In 2012 I retired from the Australian Public Service, and started to pursue my academic interests in a number of fields. These include Medieval Arthurian Literature, ancient Roman history, and Alexander the Great. In particular, Chretien de Troyes' Lancelot and Grail stories; the fall of the Roman Republic and early career of Augustus; military tactics and strategies of Alexander; near contemporary evidence on the life of the historical Jesus including non-canon sources and critical comparative source analysis. I have been a member of the North American branch of the International Arthurian Society for many years. Supervisors: Emeritus Prof. R D Milns and A/Prof J. Keith Atkinson
In this final appendix to my analysis of the Battle tactics of Alexander the Great, I examine the... more In this final appendix to my analysis of the Battle tactics of Alexander the Great, I examine the conflicting ancient accounts of the sack of Thebes by Alexander. In this study I shall attempt to reconcile the apparent different accounts, wherever possible. And I shall also use this as an example of how Alexander was able to use elements of his infantry phalanx away from their standard deployments for the major battles. In this, Thebes offers an example of how elements of his army were able to adapt themselves for different combat situations, such as in rugged terrain, siege-warfare and street fighting.
In this second appendix to my thesis on the Battle Tactics of Alexander the Great, I continue my ... more In this second appendix to my thesis on the Battle Tactics of Alexander the Great, I continue my review of Alexander's military engagements prior to the commencement of his long campaign against the Persian Empire. This paper examines the first campaign Alexander undertook as the new King of Macedonia. The campaign was prompted by reports of potential unrest in the tribal lands of Thrace and Illyria. The paper looks both at what our sources actually tell us about this expedition, and the problems arising from the conflicting accounts to be found not just between sources, but within the same main source. As well as looking at the evidence from a historiographic perspective, I shall also consider the signs within these accounts of the kinds of tactical developments Alexander will later come to use in his major battles and campaigns.
The Battle of Chaeronea was the first major battle in which a young prince who would later be kno... more The Battle of Chaeronea was the first major battle in which a young prince who would later be known as Alexander the Great, held a significant command position. This paper reexamines the limited evidence from ancient sources to determine what they actually tell us. It also takes a critical look at a number of earlier assessments by 'modern' scholars. In this research I seek to demonstrate how a number of eminent and influential scholars have been misled in their zeal, to unfounded conclusion based more on the Heroic Alexander tradition.
This chapter concludes my examination of Alexander’s last battle, the Battle of the Hydaspes. It... more This chapter concludes my examination of Alexander’s last battle, the Battle of the Hydaspes. It is as much an historiographical exercise as it is an analysis of the battle tactics used in the main battle. Because of this, the chapter is quite long, as it was also necessary to point out the misconceptions of previous studies of the battle, and to justify my own interpretation. Some elements of the chapter relating to the Indian army may later be amalgamated with earlier chapters on the Indians, in a single chapter.
This is the first of two chapters examining the course Alexander's last great battle, the Battle ... more This is the first of two chapters examining the course Alexander's last great battle, the Battle of the Hydaspes. In this battle Alexander the Great was fighting against the army of the Indian King, Porus. The battle was fought near the Hydaspes River, a tributary of the Indus. It was fought in two stages. In this chapter I look at where and when Alexander crossed the Hydaspes, Alexander's order of march, and the first combat between Alexander's forces and the Indian forces sent out to intercept him.
The main battle will be discussed in the next chapter.
Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire introduced the Macedonian King to a wide range of diff... more Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire introduced the Macedonian King to a wide range of different cultures, with different ways of fighting war. But in India, he faced a very different enemy. Ancient India had been relatively isolated from the turmoils that had shaped the history of much of Asia and Europe. And as a result warfare on the subcontinent continued to follow the 'heroic', and ritualised modes of combat of older times that had been long abandoned in the west. This paper looks at how the army of King Porus was shaped by Indian history and culture, and the impact that had on how his forces responded to Alexander's invasion.
At the Hydaspes River Alexander found himself confronted with a river in flood and an Indian King... more At the Hydaspes River Alexander found himself confronted with a river in flood and an Indian King determined to prevent him from crossing. This paper examines the diversions and subterfuges Alexander used to lull King Porus into a false sense of security. The paper then examines the troops Alexander had assembled to lead across the river by both listed units and named commanders, to determine the actual composition of this attack force.
