta realidad y promover la inclusión, la Unión Europea ha configurado un derecho a acceder a ciertos servicios financieros a través de las cuentas de pago básicas. Esta herramienta se ampararía en la calificación de algunos servicios financieros como servicios de interés económico general y en la consiguiente imposición de obligaciones de servicio público. Mediante esta técnica de intervención, aunque con ciertos límites, podrían configurarse nuevos derechos de acceso a los servicios financieros, como los vinculados con el ahorro, los relacionados con el acceso a servicios financieros en cualquier parte del territorio, o los vinculados con la exclusión digital.
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Financial exclusion is a phenomenon that generates multiple damages, both at the individual level and for the economy as a whole. To fight against this reality, and to promote inclusion, the European Union has shaped a right to access to certain financial services, which operates through payment accounts with basic features. This tool is based on the classification of certain financial services as services of general economic interest and on the consequent imposition of public service obligations. Through this technique, although with certain limits, new rights to access to financial services could be configured, such as those linked to savings, those related to access to financial services in any part of the territory, or those associated with digital exclusión.
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Libros by Javier Esteban Ríos
De este modo se incrementan los espacios para una tercera técnica de ejecución del Derecho de la Unión -la coadministración o administración conjunta- en cuyo seno las prerrogativas y funciones son ejercidas conjuntamente por entes nacionales y europeos. Esta singular solución presenta una notable virtud, pues permite cohonestar una aplicación más uniforme de la regulación europea con el respeto de la autonomía y capacidad de actuación de las autoridades de los Estados miembros.
No obstante, y pese a su utilidad, la coadministración -y los procedimientos administrativos compuestos a través de los que esta actúa- plantean múltiples contingencias jurídicas, relacionadas con su complejidad y con la indefinición de su régimen jurídico. Dichos problemas pivotan sobre cuestiones tales como el surgimiento de asimetrías en los derechos procedimentales, la complicada distribución de responsabilidades entre los sujetos actuantes, las dificultades para determinar la jurisdicción competente o las incógnitas derivadas de la eventual aplicación del Derecho nacional por organismos de la Unión.
Habida cuenta de esta realidad, la monografía pretende proporcionar al lector un conjunto ordenado de conocimiento, que permita la aproximación integral y provechosa a un fenómeno incipiente, pero llamado a tener un papel esencial en el proceso de integración europea. Al respecto, en particular, se estará al origen del fenómeno, a los conflictos jurídicos suscitados por el mismo, a cómo se han de abordar actualmente dichos conflictos y a qué soluciones podrían brindarse a futuro por parte del legislador.
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The traditional dichotomy between direct and indirect implementation of Union law, where the operational monopoly is vested respectively in European or national bodies, is progressively being overcome by the emergence of a hybrid technique, in which both types of subjects share the leading role.
In this way, there is increasing scope for a third technique for implementing Union law - co-administration or joint administration - in which prerogatives and functions are exercised jointly by national and European bodies. This unique solution has a notable virtue in that it makes it possible to reconcile a more uniform application of European regulation with respect for the autonomy and capacity for action of the authorities of the Member States.
However, despite its usefulness, co-administration - and the composite administrative procedures through which it acts - pose multiple legal contingencies, related to its complexity and the lack of definition of its legal regime. These problems revolve around issues such as the emergence of asymmetries in procedural rights, the complicated distribution of responsibilities between the parties involved, the difficulties in determining the competent jurisdiction or the unknowns arising from the possible application of national law by EU bodies.
In view of this reality, the monograph aims to provide the reader with an ordered set of knowledge, which allows a comprehensive and useful approach to an incipient phenomenon, but one that is destined to play an essential role in the process of European integration. In particular, it will focus on the origin of the phenomenon, the legal conflicts it has given rise to, how these conflicts are currently to be dealt with and what solutions could be offered by the legislator in the future.
En sede de este proceso de internacionalización del control sobre el sector crediticio destaca la implantación del Mecanismo Único de Supervisión que, imponiéndose frente a otras alternativas, ha supuesto la traslación de muy relevantes competencias supervisoras desde las autoridades nacionales hacia el Banco Central Europeo.
Esta europeización de competencias de fiscalización plantea diversas cuestiones, no pacíficas, a las que la obra pretende dar respuesta, como serían la suficiencia de la base jurídica escogida, el porqué de la elección del Banco Central Europeo como supervisor, el efectivo alcance subjetivo y territorial de la supervisión de la Unión, la eventual generación de duplicidades o la virtualidad de la aplicación de normas nacionales por parte de una institución comunitaria.
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Based on a contextualisation of the Spanish and European banking sectors, the book analyses the many changes that have recently affected intervention in the banking sector, with particular emphasis on the internationalisation of the business and of the regulatory and supervisory framework.
In the context of this process of internationalisation of control over the credit sector, the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism stands out, which has entailed the transfer of very important supervisory powers from the national authorities to the European Central Bank.
This Europeanisation of supervisory powers raises a number of questions, not all of which have been resolved, to which the book aims to provide answers, such as the sufficiency of the legal basis chosen, the reason for the choice of the European Central Bank as supervisor, the effective subjective and territorial scope of the Union's supervision, the possible generation of duplication or the virtuality of the application of national rules by a Community institution.
En este contexto de cambio, el presente trabajo pretende proporcionar al lector un conjunto ordenado de conocimiento, que permita un provechoso acercamiento al control del gobierno corporativo de las entidades de crédito de la Unión Europea, así como a los principales problemas derivados del mismo.
A tal efecto, a lo largo de la obra se pone el foco sobre los aspectos más controvertidos del nuevo marco de disciplina. En particular, se abordan en profundidad cuestiones tales como el fundamento que justifica la intervención pública sobre el gobierno interno de las entidades de crédito, las disfunciones que esta intervención puede causar o la distribución de funciones de fiscalización entre el Banco Central Europeo y los supervisores nacionales. Asimismo, se analiza el régimen jurídico actualmente vigente en la materia, desarrollándose las concretas obligaciones y requisitos que se imponen por la regulación sobre las más variadas áreas, como las de estructuras, procedimientos, gestión de riesgos, idoneidad, remuneraciones o transparencia.
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The regime of intervention in the corporate governance of banks has undergone significant changes in recent times. Thus, the Europeanisation of powers, a direct consequence of the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, has been accompanied by a progressive introduction of public law in the corporate governance of credit institutions, operated through the introduction of new and very rigorous administrative provisions in areas traditionally reserved for private law.
In this context of change, the present work aims to provide the reader with an ordered set of knowledge that allows a useful approach to the control of corporate governance of credit institutions in the European Union, as well as to the main problems derived from it.
