The origin of modern humans remains a central question of palaeoanthropology—the discipline devot... more The origin of modern humans remains a central question of palaeoanthropology—the discipline devoted to the scientific investigation of human evolution. This research field, like the questions it asks and evidence it draws upon, is multidisciplinary and synthetic in nature.
Wrangham et al.(2009; p 234, Table 2) list the estimated ages and taxonomic status of hominins re... more Wrangham et al.(2009; p 234, Table 2) list the estimated ages and taxonomic status of hominins recovered from the southern African palaeocaves. They do so mostly by placing question marks beside apparent ages. In some cases, both the dates and taxonomic affinity of hominins provided are incorrect or out of date.
E. Delson and R. MacPhee, Ed. Diversity in Australopithecus: tracking the earliest bipeds. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology series, Mar 2013
This study examines vault thickness in two Pleistocene crania at the centre of discussions about ... more This study examines vault thickness in two Pleistocene crania at the centre of discussions about the
evolution of Indigenous Australians and competing scenarios about modern human origins: Willandra
Lakes Human (WLH) 3 and WLH 50. We estimated total vault thickness and thickness of the diploë,
external and internal table on CT-scans, and undertook a quantitative comparison of them.We found that
they differ significantly in absolute thickness, but are similar in terms of the relative contribution to
thickness made by the diploic space and total table. They also differ significantly in terms of relative
variation in thickness, and in several instances, WLH 50 shows greater variability than WLH 3. This
finding undermines pathology as an explanation for thickness in the former cranium. Among later
hominins, WLH 50 is highly unusual in possessing an extremely thick vault at bregma. We show,
however, that vault thickness at this landmark is positively allometrically scaled in Indigenous Australians,
but negatively scaled in Ngandong Homo erectus. Thus, vault thickness is mostly explained by the
extremely large size of WLH 50: one of the largest hominin crania ever found. Moreover, its extreme
thickness firmly establishes its affinities with modern humans rather than the Ngandong group. Despite
the important role played by epigenesis in the development of the cranial vault, similarities between
WLH 3 and WLH 50 indicate some canalisation in the extent to which the various vault components
contribute to total thickness.
This study evaluates the methods utilised to release and monitor three troops of rehabilitated ve... more This study evaluates the methods utilised to release and monitor three troops of rehabilitated vervet monkeys
(Chlorocebus aethiops) in South Africa. In all cases, monitoring was poor and conducted over a short time-frame disallowing release
outcomes to be fully assessed. Wild troops were present at two of the three locations, casting doubt upon sightings of released
monkeys and indicating that the release sites chosen were unsuitable and presented disease risks to the wild vervets. Eighty-three
percent of monkeys were unaccounted for at the end of monitoring. Any future releases should make use of radio or GPS collars to
track the monkeys, have a planned monitoring schedule covering a period of at least one year, collect detailed data on behaviour,
demographics and ecology and should follow the IUCN Guidelines for Non-Human Primate Re-introductions.
We report the current species distribution and
population estimate for the chacma baboon (Papio ... more We report the current species distribution and
population estimate for the chacma baboon (Papio ursinus)
in KwaZulu-Natal Province (KZN), South Africa, based on
an analysis of estimated area of occupancy and estimated
home range size. This estimate suggests a total population
size of approximately 11,000 individuals for KZN. Much
of the province is uninhabited, with a density in occupied
areas of approximately 1.8 animals per km2. The current
population size may be more than an order of magnitude
smaller than historical population size. Chacma baboons
now exhibit a highly fragmented and discontinuous distribution
in KZN, with 58% of the population residing within
protected areas, and more than half of these troops reside in
areas[1,500 m above average sea level. The small population
and highly fragmented distribution of chacma
baboons in KZN, combined with rapidly increasing human
population size and transformation of natural habitat,
suggest this species requires greater conservation attention.
In South Africa, vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus
aethiops) are frequently persecuted, resulting in l... more In South Africa, vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus
aethiops) are frequently persecuted, resulting in large
numbers of injured and/or orphaned animals. Rehabilitation
centres aim to care for these monkeys and ultimately return
them to the wild whenever possible. However, it is
unknown whether rehabilitation is successful in its goal of
creating wild-living, independent, self-sustaining troops
due to limited published research in this area. This study
describes the release and subsequent fate of a troop of
rehabilitated vervet monkeys over a 6-month period.
A troop of 16 monkeys was released into the Ntendeka
Wilderness Area, a protected part of Ngome Forest, by the
WATCH (Wild Animal Trauma Centre and Haven) rehabilitation
centre in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Monitoring
data were evaluated with regard to survival,
mortality, suitability of the release site, breeding, condition,
troop composition, behaviour, group dynamics, ranging
patterns and the effectiveness of monitoring tools. The
release was considered to be a partial success in that the
troop exhibited behaviour, group dynamics and ranging
patterns similar to wild conspecifics. However, the survival
rate was low and the troop was judged to be non-self-sustaining.
The main problems identified were the limited
lifetimes of radio collars, which resulted in missing animals
and caused monitoring to be cut short, illegal hunting
activities, predation and a small troop size with few adults.
The authors recommend improvements that may increase
success, such as retaining troops in release enclosures for
longer periods, releasing a larger troop with more adults that
more closely matches wild troop composition, selecting a
release site at least 3 km from the nearest human settlement
and the use of GPS collars to allow for a longer monitoring
period encompassing all seasonal conditions. Furthermore,
all primates for release should be medically screened so as
to avoid potential negative impacts on wild populations.