This is the first of two chapters looking at the battle of the Hydaspes.
The chapter looks at Ale... more This is the first of two chapters looking at the battle of the Hydaspes. The chapter looks at Alexander’s entry into Taxila and his journey to the Hydaspes River. In this chapter I will discuss issues such as the cause of the battle, the dating of the battle, and review how much we know of where the battle was fought. I will also discuss the composition of the Indian army under Porus, and the way Alexander’s Companion cavalry had been reorganised as Hipparchies.
This is the second chapter to examine Alexander the Great’s march into India, prior to the battle... more This is the second chapter to examine Alexander the Great’s march into India, prior to the battle of the Hydaspes. The chapter focuses on Alexander’s conquest of the lands of the Assacensians, culminating in his capture of the Rock of Aornos. Again, in this chapter, I am seeking to try and understand why Alexander chose the course he did. And I am also looking for evidence of the presence of Persian troops in Alexander’s army at this time. Here, too, Alexander can be seen continually sub-dividing his army to address specific problems and issues. He will later use the same tactical flexibility at the battle of the Hydaspes.
This is the first of two chapters looking at Alexander the Great's march into India, prior to the... more This is the first of two chapters looking at Alexander the Great's march into India, prior to the battle of the Hydaspes. The chapter follows Alexander’s journey through difficult terrain into the land of the Aspasians. In this and the following chapter, I am seeking to try and understand why Alexander chose the course he did. I am also looking for evidence of the presence of Persian troops in Alexander's army that were present at the Hydaspes, but not mentioned in Arrian's list of the troops he led into India. In the course of these chapters, Alexander can also be seen to be continually sub-dividing his army to address specific problems and issues. He will later use the same tactical flexibility in manoeuvres leading up to the battle of the Hydaspes.
Alexander spent almost two years securing control of Bactria and Sogdiana. No major battles were... more Alexander spent almost two years securing control of Bactria and Sogdiana. No major battles were fought. Many of the events that happened during that period go well beyond the scope of this project, and shall not be addressed here. Instead, specific incidents, actions and policies will be reviewed for evidence of how Alexander was adapting to changing tactical threats, along with evidence that at this time Alexander was already making plans and preparations for his Indian campaign.
Some five years separate the battle of Gaugamela from Alexander's next major battle against Porus... more Some five years separate the battle of Gaugamela from Alexander's next major battle against Porus at the Hydaspes in India. This paper is the first of two to review the course of events over those five years, starting with Alexander's consolidation of control of the centre of the empire, the death of Darius, changes to the nature and structure of Alexander's army.
Gaugamela was the last major battle between the forces of Alexander the Great and the Persian Emp... more Gaugamela was the last major battle between the forces of Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire under Darius III. This chapter concludes my analysis of that battle, starting with the collapse of the Persian left flank. In this chapter particular attention I seek to reconcile the conflicting accounts in the sources as far as possible, to determine the most likely course of events. At the end of the chapter is a appendix that summarises the course of the battle by rough stages.
Gaugamela was the last major battle fought by Alexander the Great against the Persian empire. An... more Gaugamela was the last major battle fought by Alexander the Great against the Persian empire. Ancient sources provide conflicting tales of key events, but no clear account of the course of the battle. To understand what ‘really’ happened you also have to take account of what has not been said and what happened afterwards. This analysis is the product of those investigations. In Chapter 9, the first of two chapters on the actual fighting, I examine the initial Persian attacks and the related source problems.
The Battle Tactics of Alexander the Great (Revised), 2020
This brief chapter looks at the way Alexander deployed his forces for the battle of Gaugamela, wi... more This brief chapter looks at the way Alexander deployed his forces for the battle of Gaugamela, with particular attention to the way Alexander marched his army obliquely across the battlefield, and the significance of that action. This is quite a brief chapter but includes a number of diagrams to illustrate the Macedonian deployment.
The Battle tactics of Alexander the Great (Revised), 2019
As promised, in this second stage of the revisions to my original thesis chapter on the battle at... more As promised, in this second stage of the revisions to my original thesis chapter on the battle at Gaugamela I examine the regional backgrounds to the units of the Persian Army engaged at Gaugamela. Then, at the end, I offer a reconstruction of the Persian battle lines assembled against Gaugamela, based on my own interpretation of the available evidence.