To this end, the book focuses on the most controversial aspects of the new disciplinary framework. In particular, it deals in depth with questions such as the rationale for public intervention in the internal governance of credit institutions, the dysfunctions that this intervention may cause and the distribution of supervisory functions between the European Central Bank and national supervisors. It also analyses the legal regime in force in this area, developing the specific obligations and requirements imposed by regulation in a wide variety of areas, such as structures, procedures, risk management, suitability, remuneration and transparency.
Partiendo de esta realidad, la presente obra delimita el alcance de las funciones que se atribuyen a las distintas autoridades, con especial mención al Banco Central Europeo y al Banco de España, plantea los principales problemas jurídicos derivados de la internacionalización de potestades y propone diversas soluciones a dichas controversias.
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The recent Europeanisation of supervisory powers over credit institutions, through the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, has led to a rethinking of the scope and content of the very varied prerogatives available to supervisory authorities. These powers are now subject to a dual regime, depending on who the acting supervisor is, in its material, procedural or collateral aspects.
Based on this reality, this work delimits the scope of the functions attributed to the different authorities, with special mention of the European Central Bank and the Bank of Spain, raises the main legal problems arising from the internationalisation of powers and proposes various solutions to these controversies.
Artículos Publicados by Javier Esteban Ríos
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ABSTRACT: The progressive digitisation of social and economic relations means that cash is tending to be replaced by other digital means of payment. Despite this, cash is still very relevant for certain groups, has some intrinsic characteristics that are difficult to replicate, and is guaranteed by primary law. In this context, Member States - and in particular Spain - have adopted a two-pronged approach to cash, both promoting and restricting its use by citizens. In response to this dispersion of national responses, the EU legislator is working on a regulatory proposal to ensure that cash remains an effective payment alternative. The aim is to prevent the erosion of the legal tender status of cash by defining its admissibility more precisely and by boosting its accessibility to the public. This promotion of cash is framed within a European context of transition, which also includes the commitment to the digital euro. This digital currency will, in principle, complement cash, from which it takes some of its basic characteristics. However, the launch of the digital euro appears as a firm step towards replacing cash, which means that the cohabitation of the two means of payment would be temporary.
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Various groups have been adversely affected by the digitalization of the financial sector, as they face difficulties in accessing digital financial services. Several solutions can be adopted to ensure the financial inclusion of all citizens, justified on ethical, economic or legal grounds, and which can come from both market operators and public authorities. Among the latter, as an exceptional alternative, certain financial services -considered essential- could be classified as services of general economic interest, requiring them to be provided in person by means of public service obligations.
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Although the promotion of competition is one of the backbones of public procurement, this aim must be reconciled with the establishment of certain limitations on the participation of operators in whose countries tenders remain closed to EU entrepreneurs, as well as on the access of products and services obtained through a production process without equal guarantees. In view of these considerations, and without prejudice to the provisions of the international agreements approved for this purpose, various corrective measures have been proposed. Thus, in particular, the European Commission has been granted very significant powers to adopt particularly onerous restrictive measures and emphasis has been placed on the promotion of quality and compliance with high environmental, social and labor standards.
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Traditionally, certain international public procurement markets have remained closed to European bidders, goods and services. Given this, the EU’s different Member States had designed their own responses, until recently, when the Union itself has decided to provide a common reaction in the form of the approval of the International Procurement Instrument, which contemplates the implementation of a wide range of restrictive measures. Said measures have a constraintive effect (by limiting the participation of foreign bidders, goods and services), but also aim to foster reciprocity and the signing of international agreements. This regulation is associated with European Union’s exclusive powers over common trade policy and supersedes pre-existing national rules and regulations. Nevertheless, Member States still retain the ability to have an indirect impact on tenders, with the introduction.
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The European Union has recently introduced a mechanism to protect against aid provided by third countries that may distort the internal market, thus supplementing the rules already in force on State aid. This mechanism gives the European Commission extensive prerogatives that will be exercised within the framework of an administrative procedure established for this purpose, which will culminate in the imposition of corrective measures. The control exercised by the Commission takes two distinct forms: an ex post control that can be applied in the context of any economic activity, and a more intense ex ante control reserved for certain business concentrations and public tenders with high economic thresholds.
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The EU judiciary has finally ruled on the regularity of the resolution mechanism that affected Banco Popular. The judgments have analysed various essential aspects relating to the suitability of the Single Resolution Mechanism, as well as the internal recapitalisation procedures applied within it, which have served to test the effectiveness and soundness of these structures and mechanisms. In this respect, the appropriateness of the intervention of the Single Resolution Board and the European Commission has been confirmed, within a general tendency to validate the actions of the public authorities in the banking sector. Traditionally, there have been serious difficulties in ensuring effective control over the exercise of administrative prerogatives over credit institutions.
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Adequate environmental protection requires the involvement of economic actors operating in the different economic sectors, who must integrate environmental criteria into their decision-making processes. The paper analyzes the different alternatives that could be implemented to achieve this goal, as well as the opportunity, advantages and disadvantages of such measures. This assumption of environmental criteria by economic operators would be carried out through their introduction into corporate governance procedures and structures, either on a voluntary basis or through the imposition of legal obligations. In order to achieve a measured model that harmonizes public intervention with entrepreneurial autonomy and dynamism, a mixed approach would be required. Thus, voluntariness should only be replaced by the imposition of obligations when the spontaneous actions of the operators do not allow the environmental objectives to be achieved.
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Aragonese regional legislation contains a complete and detailed regime of the different vicissitudes that affect the administrative bodies of the regional administration, as well as the exercise of their powers. When configuring this framework, scrupulous respect for the state-level legislation has been maintained, developing and adapting it to the needs and singularities of the regional public sector. In particular, a wide range of issues are covered, such as the creation of administrative bodies, the techniques for transferring the exercise of powers, the particularities affecting collegiate bodies and the causes and procedures for abstention and challenge of public servants.
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The protection of financial customers in Spain includes an institutional aspect, linked to the configuration of administrative bodies that resolve out-of-court disputes between financial operators and their customers. The current is based on the existence of specialised departments linked to the different supervisory authorities. However, it is argued that these Departments should be replaced by an independent administrative authority empowered for this purpose and with binding powers in relation to the disputes raised. This would represent a substantial change in the traditional supervisory approach, as a single authority would exercise functions over all financial institutions and because the risks of accumulating prudential and conduct of business supervision in the same subjects would be avoided.