Background: Later Pleistocene human evolution in East Asia remains poorly understood owing to a s... more Background: Later Pleistocene human evolution in East Asia remains poorly understood owing to a scarcity of well
described, reliably classified and accurately dated fossils. Southwest China has been identified from genetic research as a
hotspot of human diversity, containing ancient mtDNA and Y-DNA lineages, and has yielded a number of human remains
thought to derive from Pleistocene deposits. We have prepared, reconstructed, described and dated a new partial skull from
a consolidated sediment block collected in 1979 from the site of Longlin Cave (Guangxi Province). We also undertook new
excavations at Maludong (Yunnan Province) to clarify the stratigraphy and dating of a large sample of mostly undescribed
human remains from the site.
Methodology/Principal Findings: We undertook a detailed comparison of cranial, including a virtual endocast for the
Maludong calotte, mandibular and dental remains from these two localities. Both samples probably derive from the same
population, exhibiting an unusual mixture of modern human traits, characters probably plesiomorphic for later Homo, and
some unusual features. We dated charcoal with AMS radiocarbon dating and speleothem with the Uranium-series technique
and the results show both samples to be from the Pleistocene-Holocene transition: ,14.3-11.5 ka.
Conclusions/Significance: Our analysis suggests two plausible explanations for the morphology sampled at Longlin Cave
and Maludong. First, it may represent a late-surviving archaic population, perhaps paralleling the situation seen in North
Africa as indicated by remains from Dar-es-Soltane and Temara, and maybe also in southern China at Zhirendong.
Alternatively, East Asia may have been colonised during multiple waves during the Pleistocene, with the Longlin-Maludong
morphology possibly reflecting deep population substructure in Africa prior to modern humans dispersing into Eurasia.
We report the first uranium-series age estimates for rock art in China. Calcite bracketing a pain... more We report the first uranium-series age estimates for rock art in China. Calcite bracketing a paint layer was
used to constrain the age of a naturalistic outline hunter-gatherer painting in the Jinsha River area of
northwest Yunnan Province (southwest China). The rock paintings in this region are unique in style and
content compared with other bodies of rock art in China, which are dominated by Neolithic subject
matter. The minimum and maximum ages were determined using isochron techniques on multiple
samples of calcite from above and beneath the paint layer. A large painted deer head was dated to
between 5738 and 2050 years. This painting and underlying flowstone are superimposed on older
paintings that suggest the older paintings are at least 3400 years old, if not older than 5738 years.
The results indicate for the first time that Jinsha River rock art is older than other forms of rock art in the
region and show that rock art likely extends back to at least the transition from the Palaeolithic to
Neolithic in this part of China.
Rehabilitation and release have become central to the management and welfare of primate species i... more Rehabilitation and release have become central to the management and welfare of primate species in South Africa such as the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops). However, limited research means that it is unknown whether rehabilitation is a successful management strategy for this species. This study describes the release of a troop of rehabilitated vervet monkeys and evaluates the results of 1 year of post-release monitoring. The released animals exhibited wild behaviours and established a home range. Survival could not be adequately evaluated due to the high number of untraceable animals, and troop composition was significantly different from that of wild troops. Improvement may be gained by radio-collaring more animals using improved technology, ensuring that troop composition is comparable to wild troops, excluding ex-pets from re-introduction and a more detailed assessment of the release site.
The origin of Aboriginal Australians has been a central question of palaeoanthropology since its ... more The origin of Aboriginal Australians has been a central question of palaeoanthropology since its inception during the 19th Century. Moreover, the idea that Australians could trace their ancestry to a non-modern Pleistocene population such as Homo erectus in Southeast Asia have existed for more than 100 years, being explicitly linked to cranial robusticity. It is argued here that in order to resolve this issue a new program of research should be embraced, one aiming to test the full range of alternative explanations for robust morphology. Recent developments in the morphological sciences, especially relating to the ontogeny of the cranium indicate that character atomisation, an approach underpinning phylogenetic reconstruction, is fraught with difficulties. This leads to the conclusion that phylogenetic-based explanations for robusticity should be reconsidered and a more parsimonious approach to explaining Aboriginal Australian origins taken. One that takes proper account of the complex processes involved in the growth of the human cranium rather than just assuming natural selection to explain every subtle variation seen in past populations. In doing so, the null hypothesis that robusticity might result from phenotypic plasticity alone cannot be rejected, a position at odds with both reticulate and deep-time continuity models of Australian origins.
Palaeopathological studies of the middle Pleistocene cranium from Florisbad (Free State, South Af... more Palaeopathological studies of the middle Pleistocene cranium from Florisbad (Free State, South Africa) document the presence of extensive cortical lesions and areas of thinning, a widened medullary cavity with destruction of the diploë, orbital roof lesions, a benign ectocranial neoplasm, and evidence for alveolar destruction, resorption, and antemortem tooth loss. Differential diagnosis suggests one or more possible aetiologies, including a haematological disorder, metabolic condition(s), Paget’s disease of bone, or non-specific infection perhaps following trauma. Moreover, if not directly associated with those on the external vault, orbital lesions alone could have been caused by infection or an indeterminable factor such as pressure from an enlarged organ. Multiple parasagittal lesions on the internal vault cortex probably represent expansile lesions left by enlarged arachnoid granulations. A multifactorial model of pathogenesis may be most appropriate to account for dentoalveolar lesions and antemortem tooth loss. Additionally, there are clear indications of diagenetic alteration deep within the vault, as well as multiple signs of degeneration on the cranium. These complicate the assessment of pathological alterations and identification of their possible aetiology. The Florisbad cranium is the latest specimen to join the growing sample of Pleistocene hominin remains with non-fatal and non-trivial pathological disorders adding to understanding of early human ecology and lifestyle.