This chapter marks the beginning of a three stage revision of my original thesis chapter on Alexa... more This chapter marks the beginning of a three stage revision of my original thesis chapter on Alexander the Great's battle against the Persians at Gaugamela. When the original Honour's thesis was written I did not have time to adequately address the issues around the Persian side of the battle. I am looking to correct that, now. In this chapter I have attempted to reconcile the conflict in our sources regarding the composition of the Persian army at Gaugamela, starting with three critical lists in our sources - two in Arrian and one in Curtius. In the process I have also begun to restructure the whole work, with Section 3 devoted wholly to Gaugamela. Chapter 7 will concentrate on the deployment of the Persian Army, while Chapter 8 will consider the Macedonian deployment and the course of the battle.
In this chapter - originally Chapter 3 in my 1980 thesis, I examine Alexander's tactics in the se... more In this chapter - originally Chapter 3 in my 1980 thesis, I examine Alexander's tactics in the second of his three major battles against the Persians. In this expanded account I have been able to also look in much more detail at the topography of the battle site and the composition of the Persian army, including a Prosopographic analysis of its known commanders. I have also included a number of diagrams to illustrate my key points. Most of the major additions are in blue.
In this short chapter I look at the issue of just where the Battle of Issus was fought. In so doi... more In this short chapter I look at the issue of just where the Battle of Issus was fought. In so doing I seek to lay to rest the vexed question of just which river the battle was fought across. There has been much debate about this in the past, with two conflicting views dominating. Settling this issue should help to make both the issues of troop deployments and the course of the battle clearer.
In this addition to my original thesis I address the circumstances that saw Alexander’s army havi... more In this addition to my original thesis I address the circumstances that saw Alexander’s army having to rush back from the Syrian Gates of Cilicia to confront late in the day an enemy that had somehow managed to get behind him. So this chapter temporarily shifts the focus of my thesis from tactical to strategic issues, and looks at the lingering questions over Alexander’s illness during his time in Tarsus.
In this final appendix to my analysis of the Battle tactics of Alexander the Great, I examine the... more In this final appendix to my analysis of the Battle tactics of Alexander the Great, I examine the conflicting ancient accounts of the sack of Thebes by Alexander. In this study I shall attempt to reconcile the apparent different accounts, wherever possible. And I shall also use this as an example of how Alexander was able to use elements of his infantry phalanx away from their standard deployments for the major battles. In this, Thebes offers an example of how elements of his army were able to adapt themselves for different combat situations, such as in rugged terrain, siege-warfare and street fighting.
In this second appendix to my thesis on the Battle Tactics of Alexander the Great, I continue my ... more In this second appendix to my thesis on the Battle Tactics of Alexander the Great, I continue my review of Alexander's military engagements prior to the commencement of his long campaign against the Persian Empire. This paper examines the first campaign Alexander undertook as the new King of Macedonia. The campaign was prompted by reports of potential unrest in the tribal lands of Thrace and Illyria. The paper looks both at what our sources actually tell us about this expedition, and the problems arising from the conflicting accounts to be found not just between sources, but within the same main source. As well as looking at the evidence from a historiographic perspective, I shall also consider the signs within these accounts of the kinds of tactical developments Alexander will later come to use in his major battles and campaigns.
The Battle of Chaeronea was the first major battle in which a young prince who would later be kno... more The Battle of Chaeronea was the first major battle in which a young prince who would later be known as Alexander the Great, held a significant command position. This paper reexamines the limited evidence from ancient sources to determine what they actually tell us. It also takes a critical look at a number of earlier assessments by 'modern' scholars. In this research I seek to demonstrate how a number of eminent and influential scholars have been misled in their zeal, to unfounded conclusion based more on the Heroic Alexander tradition.
This chapter concludes my examination of Alexander’s last battle, the Battle of the Hydaspes. It... more This chapter concludes my examination of Alexander’s last battle, the Battle of the Hydaspes. It is as much an historiographical exercise as it is an analysis of the battle tactics used in the main battle. Because of this, the chapter is quite long, as it was also necessary to point out the misconceptions of previous studies of the battle, and to justify my own interpretation. Some elements of the chapter relating to the Indian army may later be amalgamated with earlier chapters on the Indians, in a single chapter.