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Recently, a new approach to public intervention in the banking sector has been developed. This approach aims not only to ensure the solvency and liquidity of credit institutions, but also to establish rights in favor of individuals, so that they can obtain financial services. This technique is based on the classification of certain areas of the activity of credit institutions as services of general economic interest, and on the parallel establishment of public service obligations by the authorities, in order to guarantee certain levels of quality, safety, affordability, accessibility or equal treatment in the services.
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Although the promotion of competition is one of the backbones of public procurement, this aim must be reconciled with the establishment of certain limitations on the participation of operators in whose countries tenders remain closed to EU entrepreneurs, as well as on the access of products and services obtained through a production process without equal guarantees. In view of these considerations, and without prejudice to the provisions of the international agreements approved for this purpose, various corrective measures have been proposed. Thus, the capacity to contract has been linked to the application of the principle of reciprocity in tenders, emphasis has been placed on the promotion of quality and respect for high environmental and social standards, preferences have been established in favor of those who open their procurement markets, or even the introduction of artificial price increases for those offers that include services originating in restrictive countries has been advocated.
Estas medidas tienen un enfoque amplio, pues no se dirigen exclusivamente a la ejecución de fondos del Instrumento Europeo de Recuperación, sino que, en ocasiones, alcanzan a otros programas europeos. Ello es muestra de que ciertos problemas a los que pretenden responder las reformas tienen naturaleza estructural, cabiendo incluso su eventual traslación a la regulación general de las subvenciones.
En cualquier caso, la agilización en la tramitación de subvenciones habría de garantizar un control suficiente, debería acompañarse de la implementación de técnicas orientadas a alcanzar la máxima eficacia de las ayudas (planificación estratégica, gestión por objetivos, análisis de desviaciones…) y tendría que unirse a un cambio en la cultura de gestión de los caudales públicos.
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The traditional difficulty in absorbing funds from European programs, together with the need to execute the amounts stemming from the European Union Recovery Instrument, have led to the introduction of legislative modifications that affect, in particular, state subsidies. In this sense, national and regional legislators, within the complex framework of powers, have implemented reforms aimed at making the system for processing, granting and justifying subsidies financed with European funds more flexible.
These measures have a broad approach, since they are not exclusively directed at executing funds from the European Recovery Instrument. In fact, they sometimes reach other European programs, which indicates that some of the problems to which the reforms are intended to respond are structural in nature.
In any case, the streamlining of the processing of subsidies should guarantee sufficient control, should be accompanied by the implementation of techniques aimed at achieving maximum aid efficiency (strategic planning, management by objectives, deviation analysis, etc.) and should be combined with a change in the culture of public funds management.
///
There are different financing models for the maintenance of Spanish roads, which are based either on gratuity for road users or on payment for the use of such infrastructures. Regardless of the alternative chosen, the essential characteristic which any financing system must meet are identical, requiring submission to stable, predictable and proportional criteria. In this sense, the paper addresses the different financing formula, trying to highlight their difficulties and virtues, as well as offering legal tools in order to mitigate any problems that may arise. In particular, the work will analyse the financing of roads from general budgets, the implementation of user charges - linked to the duration of road use - or the use of tolls - which are levied on the distance travelled by road users.
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A Single Supervisory Mechanism was established in order to limit the adverse effects on the single market for financial services caused by the existence of different supervisory practices. However, the scope of this single supervision is restricted at a territorial or subjective level, and the attribution of supervisory powers to the ECB raises problems of legal basis, organizational structure and confusion between the purposes of monetary and supervisory policies. Taking these premises into account, this article analyses the most characteristic features and the sticking points of the establishment of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, concluding that the tool is really useful to promote solvency and discipline of credit institutions, but also deducing that it requires some reforms and adaptations.
///
Financial exclusion is a phenomenon that generates multiple damages, both at the individual level and for the economy as a whole. To fight against this reality, and to promote inclusion, the European Union has shaped a right to access to certain financial services, which operates through payment accounts with basic features. This tool is based on the classification of certain financial services as services of general economic interest and on the consequent imposition of public service obligations. Through this technique, although with certain limits, new rights to access to financial services could be configured, such as those linked to savings, those related to access to financial services in any part of the territory, or those associated with digital exclusión.
De este modo se incrementan los espacios para una tercera técnica de ejecución del Derecho de la Unión -la coadministración o administración conjunta- en cuyo seno las prerrogativas y funciones son ejercidas conjuntamente por entes nacionales y europeos. Esta singular solución presenta una notable virtud, pues permite cohonestar una aplicación más uniforme de la regulación europea con el respeto de la autonomía y capacidad de actuación de las autoridades de los Estados miembros.
No obstante, y pese a su utilidad, la coadministración -y los procedimientos administrativos compuestos a través de los que esta actúa- plantean múltiples contingencias jurídicas, relacionadas con su complejidad y con la indefinición de su régimen jurídico. Dichos problemas pivotan sobre cuestiones tales como el surgimiento de asimetrías en los derechos procedimentales, la complicada distribución de responsabilidades entre los sujetos actuantes, las dificultades para determinar la jurisdicción competente o las incógnitas derivadas de la eventual aplicación del Derecho nacional por organismos de la Unión.
Habida cuenta de esta realidad, la monografía pretende proporcionar al lector un conjunto ordenado de conocimiento, que permita la aproximación integral y provechosa a un fenómeno incipiente, pero llamado a tener un papel esencial en el proceso de integración europea. Al respecto, en particular, se estará al origen del fenómeno, a los conflictos jurídicos suscitados por el mismo, a cómo se han de abordar actualmente dichos conflictos y a qué soluciones podrían brindarse a futuro por parte del legislador.
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The traditional dichotomy between direct and indirect implementation of Union law, where the operational monopoly is vested respectively in European or national bodies, is progressively being overcome by the emergence of a hybrid technique, in which both types of subjects share the leading role.
In this way, there is increasing scope for a third technique for implementing Union law - co-administration or joint administration - in which prerogatives and functions are exercised jointly by national and European bodies. This unique solution has a notable virtue in that it makes it possible to reconcile a more uniform application of European regulation with respect for the autonomy and capacity for action of the authorities of the Member States.
However, despite its usefulness, co-administration - and the composite administrative procedures through which it acts - pose multiple legal contingencies, related to its complexity and the lack of definition of its legal regime. These problems revolve around issues such as the emergence of asymmetries in procedural rights, the complicated distribution of responsibilities between the parties involved, the difficulties in determining the competent jurisdiction or the unknowns arising from the possible application of national law by EU bodies.
In view of this reality, the monograph aims to provide the reader with an ordered set of knowledge, which allows a comprehensive and useful approach to an incipient phenomenon, but one that is destined to play an essential role in the process of European integration. In particular, it will focus on the origin of the phenomenon, the legal conflicts it has given rise to, how these conflicts are currently to be dealt with and what solutions could be offered by the legislator in the future.