Diminished bite force has been considered a defining feature of modern Homo sapiens, an interpret... more Diminished bite force has been considered a defining feature of modern Homo sapiens, an interpretation inferred from the application of two-dimensional lever mechanics and the relative gracility of the human masticatory musculature and skull. This conclusion has various implications with regard to the evolution of human feeding behaviour. However, human dental anatomy suggests a capacity to withstand high loads and two-dimensional lever models greatly simplify muscle architecture, yielding less accurate results than three-dimensional modelling using multiple lines of action. Here, to our knowledge, in the most comprehensive three-dimensional finite element analysis performed to date for any taxon, we ask whether the traditional view that the bite of H. sapiens is weak and the skull too gracile to sustain high bite forces is supported. We further introduce a new method for reconstructing incomplete fossil material. Our findings show that the human masticatory apparatus is highly efficient, capable of producing a relatively powerful bite using low muscle forces. Thus, relative to other members of the superfamily Hominoidea, humans can achieve relatively high bite forces, while overall stresses are reduced. Our findings resolve apparently discordant lines of evidence, i.e. the presence of teeth well adapted to sustain high loads within a lightweight cranium and mandible.
The southern African sample of early Homo is playing an increasingly important role in understand... more The southern African sample of early Homo is playing an increasingly important role in understanding the origins, diversity and adaptations of the human genus. Yet, the affinities and classification of these remains continue to be in a state of flux. The southern African sample derives from five karstic palaeocave localities and represents more than one-third of the total African sample for this group; sampling an even wider range of anatomical regions than the eastern African collection. Morphological and phenetic comparisons of southern African specimens covering dental, mandibular and cranial remains demonstrate this sample to contain a species distinct from known early Homo taxa. The new species Homo gautengensis sp. nov. is described herein: type specimen Stw 53; Paratypes SE 255, SE 1508, Stw 19b/33, Stw 75–79, Stw 80, Stw 84, Stw 151, SK 15, SK 27, SK 45, SK 847, SKX 257/258, SKX 267/268, SKX 339, SKX 610, SKW 3114 and DNH 70. H. gautengensis is identified from fossils recovered at three palaeocave localities with current best ages spanning not, vert, similar2.0 to 1.26–0.82 million years BP. Thus, H. gautengensis is probably the earliest recognised species in the human genus and its longevity is apparently well in excess of H. habilis.
The naturalistic rock art of Yunnan Province is poorly known outside of China despite two decades... more The naturalistic rock art of Yunnan Province is poorly known outside of China despite two decades of investigation by local researchers. The authors report on the first major international study of this art, its place in antiquity and its resemblance to some of the rock art of Europe, southern Africa and elsewhere. While not arguing a direct connection between China, Europe and other widely separated places, this article suggests that rock-art studies about the nature of style, culture contact and the transmission of iconography across space and time need to take better account of the results of neuroscience research, similar economic/ecological circumstances and the probability of independent invention.
Fossils of early Homo and Paranthropus have been recovered from several sites in southern Africa.... more Fossils of early Homo and Paranthropus have been recovered from several sites in southern Africa. Unfortunately, their precise age has historically been difficult to assess, hampering the reconstruction of their relationships to each other and to fossils from eastern Africa. Multi-dating strategies combining biochronological, archaeological, palaeomagnetic, electron spin resonance (ESR) and uranium series techniques are now clarifying their age. The following sequencing of sites is suggested: Swartkrans Member 1 (not, vert, similar2.0 Ma), Gondolin (not, vert, similar1.8 Ma), Kromdraai (1.8–1.7 Ma), Sterkfontein M5A (1.8–1.4 Ma), Swartkrans M2 (1.7–1.1 Ma), Sterkfontein M5B (1.4–1.1 Ma), Sterkfontein M5C (1.3–0.8 Ma), Swartkrans M3 (not, vert, similar1.0–0.6 Ma). The position of Coopers D and Drimolen is difficult to access because they only have faunal age ranges (1.9–1.6 Ma). ESR suggests mixing is a potential major problem in multi-generational sites. The oldest southern African representatives of early Homo and Paranthropus occur around 2.1–1.9 Ma in Swartkrans Member 1 and are recorded almost continuously in the palaeocave deposits until around 1.0–0.6 Ma in Swartkrans Member 3. Currently, these data suggest that Paranthropus and Homo first occur significantly later in the southern African record than the eastern African record. Moreover, Paranthropus persists much later in southern Africa than in eastern Africa.
The origin of modern humans remains a central question of palaeoanthropology—the discipline devot... more The origin of modern humans remains a central question of palaeoanthropology—the discipline devoted to the scientific investigation of human evolution. This research field, like the questions it asks and evidence it draws upon, is multidisciplinary and synthetic in nature.
Wrangham et al.(2009; p 234, Table 2) list the estimated ages and taxonomic status of hominins re... more Wrangham et al.(2009; p 234, Table 2) list the estimated ages and taxonomic status of hominins recovered from the southern African palaeocaves. They do so mostly by placing question marks beside apparent ages. In some cases, both the dates and taxonomic affinity of hominins provided are incorrect or out of date.