This is the first of two chapters examining the course Alexander's last great battle, the Battle ... more This is the first of two chapters examining the course Alexander's last great battle, the Battle of the Hydaspes. In this battle Alexander the Great was fighting against the army of the Indian King, Porus. The battle was fought near the Hydaspes River, a tributary of the Indus. It was fought in two stages. In this chapter I look at where and when Alexander crossed the Hydaspes, Alexander's order of march, and the first combat between Alexander's forces and the Indian forces sent out to intercept him.
The main battle will be discussed in the next chapter.
Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire introduced the Macedonian King to a wide range of diff... more Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire introduced the Macedonian King to a wide range of different cultures, with different ways of fighting war. But in India, he faced a very different enemy. Ancient India had been relatively isolated from the turmoils that had shaped the history of much of Asia and Europe. And as a result warfare on the subcontinent continued to follow the 'heroic', and ritualised modes of combat of older times that had been long abandoned in the west. This paper looks at how the army of King Porus was shaped by Indian history and culture, and the impact that had on how his forces responded to Alexander's invasion.
At the Hydaspes River Alexander found himself confronted with a river in flood and an Indian King... more At the Hydaspes River Alexander found himself confronted with a river in flood and an Indian King determined to prevent him from crossing. This paper examines the diversions and subterfuges Alexander used to lull King Porus into a false sense of security. The paper then examines the troops Alexander had assembled to lead across the river by both listed units and named commanders, to determine the actual composition of this attack force.
This is the first of two chapters looking at the battle of the Hydaspes.
The chapter looks at Ale... more This is the first of two chapters looking at the battle of the Hydaspes. The chapter looks at Alexander’s entry into Taxila and his journey to the Hydaspes River. In this chapter I will discuss issues such as the cause of the battle, the dating of the battle, and review how much we know of where the battle was fought. I will also discuss the composition of the Indian army under Porus, and the way Alexander’s Companion cavalry had been reorganised as Hipparchies.
This is the second chapter to examine Alexander the Great’s march into India, prior to the battle... more This is the second chapter to examine Alexander the Great’s march into India, prior to the battle of the Hydaspes. The chapter focuses on Alexander’s conquest of the lands of the Assacensians, culminating in his capture of the Rock of Aornos. Again, in this chapter, I am seeking to try and understand why Alexander chose the course he did. And I am also looking for evidence of the presence of Persian troops in Alexander’s army at this time. Here, too, Alexander can be seen continually sub-dividing his army to address specific problems and issues. He will later use the same tactical flexibility at the battle of the Hydaspes.
This is the first of two chapters looking at Alexander the Great's march into India, prior to the... more This is the first of two chapters looking at Alexander the Great's march into India, prior to the battle of the Hydaspes. The chapter follows Alexander’s journey through difficult terrain into the land of the Aspasians. In this and the following chapter, I am seeking to try and understand why Alexander chose the course he did. I am also looking for evidence of the presence of Persian troops in Alexander's army that were present at the Hydaspes, but not mentioned in Arrian's list of the troops he led into India. In the course of these chapters, Alexander can also be seen to be continually sub-dividing his army to address specific problems and issues. He will later use the same tactical flexibility in manoeuvres leading up to the battle of the Hydaspes.
Alexander spent almost two years securing control of Bactria and Sogdiana. No major battles were... more Alexander spent almost two years securing control of Bactria and Sogdiana. No major battles were fought. Many of the events that happened during that period go well beyond the scope of this project, and shall not be addressed here. Instead, specific incidents, actions and policies will be reviewed for evidence of how Alexander was adapting to changing tactical threats, along with evidence that at this time Alexander was already making plans and preparations for his Indian campaign.
Some five years separate the battle of Gaugamela from Alexander's next major battle against Porus... more Some five years separate the battle of Gaugamela from Alexander's next major battle against Porus at the Hydaspes in India. This paper is the first of two to review the course of events over those five years, starting with Alexander's consolidation of control of the centre of the empire, the death of Darius, changes to the nature and structure of Alexander's army.
Gaugamela was the last major battle between the forces of Alexander the Great and the Persian Emp... more Gaugamela was the last major battle between the forces of Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire under Darius III. This chapter concludes my analysis of that battle, starting with the collapse of the Persian left flank. In this chapter particular attention I seek to reconcile the conflicting accounts in the sources as far as possible, to determine the most likely course of events. At the end of the chapter is a appendix that summarises the course of the battle by rough stages.