En sede de este proceso de internacionalización del control sobre el sector crediticio destaca la implantación del Mecanismo Único de Supervisión que, imponiéndose frente a otras alternativas, ha supuesto la traslación de muy relevantes competencias supervisoras desde las autoridades nacionales hacia el Banco Central Europeo.
Esta europeización de competencias de fiscalización plantea diversas cuestiones, no pacíficas, a las que la obra pretende dar respuesta, como serían la suficiencia de la base jurídica escogida, el porqué de la elección del Banco Central Europeo como supervisor, el efectivo alcance subjetivo y territorial de la supervisión de la Unión, la eventual generación de duplicidades o la virtualidad de la aplicación de normas nacionales por parte de una institución comunitaria.
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Based on a contextualisation of the Spanish and European banking sectors, the book analyses the many changes that have recently affected intervention in the banking sector, with particular emphasis on the internationalisation of the business and of the regulatory and supervisory framework.
In the context of this process of internationalisation of control over the credit sector, the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism stands out, which has entailed the transfer of very important supervisory powers from the national authorities to the European Central Bank.
This Europeanisation of supervisory powers raises a number of questions, not all of which have been resolved, to which the book aims to provide answers, such as the sufficiency of the legal basis chosen, the reason for the choice of the European Central Bank as supervisor, the effective subjective and territorial scope of the Union's supervision, the possible generation of duplication or the virtuality of the application of national rules by a Community institution.
En este contexto de cambio, el presente trabajo pretende proporcionar al lector un conjunto ordenado de conocimiento, que permita un provechoso acercamiento al control del gobierno corporativo de las entidades de crédito de la Unión Europea, así como a los principales problemas derivados del mismo.
A tal efecto, a lo largo de la obra se pone el foco sobre los aspectos más controvertidos del nuevo marco de disciplina. En particular, se abordan en profundidad cuestiones tales como el fundamento que justifica la intervención pública sobre el gobierno interno de las entidades de crédito, las disfunciones que esta intervención puede causar o la distribución de funciones de fiscalización entre el Banco Central Europeo y los supervisores nacionales. Asimismo, se analiza el régimen jurídico actualmente vigente en la materia, desarrollándose las concretas obligaciones y requisitos que se imponen por la regulación sobre las más variadas áreas, como las de estructuras, procedimientos, gestión de riesgos, idoneidad, remuneraciones o transparencia.
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The regime of intervention in the corporate governance of banks has undergone significant changes in recent times. Thus, the Europeanisation of powers, a direct consequence of the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, has been accompanied by a progressive introduction of public law in the corporate governance of credit institutions, operated through the introduction of new and very rigorous administrative provisions in areas traditionally reserved for private law.
In this context of change, the present work aims to provide the reader with an ordered set of knowledge that allows a useful approach to the control of corporate governance of credit institutions in the European Union, as well as to the main problems derived from it.
To this end, the book focuses on the most controversial aspects of the new disciplinary framework. In particular, it deals in depth with questions such as the rationale for public intervention in the internal governance of credit institutions, the dysfunctions that this intervention may cause and the distribution of supervisory functions between the European Central Bank and national supervisors. It also analyses the legal regime in force in this area, developing the specific obligations and requirements imposed by regulation in a wide variety of areas, such as structures, procedures, risk management, suitability, remuneration and transparency.
Partiendo de esta realidad, la presente obra delimita el alcance de las funciones que se atribuyen a las distintas autoridades, con especial mención al Banco Central Europeo y al Banco de España, plantea los principales problemas jurídicos derivados de la internacionalización de potestades y propone diversas soluciones a dichas controversias.
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The recent Europeanisation of supervisory powers over credit institutions, through the implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, has led to a rethinking of the scope and content of the very varied prerogatives available to supervisory authorities. These powers are now subject to a dual regime, depending on who the acting supervisor is, in its material, procedural or collateral aspects.
Based on this reality, this work delimits the scope of the functions attributed to the different authorities, with special mention of the European Central Bank and the Bank of Spain, raises the main legal problems arising from the internationalisation of powers and proposes various solutions to these controversies.
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ABSTRACT: The progressive digitisation of social and economic relations means that cash is tending to be replaced by other digital means of payment. Despite this, cash is still very relevant for certain groups, has some intrinsic characteristics that are difficult to replicate, and is guaranteed by primary law. In this context, Member States - and in particular Spain - have adopted a two-pronged approach to cash, both promoting and restricting its use by citizens. In response to this dispersion of national responses, the EU legislator is working on a regulatory proposal to ensure that cash remains an effective payment alternative. The aim is to prevent the erosion of the legal tender status of cash by defining its admissibility more precisely and by boosting its accessibility to the public. This promotion of cash is framed within a European context of transition, which also includes the commitment to the digital euro. This digital currency will, in principle, complement cash, from which it takes some of its basic characteristics. However, the launch of the digital euro appears as a firm step towards replacing cash, which means that the cohabitation of the two means of payment would be temporary.
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Various groups have been adversely affected by the digitalization of the financial sector, as they face difficulties in accessing digital financial services. Several solutions can be adopted to ensure the financial inclusion of all citizens, justified on ethical, economic or legal grounds, and which can come from both market operators and public authorities. Among the latter, as an exceptional alternative, certain financial services -considered essential- could be classified as services of general economic interest, requiring them to be provided in person by means of public service obligations.
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Although the promotion of competition is one of the backbones of public procurement, this aim must be reconciled with the establishment of certain limitations on the participation of operators in whose countries tenders remain closed to EU entrepreneurs, as well as on the access of products and services obtained through a production process without equal guarantees. In view of these considerations, and without prejudice to the provisions of the international agreements approved for this purpose, various corrective measures have been proposed. Thus, in particular, the European Commission has been granted very significant powers to adopt particularly onerous restrictive measures and emphasis has been placed on the promotion of quality and compliance with high environmental, social and labor standards.
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Traditionally, certain international public procurement markets have remained closed to European bidders, goods and services. Given this, the EU’s different Member States had designed their own responses, until recently, when the Union itself has decided to provide a common reaction in the form of the approval of the International Procurement Instrument, which contemplates the implementation of a wide range of restrictive measures. Said measures have a constraintive effect (by limiting the participation of foreign bidders, goods and services), but also aim to foster reciprocity and the signing of international agreements. This regulation is associated with European Union’s exclusive powers over common trade policy and supersedes pre-existing national rules and regulations. Nevertheless, Member States still retain the ability to have an indirect impact on tenders, with the introduction.