E. Delson and R. MacPhee, Ed. Diversity in Australopithecus: tracking the earliest bipeds. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology series, Mar 2013
This study examines vault thickness in two Pleistocene crania at the centre of discussions about ... more This study examines vault thickness in two Pleistocene crania at the centre of discussions about the
evolution of Indigenous Australians and competing scenarios about modern human origins: Willandra
Lakes Human (WLH) 3 and WLH 50. We estimated total vault thickness and thickness of the diploë,
external and internal table on CT-scans, and undertook a quantitative comparison of them.We found that
they differ significantly in absolute thickness, but are similar in terms of the relative contribution to
thickness made by the diploic space and total table. They also differ significantly in terms of relative
variation in thickness, and in several instances, WLH 50 shows greater variability than WLH 3. This
finding undermines pathology as an explanation for thickness in the former cranium. Among later
hominins, WLH 50 is highly unusual in possessing an extremely thick vault at bregma. We show,
however, that vault thickness at this landmark is positively allometrically scaled in Indigenous Australians,
but negatively scaled in Ngandong Homo erectus. Thus, vault thickness is mostly explained by the
extremely large size of WLH 50: one of the largest hominin crania ever found. Moreover, its extreme
thickness firmly establishes its affinities with modern humans rather than the Ngandong group. Despite
the important role played by epigenesis in the development of the cranial vault, similarities between
WLH 3 and WLH 50 indicate some canalisation in the extent to which the various vault components
contribute to total thickness.
This study evaluates the methods utilised to release and monitor three troops of rehabilitated ve... more This study evaluates the methods utilised to release and monitor three troops of rehabilitated vervet monkeys
(Chlorocebus aethiops) in South Africa. In all cases, monitoring was poor and conducted over a short time-frame disallowing release
outcomes to be fully assessed. Wild troops were present at two of the three locations, casting doubt upon sightings of released
monkeys and indicating that the release sites chosen were unsuitable and presented disease risks to the wild vervets. Eighty-three
percent of monkeys were unaccounted for at the end of monitoring. Any future releases should make use of radio or GPS collars to
track the monkeys, have a planned monitoring schedule covering a period of at least one year, collect detailed data on behaviour,
demographics and ecology and should follow the IUCN Guidelines for Non-Human Primate Re-introductions.
We report the current species distribution and
population estimate for the chacma baboon (Papio ... more We report the current species distribution and
population estimate for the chacma baboon (Papio ursinus)
in KwaZulu-Natal Province (KZN), South Africa, based on
an analysis of estimated area of occupancy and estimated
home range size. This estimate suggests a total population
size of approximately 11,000 individuals for KZN. Much
of the province is uninhabited, with a density in occupied
areas of approximately 1.8 animals per km2. The current
population size may be more than an order of magnitude
smaller than historical population size. Chacma baboons
now exhibit a highly fragmented and discontinuous distribution
in KZN, with 58% of the population residing within
protected areas, and more than half of these troops reside in
areas[1,500 m above average sea level. The small population
and highly fragmented distribution of chacma
baboons in KZN, combined with rapidly increasing human
population size and transformation of natural habitat,
suggest this species requires greater conservation attention.
In South Africa, vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus
aethiops) are frequently persecuted, resulting in l... more In South Africa, vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus
aethiops) are frequently persecuted, resulting in large
numbers of injured and/or orphaned animals. Rehabilitation
centres aim to care for these monkeys and ultimately return
them to the wild whenever possible. However, it is
unknown whether rehabilitation is successful in its goal of
creating wild-living, independent, self-sustaining troops
due to limited published research in this area. This study
describes the release and subsequent fate of a troop of
rehabilitated vervet monkeys over a 6-month period.
A troop of 16 monkeys was released into the Ntendeka
Wilderness Area, a protected part of Ngome Forest, by the
WATCH (Wild Animal Trauma Centre and Haven) rehabilitation
centre in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Monitoring
data were evaluated with regard to survival,
mortality, suitability of the release site, breeding, condition,
troop composition, behaviour, group dynamics, ranging
patterns and the effectiveness of monitoring tools. The
release was considered to be a partial success in that the
troop exhibited behaviour, group dynamics and ranging
patterns similar to wild conspecifics. However, the survival
rate was low and the troop was judged to be non-self-sustaining.
The main problems identified were the limited
lifetimes of radio collars, which resulted in missing animals
and caused monitoring to be cut short, illegal hunting
activities, predation and a small troop size with few adults.
The authors recommend improvements that may increase
success, such as retaining troops in release enclosures for
longer periods, releasing a larger troop with more adults that
more closely matches wild troop composition, selecting a
release site at least 3 km from the nearest human settlement
and the use of GPS collars to allow for a longer monitoring
period encompassing all seasonal conditions. Furthermore,
all primates for release should be medically screened so as
to avoid potential negative impacts on wild populations.
Background: Later Pleistocene human evolution in East Asia remains poorly understood owing to a s... more Background: Later Pleistocene human evolution in East Asia remains poorly understood owing to a scarcity of well
described, reliably classified and accurately dated fossils. Southwest China has been identified from genetic research as a
hotspot of human diversity, containing ancient mtDNA and Y-DNA lineages, and has yielded a number of human remains
thought to derive from Pleistocene deposits. We have prepared, reconstructed, described and dated a new partial skull from
a consolidated sediment block collected in 1979 from the site of Longlin Cave (Guangxi Province). We also undertook new
excavations at Maludong (Yunnan Province) to clarify the stratigraphy and dating of a large sample of mostly undescribed
human remains from the site.
Methodology/Principal Findings: We undertook a detailed comparison of cranial, including a virtual endocast for the
Maludong calotte, mandibular and dental remains from these two localities. Both samples probably derive from the same
population, exhibiting an unusual mixture of modern human traits, characters probably plesiomorphic for later Homo, and
some unusual features. We dated charcoal with AMS radiocarbon dating and speleothem with the Uranium-series technique
and the results show both samples to be from the Pleistocene-Holocene transition: ,14.3-11.5 ka.
Conclusions/Significance: Our analysis suggests two plausible explanations for the morphology sampled at Longlin Cave
and Maludong. First, it may represent a late-surviving archaic population, perhaps paralleling the situation seen in North
Africa as indicated by remains from Dar-es-Soltane and Temara, and maybe also in southern China at Zhirendong.