Gaugamela was the last major battle fought by Alexander the Great against the Persian empire. An... more Gaugamela was the last major battle fought by Alexander the Great against the Persian empire. Ancient sources provide conflicting tales of key events, but no clear account of the course of the battle. To understand what ‘really’ happened you also have to take account of what has not been said and what happened afterwards. This analysis is the product of those investigations. In Chapter 9, the first of two chapters on the actual fighting, I examine the initial Persian attacks and the related source problems.
The Battle Tactics of Alexander the Great (Revised), 2020
This brief chapter looks at the way Alexander deployed his forces for the battle of Gaugamela, wi... more This brief chapter looks at the way Alexander deployed his forces for the battle of Gaugamela, with particular attention to the way Alexander marched his army obliquely across the battlefield, and the significance of that action. This is quite a brief chapter but includes a number of diagrams to illustrate the Macedonian deployment.
The Battle tactics of Alexander the Great (Revised), 2019
As promised, in this second stage of the revisions to my original thesis chapter on the battle at... more As promised, in this second stage of the revisions to my original thesis chapter on the battle at Gaugamela I examine the regional backgrounds to the units of the Persian Army engaged at Gaugamela. Then, at the end, I offer a reconstruction of the Persian battle lines assembled against Gaugamela, based on my own interpretation of the available evidence.
This chapter marks the beginning of a three stage revision of my original thesis chapter on Alexa... more This chapter marks the beginning of a three stage revision of my original thesis chapter on Alexander the Great's battle against the Persians at Gaugamela. When the original Honour's thesis was written I did not have time to adequately address the issues around the Persian side of the battle. I am looking to correct that, now. In this chapter I have attempted to reconcile the conflict in our sources regarding the composition of the Persian army at Gaugamela, starting with three critical lists in our sources - two in Arrian and one in Curtius. In the process I have also begun to restructure the whole work, with Section 3 devoted wholly to Gaugamela. Chapter 7 will concentrate on the deployment of the Persian Army, while Chapter 8 will consider the Macedonian deployment and the course of the battle.
In this chapter - originally Chapter 3 in my 1980 thesis, I examine Alexander's tactics in the se... more In this chapter - originally Chapter 3 in my 1980 thesis, I examine Alexander's tactics in the second of his three major battles against the Persians. In this expanded account I have been able to also look in much more detail at the topography of the battle site and the composition of the Persian army, including a Prosopographic analysis of its known commanders. I have also included a number of diagrams to illustrate my key points. Most of the major additions are in blue.
In this short chapter I look at the issue of just where the Battle of Issus was fought. In so doi... more In this short chapter I look at the issue of just where the Battle of Issus was fought. In so doing I seek to lay to rest the vexed question of just which river the battle was fought across. There has been much debate about this in the past, with two conflicting views dominating. Settling this issue should help to make both the issues of troop deployments and the course of the battle clearer.
In this addition to my original thesis I address the circumstances that saw Alexander’s army havi... more In this addition to my original thesis I address the circumstances that saw Alexander’s army having to rush back from the Syrian Gates of Cilicia to confront late in the day an enemy that had somehow managed to get behind him. So this chapter temporarily shifts the focus of my thesis from tactical to strategic issues, and looks at the lingering questions over Alexander’s illness during his time in Tarsus.
As explained in the earlier parts of this work, I have always seen Augustus as a product of his t... more As explained in the earlier parts of this work, I have always seen Augustus as a product of his time. In this final part of my 20,000+ examination of Augustus’ early career I look first at how, and why, Mark Antony repeatedly sought to impede Octavian’s early moves to have his adoption by Caesar recognised, and to claim his inheritance. I consider the problems this caused for both Octavian and Antony, and how the cycle of reconciliations and rifts drove Octavian to side with Cicero and the conservative factions in the Senate. In this, I look at both the political and other inducements offered by the Senate to win Octavian to their side, and the way the conservatives then attempted to recant their promises after the battle that saw Antony defeated and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa dead on the field, leaving Octavian in sole command of the conservative factions army. These last betrayals were what pushed Octavian, now much better placed politically and militarily, back towards the Caesarian faction and the foundation of the Second Triumvirate. I should also note that a great part of this paper is taken up with resolving the confused chronology of Appian’s account, through careful use of corroborating evidence from Cicero’s letters from that time. This section covers events from April to October 44. I have made some significant restructuring of this section prior to publication here. The last part of my paper was rather rushed, simply because – when I originally wrote it – I was running out of time. The key events are covered, albeit briefly.