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The European Union has recently introduced a mechanism to protect against aid provided by third countries that may distort the internal market, thus supplementing the rules already in force on State aid. This mechanism gives the European Commission extensive prerogatives that will be exercised within the framework of an administrative procedure established for this purpose, which will culminate in the imposition of corrective measures. The control exercised by the Commission takes two distinct forms: an ex post control that can be applied in the context of any economic activity, and a more intense ex ante control reserved for certain business concentrations and public tenders with high economic thresholds.
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The EU judiciary has finally ruled on the regularity of the resolution mechanism that affected Banco Popular. The judgments have analysed various essential aspects relating to the suitability of the Single Resolution Mechanism, as well as the internal recapitalisation procedures applied within it, which have served to test the effectiveness and soundness of these structures and mechanisms. In this respect, the appropriateness of the intervention of the Single Resolution Board and the European Commission has been confirmed, within a general tendency to validate the actions of the public authorities in the banking sector. Traditionally, there have been serious difficulties in ensuring effective control over the exercise of administrative prerogatives over credit institutions.
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Adequate environmental protection requires the involvement of economic actors operating in the different economic sectors, who must integrate environmental criteria into their decision-making processes. The paper analyzes the different alternatives that could be implemented to achieve this goal, as well as the opportunity, advantages and disadvantages of such measures. This assumption of environmental criteria by economic operators would be carried out through their introduction into corporate governance procedures and structures, either on a voluntary basis or through the imposition of legal obligations. In order to achieve a measured model that harmonizes public intervention with entrepreneurial autonomy and dynamism, a mixed approach would be required. Thus, voluntariness should only be replaced by the imposition of obligations when the spontaneous actions of the operators do not allow the environmental objectives to be achieved.
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Aragonese regional legislation contains a complete and detailed regime of the different vicissitudes that affect the administrative bodies of the regional administration, as well as the exercise of their powers. When configuring this framework, scrupulous respect for the state-level legislation has been maintained, developing and adapting it to the needs and singularities of the regional public sector. In particular, a wide range of issues are covered, such as the creation of administrative bodies, the techniques for transferring the exercise of powers, the particularities affecting collegiate bodies and the causes and procedures for abstention and challenge of public servants.
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The protection of financial customers in Spain includes an institutional aspect, linked to the configuration of administrative bodies that resolve out-of-court disputes between financial operators and their customers. The current is based on the existence of specialised departments linked to the different supervisory authorities. However, it is argued that these Departments should be replaced by an independent administrative authority empowered for this purpose and with binding powers in relation to the disputes raised. This would represent a substantial change in the traditional supervisory approach, as a single authority would exercise functions over all financial institutions and because the risks of accumulating prudential and conduct of business supervision in the same subjects would be avoided.
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Recently, a new approach to public intervention in the banking sector has been developed. This approach aims not only to ensure the solvency and liquidity of credit institutions, but also to establish rights in favor of individuals, so that they can obtain financial services. This technique is based on the classification of certain areas of the activity of credit institutions as services of general economic interest, and on the parallel establishment of public service obligations by the authorities, in order to guarantee certain levels of quality, safety, affordability, accessibility or equal treatment in the services.
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Although the promotion of competition is one of the backbones of public procurement, this aim must be reconciled with the establishment of certain limitations on the participation of operators in whose countries tenders remain closed to EU entrepreneurs, as well as on the access of products and services obtained through a production process without equal guarantees. In view of these considerations, and without prejudice to the provisions of the international agreements approved for this purpose, various corrective measures have been proposed. Thus, the capacity to contract has been linked to the application of the principle of reciprocity in tenders, emphasis has been placed on the promotion of quality and respect for high environmental and social standards, preferences have been established in favor of those who open their procurement markets, or even the introduction of artificial price increases for those offers that include services originating in restrictive countries has been advocated.
Estas medidas tienen un enfoque amplio, pues no se dirigen exclusivamente a la ejecución de fondos del Instrumento Europeo de Recuperación, sino que, en ocasiones, alcanzan a otros programas europeos. Ello es muestra de que ciertos problemas a los que pretenden responder las reformas tienen naturaleza estructural, cabiendo incluso su eventual traslación a la regulación general de las subvenciones.
En cualquier caso, la agilización en la tramitación de subvenciones habría de garantizar un control suficiente, debería acompañarse de la implementación de técnicas orientadas a alcanzar la máxima eficacia de las ayudas (planificación estratégica, gestión por objetivos, análisis de desviaciones…) y tendría que unirse a un cambio en la cultura de gestión de los caudales públicos.
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The traditional difficulty in absorbing funds from European programs, together with the need to execute the amounts stemming from the European Union Recovery Instrument, have led to the introduction of legislative modifications that affect, in particular, state subsidies. In this sense, national and regional legislators, within the complex framework of powers, have implemented reforms aimed at making the system for processing, granting and justifying subsidies financed with European funds more flexible.
These measures have a broad approach, since they are not exclusively directed at executing funds from the European Recovery Instrument. In fact, they sometimes reach other European programs, which indicates that some of the problems to which the reforms are intended to respond are structural in nature.
In any case, the streamlining of the processing of subsidies should guarantee sufficient control, should be accompanied by the implementation of techniques aimed at achieving maximum aid efficiency (strategic planning, management by objectives, deviation analysis, etc.) and should be combined with a change in the culture of public funds management.
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There are different financing models for the maintenance of Spanish roads, which are based either on gratuity for road users or on payment for the use of such infrastructures. Regardless of the alternative chosen, the essential characteristic which any financing system must meet are identical, requiring submission to stable, predictable and proportional criteria. In this sense, the paper addresses the different financing formula, trying to highlight their difficulties and virtues, as well as offering legal tools in order to mitigate any problems that may arise. In particular, the work will analyse the financing of roads from general budgets, the implementation of user charges - linked to the duration of road use - or the use of tolls - which are levied on the distance travelled by road users.
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A Single Supervisory Mechanism was established in order to limit the adverse effects on the single market for financial services caused by the existence of different supervisory practices. However, the scope of this single supervision is restricted at a territorial or subjective level, and the attribution of supervisory powers to the ECB raises problems of legal basis, organizational structure and confusion between the purposes of monetary and supervisory policies. Taking these premises into account, this article analyses the most characteristic features and the sticking points of the establishment of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, concluding that the tool is really useful to promote solvency and discipline of credit institutions, but also deducing that it requires some reforms and adaptations.