Alternatively, East Asia may have been colonised during multiple waves during the Pleistocene, with the Longlin-Maludong
morphology possibly reflecting deep population substructure in Africa prior to modern humans dispersing into Eurasia.
We report the first uranium-series age estimates for rock art in China. Calcite bracketing a pain... more We report the first uranium-series age estimates for rock art in China. Calcite bracketing a paint layer was
used to constrain the age of a naturalistic outline hunter-gatherer painting in the Jinsha River area of
northwest Yunnan Province (southwest China). The rock paintings in this region are unique in style and
content compared with other bodies of rock art in China, which are dominated by Neolithic subject
matter. The minimum and maximum ages were determined using isochron techniques on multiple
samples of calcite from above and beneath the paint layer. A large painted deer head was dated to
between 5738 and 2050 years. This painting and underlying flowstone are superimposed on older
paintings that suggest the older paintings are at least 3400 years old, if not older than 5738 years.
The results indicate for the first time that Jinsha River rock art is older than other forms of rock art in the
region and show that rock art likely extends back to at least the transition from the Palaeolithic to
Neolithic in this part of China.
Rehabilitation and release have become central to the management and welfare of primate species i... more Rehabilitation and release have become central to the management and welfare of primate species in South Africa such as the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops). However, limited research means that it is unknown whether rehabilitation is a successful management strategy for this species. This study describes the release of a troop of rehabilitated vervet monkeys and evaluates the results of 1 year of post-release monitoring. The released animals exhibited wild behaviours and established a home range. Survival could not be adequately evaluated due to the high number of untraceable animals, and troop composition was significantly different from that of wild troops. Improvement may be gained by radio-collaring more animals using improved technology, ensuring that troop composition is comparable to wild troops, excluding ex-pets from re-introduction and a more detailed assessment of the release site.
The origin of Aboriginal Australians has been a central question of palaeoanthropology since its ... more The origin of Aboriginal Australians has been a central question of palaeoanthropology since its inception during the 19th Century. Moreover, the idea that Australians could trace their ancestry to a non-modern Pleistocene population such as Homo erectus in Southeast Asia have existed for more than 100 years, being explicitly linked to cranial robusticity. It is argued here that in order to resolve this issue a new program of research should be embraced, one aiming to test the full range of alternative explanations for robust morphology. Recent developments in the morphological sciences, especially relating to the ontogeny of the cranium indicate that character atomisation, an approach underpinning phylogenetic reconstruction, is fraught with difficulties. This leads to the conclusion that phylogenetic-based explanations for robusticity should be reconsidered and a more parsimonious approach to explaining Aboriginal Australian origins taken. One that takes proper account of the complex processes involved in the growth of the human cranium rather than just assuming natural selection to explain every subtle variation seen in past populations. In doing so, the null hypothesis that robusticity might result from phenotypic plasticity alone cannot be rejected, a position at odds with both reticulate and deep-time continuity models of Australian origins.
Palaeopathological studies of the middle Pleistocene cranium from Florisbad (Free State, South Af... more Palaeopathological studies of the middle Pleistocene cranium from Florisbad (Free State, South Africa) document the presence of extensive cortical lesions and areas of thinning, a widened medullary cavity with destruction of the diploë, orbital roof lesions, a benign ectocranial neoplasm, and evidence for alveolar destruction, resorption, and antemortem tooth loss. Differential diagnosis suggests one or more possible aetiologies, including a haematological disorder, metabolic condition(s), Paget’s disease of bone, or non-specific infection perhaps following trauma. Moreover, if not directly associated with those on the external vault, orbital lesions alone could have been caused by infection or an indeterminable factor such as pressure from an enlarged organ. Multiple parasagittal lesions on the internal vault cortex probably represent expansile lesions left by enlarged arachnoid granulations. A multifactorial model of pathogenesis may be most appropriate to account for dentoalveolar lesions and antemortem tooth loss. Additionally, there are clear indications of diagenetic alteration deep within the vault, as well as multiple signs of degeneration on the cranium. These complicate the assessment of pathological alterations and identification of their possible aetiology. The Florisbad cranium is the latest specimen to join the growing sample of Pleistocene hominin remains with non-fatal and non-trivial pathological disorders adding to understanding of early human ecology and lifestyle.
Diminished bite force has been considered a defining feature of modern Homo sapiens, an interpret... more Diminished bite force has been considered a defining feature of modern Homo sapiens, an interpretation inferred from the application of two-dimensional lever mechanics and the relative gracility of the human masticatory musculature and skull. This conclusion has various implications with regard to the evolution of human feeding behaviour. However, human dental anatomy suggests a capacity to withstand high loads and two-dimensional lever models greatly simplify muscle architecture, yielding less accurate results than three-dimensional modelling using multiple lines of action. Here, to our knowledge, in the most comprehensive three-dimensional finite element analysis performed to date for any taxon, we ask whether the traditional view that the bite of H. sapiens is weak and the skull too gracile to sustain high bite forces is supported. We further introduce a new method for reconstructing incomplete fossil material. Our findings show that the human masticatory apparatus is highly efficient, capable of producing a relatively powerful bite using low muscle forces. Thus, relative to other members of the superfamily Hominoidea, humans can achieve relatively high bite forces, while overall stresses are reduced. Our findings resolve apparently discordant lines of evidence, i.e. the presence of teeth well adapted to sustain high loads within a lightweight cranium and mandible.