In the last decades of the Roman Republic, Rome came very close to collapse. Augustus brought an ... more In the last decades of the Roman Republic, Rome came very close to collapse. Augustus brought an end to the civil wars that were tearing the state apart. He did bring peace. But there are still many who see him as a monster and a tyrant. I see him as a product of his time. In this second part of my 20,000+ examination of Augustus' early career I examine Octavian's early moves from his return to Italy after Caesar's assassination up to just after his arrival in Rome. In this paper I look at the people he met on his travels to Rome, his formal acceptance of his adoption by Caesar, and his inheritance, his first meeting with Mark Antony.
This paper also looks at some of the problems of chronology in the surviving accounts, and the circumstances and possible content of Octavian's first public speech in Rome.
In the last decades of the Roman Republic, Rome came very close to collapse. Augustus brought an ... more In the last decades of the Roman Republic, Rome came very close to collapse. Augustus brought an end to the civil wars that were tearing the state apart. He did bring peace. But there are still many who see him as a monster and a tyrant. I see him as a product of his time. This paper is the first part of a 20,000+ examination of Octavian's early career following Caesar's assassination. The paper was a detailed examination of events in the two years (roughly) immediately after the assassination. In this work I seek to put Octavian, who would become Augustus, back into the context of his times.
http://www.friendsofantiquity.org.au/documents/novas/2015/2015-10.pdf, Oct 2015
Written in 1980 as part of the course work for my Honours year, this paper is a brief review of ... more Written in 1980 as part of the course work for my Honours year, this paper is a brief review of the work of the 'lost' historians of the early Roman Principate. In particular the paper examines what we know of the works of Aufidius Bassus, the elder Pliny, the elder Seneca, Bruttedius Niger, Cluvius Rufus, Vipstanus Messala and Fabius Rusticus under the heading 'Imperial Annalists'.
An examination of the career of Crassus, with particular attention to conflicting evidence in the... more An examination of the career of Crassus, with particular attention to conflicting evidence in the available sources regarding his early life. The paper is a revision of a paper originally written in the late 1970's. It takes note of the few issues brought to my attention by my tutor at the time, and makes some adjustments based on my own recent review of the sources.
A critical examination of the ancient sources regarding Julius Caesar's opposition to the executi... more A critical examination of the ancient sources regarding Julius Caesar's opposition to the execution of Catiline's co-conspirators. Sallust's account is compared to the evidence from Cicero's speech (In Catilinam IV), along with later accounts. The paper is based on an old 1979 assignment, but with some reference updates and other minor adjustments.
The Arthurian Romances of Chrétien de Troyes: A Prosopographic Analysis, 2017
In this concluding section of my prosopographic analysis of the poems of Chrétien’s Arthurian poe... more In this concluding section of my prosopographic analysis of the poems of Chrétien’s Arthurian poems, I reflect upon the way King Arthur’s own family expanded and evolved under the adept hand of the poet we know as Chrétien de Troyes.
In Part 3 of my Prosopographic analysis of the poems of Chrétien’s Arthurian poems, I take a clos... more In Part 3 of my Prosopographic analysis of the poems of Chrétien’s Arthurian poems, I take a closer look at the characters Chrétien made more regular use of. Here, too, we find that Chrétien was frequently unfamiliar with the tradition behind the name, leading him to completely reinvent the character. Among these we also find the names of a number of characters who were apparently invented by Chrétien. Names like Sagremor, Dodinel and Girflet, who would claim their own places in later tradition. And in the case of the best known names, like Lancelot, Perceval and Kay, we touch upon some interesting insights into these well-known heroes, and in one case glimpse a lost tale that Chrétien chose to hold onto, albeit in the most oblique of references.
In Part 2 of my Prosopographic analysis of the poems of Chrétien’s Arthurian poems, I take a clos... more In Part 2 of my Prosopographic analysis of the poems of Chrétien’s Arthurian poems, I take a closer look at the few characters who feature only in the three stories Chrétien tells in his Erec and Enide poem. What these show is that, at the time he wrote this first poem, Chrétien was quite unfamiliar with the tradition he was drawing upon. And this led his to cast some characters, such as Yder, Son of Nut, into roles at odds with the Welsh tradition behind their names.