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Financial exclusion is a phenomenon that generates multiple damages, both at the individual level and for the economy as a whole. To fight against this reality, and to promote inclusion, the European Union has shaped a right to access to certain financial services, which operates through payment accounts with basic features. This tool is based on the classification of certain financial services as services of general economic interest and on the consequent imposition of public service obligations. Through this technique, although with certain limits, new rights to access to financial services could be configured, such as those linked to savings, those related to access to financial services in any part of the territory, or those associated with digital exclusión.
En este sentido, podría optarse por una interpretación funcional que permitiera considerar al BCE como Estado, como vía para integrar plenamente la doctrina del efecto directo, cuando sea la institución de la Unión la que supervise teniendo en cuenta disposiciones nacionales. Sin embargo, ante las dudas que se suscitan, especialmente en lo referido a la aplicación de opciones contenidas en reglamentos, sería deseable que el legislador comunitario arrojara luz sobre los extremos dudosos.
En otro orden de cosas, se introduce una nueva dimensión a la función de control del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea, que ya no comprobará solamente que las normas locales no colisionen con el derecho de la Unión, sino que habrá de dictaminar sobre si el derecho nacional se ha interpretado y aplicado en sus justos términos por los operadores jurídicos comunitarios.
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European Union law does not provide a complete and closed regulatory framework on banking regulation and supervision. In fact, Member states have wide competence in order to define and configure the matter under consideration. In view of the above, when the European Central Bank (ECB), within the Single Supervisory Mechanism, exercises its supervisory powers, it will have to apply a mixed legal system integrated by both national and European Union rules. Thus, ECB will have to apply national rules transposing directives or choosing between different options that are explicitly included in EU regulations. This situation raises some practical problems and questions.
In this respect, a functional interpretation could be chosen so as to consider the ECB as a State when this institution supervises taking into account national provisions, as a way to fully integrate the doctrine of direct effect of European Union law. However, it would be desirable that European legislator sheds light on the questionable situations given the doubts that arise, especially considering the application of options contained in EU regulations.
Moreover, the Court of Justice of the European Union will no longer only check that national rules do not conflict with European Union law, conversely it will also monitor that Community bodies apply national law in its right terms
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In response to the detection of several dysfunctions, the corporate governance of banking institutions has been subject to a thorough overhaul in the last few years. This reform led to the transformation of the previously existing recommendations into binding norms, which then have become part of the restrictive prudential regulation of lending activity. This colonization of spaces that have been traditionally reserved for corporate law has raised certain doubts concerning their adequacy to the legal and economic context. In particular, it has been noted that the establishment of administrative powers allows the onset of a controversial margin of appreciation for supervisory authorities. In any case, that shift in focus has taken place through the adoption of a variety of provisions, that includes different approaches, levels and issuers, as well as through a reallocation of the supervisory powers.
En cualquier caso, en la práctica, se ha observado como las entidades de crédito no estarían llevando a cabo, de forma generalizada, prácticas financieras sostenibles. Para poner fin a esta situación, y lograr la introducción de criterios de sostenibilidad ambiental en los procesos de toma de decisiones de financiación, las políticas a implementar serían de lo más diverso, identificándose distintos grados de intensidad de la intervención pública sobre la libertad de las entidades de crédito (elaboración de un marco homogéneo de clasificación de actividades, obligaciones de remisión de información, medición de los riesgos, realización pruebas de resistencia, imposición de limitaciones a las exposiciones en actividades no sostenibles o requisitos prudenciales específicos).
Sean cuales fueren las alternativas regulatorias escogidas, y para su elección, deberá llevarse a cabo una cuidadosa ponderación de los bienes en conflicto, respetando la naturaleza del modelo prudencial vigente, centrado en el riesgo, y evitando incidencias en la credibilidad de un sistema basado en la confianza y, por tanto, muy sensible al cambio.
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Nowadays, there is an undeniable growing concern about the impact of human activities on the environment. In this sense, the financial system can play a crucial role as responsible for the channeling of resources towards sustainable investments. Within the financial sector, banking institutions have, in particular, a central role in the implementation of sustainable development, from both a quantitative and qualitative point of view.
Nevertheless, in practice, it has been observed that credit institutions are not conducting generalized sustainable practices. In order to change this situation, achieving the introduction of environmental criteria in the financial decision-making processes, there are diverse policies that could be enforced and which would involve different degrees of public intervention in the freedom of credit institutions (build up an activity classification framework, impose reporting obligations, measure environmental risks, conduct stress test, set limits to large exposures in non-sustainable activities or specific prudential requirements).
Whatever the regulatory option was, a careful weighing of public and private interests involved must be carried out. This judgment should respect the nature of the prudential model in force, which is risk-based, and should avoid impacts on the credibility of a trust-based system, which is, therefore, very sensitive to changes.
Frente a esta aparente contradicción se proponen diversas interpretaciones o explicaciones alternativas: se ha producido un olvido del legislador, la independencia se refería a la irresponsabilidad penal de las personas jurídicas, existe una relación de sujeción especial, la sanción administrativa independiente ha de detraerse de la pena o los bienes jurídicos tutelados son distintos.
Se concluye que en los ámbitos señalados la potestad sancionadora no puede ser independiente, debiendo someterse a la doctrina general del non bis in idem. En particular, ha de exigirse en todo caso la concurrencia de la triple identidad de hechos, sujeto y fundamento.
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The non bis in idem principle is configured as a general constitutional guarantee of citizens against duplicated prosecution. However, Spanish regulation of securities markets, credit institutions and Collective Investment Institutions contains an independence between criminal and administrative penalties that may coexist.
In order to resolve the actual conflict, different interpretations or alternative explanations are proposed: the legislative power has forgotten about updating the regulation, such an independence was referred to the criminal irresponsibility of legal entities, there is a special relationship of subjection in relation to the State, the independent administrative sanction should be deducted from the criminal penalty or there are different legal rights or interests under protection.
In conclusion, sanctioning powers cannot be independent in analyzed areas, where general doctrine of non bis in idem must be respected too. In any case, the triple identity of facts, parties and rights under protection is required.
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ABSTRACT: The digitalization of the financial sector has negatively affected various groups of people who are unable to access digital financial services. This reality requires the adoption of measures to ensure the adequate financial inclusion of any citizen, for which there are ethical, legal and economic justifications. The solutions can be very diverse, ranging from those promoted voluntarily by the financial sector itself to others enabled by the public authorities. Among the latter, the adaptation of services to the principle of personalised service, which requires tailoring the service to the specific needs of different user segments, has been advocated. However, if problems of financial exclusion persist, an exceptional and more incisive measure could also be imposed. Thus, the face-to-face provision of certain essential financial services that qualify as services of general economic interest could be required.