The southern African sample of early Homo is playing an increasingly important role in understand... more The southern African sample of early Homo is playing an increasingly important role in understanding the origins, diversity and adaptations of the human genus. Yet, the affinities and classification of these remains continue to be in a state of flux. The southern African sample derives from five karstic palaeocave localities and represents more than one-third of the total African sample for this group; sampling an even wider range of anatomical regions than the eastern African collection. Morphological and phenetic comparisons of southern African specimens covering dental, mandibular and cranial remains demonstrate this sample to contain a species distinct from known early Homo taxa. The new species Homo gautengensis sp. nov. is described herein: type specimen Stw 53; Paratypes SE 255, SE 1508, Stw 19b/33, Stw 75–79, Stw 80, Stw 84, Stw 151, SK 15, SK 27, SK 45, SK 847, SKX 257/258, SKX 267/268, SKX 339, SKX 610, SKW 3114 and DNH 70. H. gautengensis is identified from fossils recovered at three palaeocave localities with current best ages spanning not, vert, similar2.0 to 1.26–0.82 million years BP. Thus, H. gautengensis is probably the earliest recognised species in the human genus and its longevity is apparently well in excess of H. habilis.
The naturalistic rock art of Yunnan Province is poorly known outside of China despite two decades... more The naturalistic rock art of Yunnan Province is poorly known outside of China despite two decades of investigation by local researchers. The authors report on the first major international study of this art, its place in antiquity and its resemblance to some of the rock art of Europe, southern Africa and elsewhere. While not arguing a direct connection between China, Europe and other widely separated places, this article suggests that rock-art studies about the nature of style, culture contact and the transmission of iconography across space and time need to take better account of the results of neuroscience research, similar economic/ecological circumstances and the probability of independent invention.
Fossils of early Homo and Paranthropus have been recovered from several sites in southern Africa.... more Fossils of early Homo and Paranthropus have been recovered from several sites in southern Africa. Unfortunately, their precise age has historically been difficult to assess, hampering the reconstruction of their relationships to each other and to fossils from eastern Africa. Multi-dating strategies combining biochronological, archaeological, palaeomagnetic, electron spin resonance (ESR) and uranium series techniques are now clarifying their age. The following sequencing of sites is suggested: Swartkrans Member 1 (not, vert, similar2.0 Ma), Gondolin (not, vert, similar1.8 Ma), Kromdraai (1.8–1.7 Ma), Sterkfontein M5A (1.8–1.4 Ma), Swartkrans M2 (1.7–1.1 Ma), Sterkfontein M5B (1.4–1.1 Ma), Sterkfontein M5C (1.3–0.8 Ma), Swartkrans M3 (not, vert, similar1.0–0.6 Ma). The position of Coopers D and Drimolen is difficult to access because they only have faunal age ranges (1.9–1.6 Ma). ESR suggests mixing is a potential major problem in multi-generational sites. The oldest southern African representatives of early Homo and Paranthropus occur around 2.1–1.9 Ma in Swartkrans Member 1 and are recorded almost continuously in the palaeocave deposits until around 1.0–0.6 Ma in Swartkrans Member 3. Currently, these data suggest that Paranthropus and Homo first occur significantly later in the southern African record than the eastern African record. Moreover, Paranthropus persists much later in southern Africa than in eastern Africa.
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Papers by Darren Curnoe
evolution of Indigenous Australians and competing scenarios about modern human origins: Willandra
Lakes Human (WLH) 3 and WLH 50. We estimated total vault thickness and thickness of the diploë,
external and internal table on CT-scans, and undertook a quantitative comparison of them.We found that
they differ significantly in absolute thickness, but are similar in terms of the relative contribution to
thickness made by the diploic space and total table. They also differ significantly in terms of relative
variation in thickness, and in several instances, WLH 50 shows greater variability than WLH 3. This
finding undermines pathology as an explanation for thickness in the former cranium. Among later
hominins, WLH 50 is highly unusual in possessing an extremely thick vault at bregma. We show,
however, that vault thickness at this landmark is positively allometrically scaled in Indigenous Australians,
but negatively scaled in Ngandong Homo erectus. Thus, vault thickness is mostly explained by the
extremely large size of WLH 50: one of the largest hominin crania ever found. Moreover, its extreme
thickness firmly establishes its affinities with modern humans rather than the Ngandong group. Despite
the important role played by epigenesis in the development of the cranial vault, similarities between
WLH 3 and WLH 50 indicate some canalisation in the extent to which the various vault components
contribute to total thickness.
(Chlorocebus aethiops) in South Africa. In all cases, monitoring was poor and conducted over a short time-frame disallowing release
outcomes to be fully assessed. Wild troops were present at two of the three locations, casting doubt upon sightings of released
monkeys and indicating that the release sites chosen were unsuitable and presented disease risks to the wild vervets. Eighty-three
percent of monkeys were unaccounted for at the end of monitoring. Any future releases should make use of radio or GPS collars to
track the monkeys, have a planned monitoring schedule covering a period of at least one year, collect detailed data on behaviour,
demographics and ecology and should follow the IUCN Guidelines for Non-Human Primate Re-introductions.
population estimate for the chacma baboon (Papio ursinus)
in KwaZulu-Natal Province (KZN), South Africa, based on
an analysis of estimated area of occupancy and estimated
home range size. This estimate suggests a total population
size of approximately 11,000 individuals for KZN. Much
of the province is uninhabited, with a density in occupied
areas of approximately 1.8 animals per km2. The current
population size may be more than an order of magnitude
smaller than historical population size. Chacma baboons
now exhibit a highly fragmented and discontinuous distribution
in KZN, with 58% of the population residing within
protected areas, and more than half of these troops reside in
areas[1,500 m above average sea level. The small population
and highly fragmented distribution of chacma
baboons in KZN, combined with rapidly increasing human
population size and transformation of natural habitat,
suggest this species requires greater conservation attention.
aethiops) are frequently persecuted, resulting in large
numbers of injured and/or orphaned animals. Rehabilitation
centres aim to care for these monkeys and ultimately return
them to the wild whenever possible. However, it is
unknown whether rehabilitation is successful in its goal of
creating wild-living, independent, self-sustaining troops
due to limited published research in this area. This study
describes the release and subsequent fate of a troop of
rehabilitated vervet monkeys over a 6-month period.