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ABSTRACT: Increasing social and governmental concern about the impact of human activities on the environment has led to the adoption of measures to integrate environmental criteria into the decisions of economic operators and, more specifically, financial institutions. In this respect, there are different techniques to promote environmental considerations among business, ranging from encouraging voluntary compliance, through market discipline or the inclusion of public incentives, to the imposition of legal obligations of varying intensity. The various alternatives imply different levels of impact on the sphere of rights and freedoms of the economic operators concerned. Therefore, it seems desirable to follow a path of mixed intervention, which adapts the intensity of public interference to the situation detected in a specific sector, taking into account whether or not free business management leads to decisions that are coherent with environmental interests. However, in practice, the constitutional rights involved, such as the freedom to conduct a business or private property, offer relative protection, so that the public authorities have a wide margin to modulate or limit their exercise.
Al respecto, el trabajo aborda cuestiones tales como los márgenes de apreciación en manos de la Comisión Europea y de las autoridades nacionales o el complejo procedimiento que ha de tramitarse para adoptar las oportunas medidas restrictivas. Con ello, se pretende clarificar el régimen jurídico aplicable y se ofrecen soluciones concretas a ciertas dificultades interpretativas.
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The European Union has recently offered a harmonized response to the detection of barriers in international public procurement markets, through the approval of the International Procurement Instrument. This Instrument establishes restrictions on the participation of foreign operators, goods and services in European tendering procedures, raising certain controversies.
In this regard, the paper analyses issues such as the margins of discretion in the hands of the European Commission and the national authorities or the complex procedure to be followed in order to adopt the appropriate restrictive measures are addressed. This provides greater clarification of the applicable legal regime and concrete solutions to certain interpretative difficulties.
Como vía de mitigación de los problemas que tal dualidad plantea se ha recogido la posibilidad de que estos Estados miembros con divisa propia puedan integrarse voluntariamente en el mecanismo, sí así lo estiman conveniente. Sin embargo, y como consecuencia de la concurrencia de diversos factores, no se han producido adhesiones voluntarias generalizadas, lo que podría plantear dudas acerca de la viabilidad del modelo.
Sea como fuere, estas incertidumbres vienen a disiparse pues, a futuro, los Estados miembros habrán de adoptar el euro como moneda oficial, integrándose automáticamente en la Unión Bancaria
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The Banking Union was created as a measure to curb deficiencies within the framework of regulation, supervision and resolution of credit institutions in the European Union. This system seeks to harmonize the current normative framework and to translate the decision power to European bodies. However, in view of a number of political and legal difficulties, a dual regime was chosen, whereby only Member States of the Eurozone are compulsorily integrated into the Banking Union.
In order to mitigate the problems posed by this duality, voluntary integration for those Member States whose currency is not the euro has been considered. Nevertheless, due to various factors, voluntary incorporations have not taken place, a fact which may raise doubts about the viability of the model.
In any case, these uncertainties will be removed in the future, since Member States will have to adopt the euro as their official currency , thus automatically integrating into the Banking Union.
En este sentido, a la hora de decantarse por un modelo de financiación determinado, ha de tomarse en consideración un factor coyuntural, como es la habilitación de cuantiosos fondos de la Unión –ligados al Instrumento Next Generation EU– que permitirían sufragar la instalación de la red tecnológica necesaria para asegurar la vigilancia de las vías y automatizar los respectivos cobros.
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The progressive expiry of the different concessions in force on Spanish roads, and the consequent assumption of the costs of maintenance and upkeep by the Administrations in charge, have rekindled the debate on the possible establishment of pay-per-use mechanisms for these infrastructures. If, in the end, in view of the sustainability and efficiency analyses carried out, the generalisation of payment models were to be adopted, certain material and technological harmonisation provisions imposed by EU law would have to be respected, and a choice would have to be made between two alternatives: charges - linked to the time spent using the roads - or tolls - related to the distance travelled.
In this regard, when deciding on a particular financing model, a cyclical factor must be taken into account, such as the availability of substantial EU funds - linked to the Next Generation EU Instrument - which would enable the installation of the technological network necessary to ensure the monitoring of the roads and automate the respective charges.
Sobre este particular, el presente trabajo pretende detenerse brevemente sobre el régimen contractual al que se somete el Banco Central Europeo, a fin de determinar las reglas que han de disciplinar sus licitaciones. Una vez delimitado el referido régimen se analizarán algunos de sus principales rasgos, y más concretamente aquellos que dotan al organismo de un mayor grado de flexibilidad. El detenimiento sobre estos elementos más flexibles permitiría discernir si los mismos son, de alguna forma, trasladables a otros ámbitos, de modo que pudieran afrontarse de mejor manera coyunturas críticas como la vivida, caracterizadas por la urgencia en las adquisiciones.
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The European Central Bank, as an institution of the Union, performs very relevant functions in the definition and implementation of the monetary policy of the euro area or, more recently, in the area of micro-prudential supervision. However, the way in which this institution acquires goods, services and works to carry out these tasks is little known.
In this respect, this paper aims to briefly examine the contractual regime to which the European Central Bank is subject in order to determine the rules that should govern its tenders. Once this regime has been defined, some of its main features will be analysed, and more specifically those that provide the organisation with a greater degree of flexibility. A closer look at these more flexible elements would make it possible to discern whether they are, in some way, transferable to other areas, so that critical junctures such as the one we are experiencing, characterised by the urgency of acquisitions, can be better dealt with.
En este sentido, y ante el gran número de potenciales recursos que podrían suscitarse, por ser muy elevada la cifra de sujetos supervisados, se entendió necesario arbitrar una instancia administrativa de revisión previa a la vía jurisdiccional ante el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea. De este modo, se creó el Comité Administrativo de Revisión, órgano integrado por especialistas en materia supervisora, seleccionados mediante convocatoria pública, y dotado de independencia funcional.
La interposición de recursos ante este Comité, pese a acompañarse de una amplia legitimación, adolece de una principal debilidad, como es la naturaleza no vinculante de los dictámenes emitidos. No vinculación esta que, derivada de restricciones jurídicas, resta eficacia y credibilidad a la instancia habilitada y que, de manera lógica, ha llevado a configurar los recursos como potestativos.
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The implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism, as a pillar of the Banking Union, has required an adaptation of the organisational structure of the European Central Bank to enable it to properly assume supervisory powers.
In this respect, and in view of the large number of potential appeals that could arise, due to the large number of supervised entities, it was considered necessary to arbitrate an administrative review body prior to judicial review before the Court of Justice of the European Union. Thus, the Administrative Review Committee was created, a body made up of specialists in supervisory matters, selected by means of a public call for applications, and endowed with functional independence.