A troop of 16 monkeys was released into the Ntendeka
Wilderness Area, a protected part of Ngome Forest, by the
WATCH (Wild Animal Trauma Centre and Haven) rehabilitation
centre in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Monitoring
data were evaluated with regard to survival,
mortality, suitability of the release site, breeding, condition,
troop composition, behaviour, group dynamics, ranging
patterns and the effectiveness of monitoring tools. The
release was considered to be a partial success in that the
troop exhibited behaviour, group dynamics and ranging
patterns similar to wild conspecifics. However, the survival
rate was low and the troop was judged to be non-self-sustaining.
The main problems identified were the limited
lifetimes of radio collars, which resulted in missing animals
and caused monitoring to be cut short, illegal hunting
activities, predation and a small troop size with few adults.
The authors recommend improvements that may increase
success, such as retaining troops in release enclosures for
longer periods, releasing a larger troop with more adults that
more closely matches wild troop composition, selecting a
release site at least 3 km from the nearest human settlement
and the use of GPS collars to allow for a longer monitoring
period encompassing all seasonal conditions. Furthermore,
all primates for release should be medically screened so as
to avoid potential negative impacts on wild populations.
described, reliably classified and accurately dated fossils. Southwest China has been identified from genetic research as a
hotspot of human diversity, containing ancient mtDNA and Y-DNA lineages, and has yielded a number of human remains
thought to derive from Pleistocene deposits. We have prepared, reconstructed, described and dated a new partial skull from
a consolidated sediment block collected in 1979 from the site of Longlin Cave (Guangxi Province). We also undertook new
excavations at Maludong (Yunnan Province) to clarify the stratigraphy and dating of a large sample of mostly undescribed
human remains from the site.
Methodology/Principal Findings: We undertook a detailed comparison of cranial, including a virtual endocast for the
Maludong calotte, mandibular and dental remains from these two localities. Both samples probably derive from the same
population, exhibiting an unusual mixture of modern human traits, characters probably plesiomorphic for later Homo, and
some unusual features. We dated charcoal with AMS radiocarbon dating and speleothem with the Uranium-series technique
and the results show both samples to be from the Pleistocene-Holocene transition: ,14.3-11.5 ka.
Conclusions/Significance: Our analysis suggests two plausible explanations for the morphology sampled at Longlin Cave
and Maludong. First, it may represent a late-surviving archaic population, perhaps paralleling the situation seen in North
Africa as indicated by remains from Dar-es-Soltane and Temara, and maybe also in southern China at Zhirendong.
Alternatively, East Asia may have been colonised during multiple waves during the Pleistocene, with the Longlin-Maludong
morphology possibly reflecting deep population substructure in Africa prior to modern humans dispersing into Eurasia.
used to constrain the age of a naturalistic outline hunter-gatherer painting in the Jinsha River area of
northwest Yunnan Province (southwest China). The rock paintings in this region are unique in style and
content compared with other bodies of rock art in China, which are dominated by Neolithic subject
matter. The minimum and maximum ages were determined using isochron techniques on multiple
samples of calcite from above and beneath the paint layer. A large painted deer head was dated to
between 5738 and 2050 years. This painting and underlying flowstone are superimposed on older
paintings that suggest the older paintings are at least 3400 years old, if not older than 5738 years.
The results indicate for the first time that Jinsha River rock art is older than other forms of rock art in the
region and show that rock art likely extends back to at least the transition from the Palaeolithic to
Neolithic in this part of China.
to the conclusion that phylogenetic-based explanations for robusticity should be reconsidered and a more parsimonious approach to explaining Aboriginal Australian origins taken. One that takes proper account of the complex processes involved in the growth of the human cranium rather than just assuming natural selection to explain every subtle variation seen in past populations. In doing so, the null hypothesis that robusticity might result from phenotypic plasticity alone cannot be rejected, a position at odds with both reticulate and deep-time continuity models of Australian origins.
evolution of Indigenous Australians and competing scenarios about modern human origins: Willandra
Lakes Human (WLH) 3 and WLH 50. We estimated total vault thickness and thickness of the diploë,
external and internal table on CT-scans, and undertook a quantitative comparison of them.We found that
they differ significantly in absolute thickness, but are similar in terms of the relative contribution to
thickness made by the diploic space and total table. They also differ significantly in terms of relative
variation in thickness, and in several instances, WLH 50 shows greater variability than WLH 3. This
finding undermines pathology as an explanation for thickness in the former cranium. Among later
hominins, WLH 50 is highly unusual in possessing an extremely thick vault at bregma. We show,
however, that vault thickness at this landmark is positively allometrically scaled in Indigenous Australians,
but negatively scaled in Ngandong Homo erectus. Thus, vault thickness is mostly explained by the
extremely large size of WLH 50: one of the largest hominin crania ever found. Moreover, its extreme
thickness firmly establishes its affinities with modern humans rather than the Ngandong group. Despite
the important role played by epigenesis in the development of the cranial vault, similarities between
WLH 3 and WLH 50 indicate some canalisation in the extent to which the various vault components
contribute to total thickness.
(Chlorocebus aethiops) in South Africa. In all cases, monitoring was poor and conducted over a short time-frame disallowing release
outcomes to be fully assessed. Wild troops were present at two of the three locations, casting doubt upon sightings of released
monkeys and indicating that the release sites chosen were unsuitable and presented disease risks to the wild vervets. Eighty-three
percent of monkeys were unaccounted for at the end of monitoring. Any future releases should make use of radio or GPS collars to
track the monkeys, have a planned monitoring schedule covering a period of at least one year, collect detailed data on behaviour,
demographics and ecology and should follow the IUCN Guidelines for Non-Human Primate Re-introductions.
population estimate for the chacma baboon (Papio ursinus)
in KwaZulu-Natal Province (KZN), South Africa, based on
an analysis of estimated area of occupancy and estimated
home range size. This estimate suggests a total population
size of approximately 11,000 individuals for KZN. Much
of the province is uninhabited, with a density in occupied
areas of approximately 1.8 animals per km2. The current
population size may be more than an order of magnitude
smaller than historical population size. Chacma baboons
now exhibit a highly fragmented and discontinuous distribution
in KZN, with 58% of the population residing within
protected areas, and more than half of these troops reside in
areas[1,500 m above average sea level. The small population
and highly fragmented distribution of chacma
baboons in KZN, combined with rapidly increasing human
population size and transformation of natural habitat,
suggest this species requires greater conservation attention.
aethiops) are frequently persecuted, resulting in large
numbers of injured and/or orphaned animals. Rehabilitation
centres aim to care for these monkeys and ultimately return
them to the wild whenever possible. However, it is
unknown whether rehabilitation is successful in its goal of
creating wild-living, independent, self-sustaining troops
due to limited published research in this area. This study
describes the release and subsequent fate of a troop of
rehabilitated vervet monkeys over a 6-month period.
A troop of 16 monkeys was released into the Ntendeka
Wilderness Area, a protected part of Ngome Forest, by the
WATCH (Wild Animal Trauma Centre and Haven) rehabilitation
centre in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Monitoring
data were evaluated with regard to survival,
mortality, suitability of the release site, breeding, condition,
troop composition, behaviour, group dynamics, ranging
patterns and the effectiveness of monitoring tools. The
release was considered to be a partial success in that the
troop exhibited behaviour, group dynamics and ranging
patterns similar to wild conspecifics. However, the survival
rate was low and the troop was judged to be non-self-sustaining.
The main problems identified were the limited
lifetimes of radio collars, which resulted in missing animals
and caused monitoring to be cut short, illegal hunting
activities, predation and a small troop size with few adults.
The authors recommend improvements that may increase
success, such as retaining troops in release enclosures for
longer periods, releasing a larger troop with more adults that
more closely matches wild troop composition, selecting a
release site at least 3 km from the nearest human settlement
and the use of GPS collars to allow for a longer monitoring
period encompassing all seasonal conditions. Furthermore,
all primates for release should be medically screened so as
to avoid potential negative impacts on wild populations.
described, reliably classified and accurately dated fossils. Southwest China has been identified from genetic research as a
hotspot of human diversity, containing ancient mtDNA and Y-DNA lineages, and has yielded a number of human remains
thought to derive from Pleistocene deposits. We have prepared, reconstructed, described and dated a new partial skull from
a consolidated sediment block collected in 1979 from the site of Longlin Cave (Guangxi Province). We also undertook new
excavations at Maludong (Yunnan Province) to clarify the stratigraphy and dating of a large sample of mostly undescribed
human remains from the site.
Methodology/Principal Findings: We undertook a detailed comparison of cranial, including a virtual endocast for the
Maludong calotte, mandibular and dental remains from these two localities. Both samples probably derive from the same
population, exhibiting an unusual mixture of modern human traits, characters probably plesiomorphic for later Homo, and
some unusual features. We dated charcoal with AMS radiocarbon dating and speleothem with the Uranium-series technique
and the results show both samples to be from the Pleistocene-Holocene transition: ,14.3-11.5 ka.
Conclusions/Significance: Our analysis suggests two plausible explanations for the morphology sampled at Longlin Cave
and Maludong. First, it may represent a late-surviving archaic population, perhaps paralleling the situation seen in North
Africa as indicated by remains from Dar-es-Soltane and Temara, and maybe also in southern China at Zhirendong.
Alternatively, East Asia may have been colonised during multiple waves during the Pleistocene, with the Longlin-Maludong
morphology possibly reflecting deep population substructure in Africa prior to modern humans dispersing into Eurasia.
used to constrain the age of a naturalistic outline hunter-gatherer painting in the Jinsha River area of
northwest Yunnan Province (southwest China). The rock paintings in this region are unique in style and
content compared with other bodies of rock art in China, which are dominated by Neolithic subject
matter. The minimum and maximum ages were determined using isochron techniques on multiple
samples of calcite from above and beneath the paint layer. A large painted deer head was dated to
between 5738 and 2050 years. This painting and underlying flowstone are superimposed on older
paintings that suggest the older paintings are at least 3400 years old, if not older than 5738 years.
The results indicate for the first time that Jinsha River rock art is older than other forms of rock art in the
region and show that rock art likely extends back to at least the transition from the Palaeolithic to
Neolithic in this part of China.
to the conclusion that phylogenetic-based explanations for robusticity should be reconsidered and a more parsimonious approach to explaining Aboriginal Australian origins taken. One that takes proper account of the complex processes involved in the growth of the human cranium rather than just assuming natural selection to explain every subtle variation seen in past populations. In doing so, the null hypothesis that robusticity might result from phenotypic plasticity alone cannot be rejected, a position at odds with both reticulate and deep-time continuity models of Australian origins.