The lodging of appeals before this Committee, although accompanied by broad legal standing, suffers from a major weakness, namely the non-binding nature of the opinions issued. This non-binding nature, derived from legal restrictions, reduces the effectiveness and credibility of the authorised body and, logically, has led to the appeals being configured as optional.
Los distintos supervisores tienen a su disposición un amplísimo abanico de herramientas para garantizar el correcto cumplimiento de la regulación por parte de los supervisados. Sin embargo, estos poderes se acompañan de una serie de contrapesos, entre los que puede ubicarse la obligación de rendir cuentas.
Por lo que se refiere al Banco de España, el mismo viene obligado a presentar información de forma periódica tanto a las Cortes Generales como al Gobierno. Asimismo, el Gobernador del Banco de España puede ser convocado para comparecer ante distintas instancias parlamentarias o gubernamentales. Por su parte, el Banco Central Europeo deberá presentar anualmente un informe sobre la ejecución de sus funciones de supervisión a diversas instancias de la Unión. A su vez, el Parlamento Europeo, el Eurogrupo o los parlamentos nacionales podrán convocar al presidente del Consejo de Supervisión a audiencias puntuales o podrán, igualmente, formularle preguntas. En cualquier caso, conviene afirmar que las herramientas de rendición de cuentas referidas, pese a operar un control de tipo democrático o político, más débil que el actuado por órganos revisores administrativos o jurisdiccionales, son un elemento de gran relevancia al permitir el público enjuiciamiento del actuar de los supervisores.
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The financial crisis that has hit Europe in recent years has led to the implementation of a new framework for the supervision of credit institutions in the European Union, known as the Single Supervisory Mechanism. The main novelty of this apparatus is that it assigns certain direct banking supervision functions to the European Central Bank, which coexists with national supervisors.
The various supervisors have at their disposal a very wide range of tools to ensure proper compliance with regulation by the supervised parties. However, these powers are accompanied by a number of checks and balances, including accountability.
As regards the Banco de España, it is obliged to submit regular information to both the Spanish Parliament and the Government. Likewise, the Governor of the Banco de España may be summoned to appear before different parliamentary or governmental bodies. For its part, the European Central Bank must submit an annual report on the performance of its supervisory functions to various EU bodies. In turn, the European Parliament, the Eurogroup or national parliaments may summon the chairman of the Supervisory Board to occasional hearings or ask him questions.
In any case, it is worth stating that the aforementioned accountability tools, despite operating a democratic or political type of control, weaker than that of administrative or jurisdictional review bodies, are an element of great relevance as they allow the public to judge the actions of supervisors.
Como resultado, y con ciertos matices, relativos a las sanciones no pecuniarias y al actuar sobre personas físicas, el banco central de la Unión podrá castigar infracciones de disposiciones de la Unión directamente aplicables o de reglamentos y decisiones emitidos por la propia institución. A su vez, si el BCE no resultara competente, existirá la posibilidad de que el mismo se dirija a las autoridades nacionales para exigirles que entablen los procedimientos sancionadores oportunos.
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The implementation of the Single Supervisory Mechanism has also led to the attribution of sanctioning powers to the European Central Bank. However, the persistence of national and Union rules, the limitations on the ECB's assumption of repressive functions, and its coexistence with national supervisors, have resulted in a tangled framework for the exercise of sanctioning powers.
As a result, and with certain nuances regarding non-monetary sanctions and action against natural persons, the Union's central bank may punish infringements of directly applicable Union provisions or of regulations and decisions issued by the institution itself. In turn, if the ECB is not competent, it will be possible for the ECB to approach national authorities to require them to initiate the appropriate sanctioning procedures.
Por lo que respecta al ámbito, régimen y funcionamiento del mecanismo, decir que el mismo tiene una base voluntaria, y se centra en la adquisición de bienes y servicios en los que se estima razonablemente que pueden existir ventajas derivadas de la centralización. En una primera etapa, será tarea de la OCAE detectar las necesidades de los distintos participantes que pueden ser objeto de esta licitación conjunta, elaborando un plan anual de adquisiciones que servirá como marco para el desarrollo de cada uno de los procedimientos singulares que se tramiten.
Partiendo de las necesidades constadas, para la tramitación y conclusión de cada uno de los particulares procedimientos de contratación será competente un banco central principal designado al efecto, que estará sometido y actuará de acuerdo con la ley que resultara aplicable a sus adquisiciones en el plano individual. Una vez se haya adjudicado el contrato conjunto, concluido en interés de todos los participantes, se procederá a su ejecución y efectos, atendiendo al régimen previamente recogido en los pliegos.
Pese a que la OCAE y el sistema de adquisiciones conjuntas del Eurosistema se enfrenten a diversos retos, hay un espacio para el optimismo. Por una parte, se observa como el número de sujetos adheridos al sistema ha experimentado un notable crecimiento, desde una fase inicial en la que únicamente eran abarcados los integrantes del Eurosistema, a otra en la que se ha producido la incorporación de bancos centrales de otros Estados miembros y de otras autoridades y organizaciones. Y, por otro lado, de un análisis de la evolución a lo largo del tiempo de las prestaciones objeto de licitación, se puede concluir que las adquisiciones conjuntas se extienden cada vez a más bienes y servicios.
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The various means of joint procurement as a tool for reducing costs and administrative procedures have traditionally been used to a greater or lesser extent by Member States. As a concrete example of this possibility, and with a clear cross-border orientation, a framework for joint Eurosystem procurement would be established, creating the Eurosystem Procurement Coordination Office (EPCO), which would be responsible for facilitating and coordinating the common procedures to be tendered.
With regard to the scope, status and functioning of the mechanism, it is based on a voluntary basis and focuses on the procurement of goods and services where it is reasonably considered that there may be advantages to be gained from centralisation. In a first stage, it will be the task of OCAE to detect the needs of the different participants that may be the object of this joint tender, drawing up an annual procurement plan that will serve as a framework for the development of each of the singular procedures to be processed.
Based on the needs identified, a designated lead central bank shall be responsible for the processing and completion of each individual procurement procedure and shall be subject to and act in accordance with the law applicable to its procurement at the individual level. Once the joint contract has been awarded and concluded in the interest of all participants, it will be executed and implemented in accordance with the arrangements set out in the tender documents.
Although EPCO and the Eurosystem's joint procurement system face a number of challenges, there is room for optimism. On the one hand, the number of parties adhering to the system has grown considerably, from an initial phase in which only Eurosystem members were covered to one in which central banks of other Member States and other authorities and organisations have joined. Furthermore, an analysis of the evolution over time of the services covered by tender procedures suggests that joint procurement is increasingly being extended to cover more goods and services.