Again, a heavily truncated version of this paper was presented at the Fourth Annual Symposium on Medieval and Renaissance Studies in St Louis, Missouri, USA in June 2016.
In Chrétien’s Erec et Enide, depending on the redaction, there are 80 to 100+ characters named, s... more In Chrétien’s Erec et Enide, depending on the redaction, there are 80 to 100+ characters named, significantly more than in any of his other Arthurian poems. Using prosopographic techniques my paper will examine the names of those characters; the origins of those names; their use in Erec; and how consistent Chrétien was in the role of those characters in his later poems. I will argue that, in writing Erec et Enide, Chrétien was laying the foundations for an entire series of Arthurian stories. This does not mean he had a clear vision of the later tales he wanted to tell. Rather, I will argue, the names offer evidence of the poet’s awareness of the rich literary and oral tradition he wanted to draw on, including Wace, non- Arthurian Breton lays, and other names obliquely derived from Welsh or other Celtic traditions. Sometimes, the names were used out of context. In other cases the actual names, possibly in prior transmission or by Chrétien himself, were wrongly translated or transcribed, with some characters occasionally being recreated in forms quite alien to their origin. Viewed as a whole, the way Chrétien initially used these names, and then recast some characters’ roles in later poems, either intentionally or unwittingly, has much to tell us about his overall approach to his work. A heavily truncated version of this paper was presented at the Fourth Annual Symposium on Medieval and Renaissance Studies in St Louis, Missouri, USA in June 2016.
This paper argues that in the Conte du Graal Chrétien was seeking to present a subtle, deliberate... more This paper argues that in the Conte du Graal Chrétien was seeking to present a subtle, deliberately crafted criticism of the feudal, militaristic culture in which he lived. A criticism, and a warning of the risk of social collapse that can follow when the powerful lords who hold the culture together, are slain or otherwise rendered politically impotent. The paper will seek to show how this theme of wrongful dispossession, disinheritance and impoverishment, runs throughout the poem, and is not limited solely to the feature elements of Perceval’s family, the Grail castle, and the Castle of Maidens. And the social vulnerability portrayed is but a reflection of his Chrétien’s own culture’s political violence and the social attrition arising from tournaments and the crusades. The true hero of the poem must then be seen as the one who corrects these wrongs.
In Le Chevalier de la Charette, the hero, Lancelot, spends the first half of the romance unnamed,... more In Le Chevalier de la Charette, the hero, Lancelot, spends the first half of the romance unnamed, and apparently unrecognised, even though, as presented later in the poem, he is clearly a prominent figure at Arthur's court. Why was he left unnamed for so long? Is it merely one of Chrétien's literary device? A distortion by the poet of an older tradition about Lancelot, such as we find presented in the Lanzelet? Or does something else lie behind it? The question clearly vexed the author of the parallel section of the Prose Lancelot, considering the lengths he went to, to rationalise the events of Chrétien's poem. In this paper I would like to offer an alternative interpretation. A comparative study that also draws parallels with the Fair Unknown tales and L'Atre Perilleux (The PerilousGraveyard).
A brief comparison of common theme elements with Le Bel Inconnu, the German Lanzelet, and the Vul... more A brief comparison of common theme elements with Le Bel Inconnu, the German Lanzelet, and the Vulgate Cycle's Prose Lancelot.
Today, most people know the story of Arthur drawing the sword from the stone, and many also know ... more Today, most people know the story of Arthur drawing the sword from the stone, and many also know the tale of his taking the sword from a hand rising out of the middle of a lake. Yet if you ask them to name Arthur’s sword, only one name, Excalibur, will spring to mind. So, did Arthur have two swords, only one of which was named, or was there only one sword, with two different accounts of its origins?
This paper examines how the modern confusion has arisen from the way the legend of Arthur’s sword was transmitted across cultures over the course of the Middle Ages. Starting with the earliest Welsh accounts, references to Arthur’s swords are traced through the Latin, Old French and Middle English texts. But it is in the early French tradition that we find the seeds of much of the later confusion. Here, a simple misunderstanding produced much later confusion as to just whose sword Excalibur really was. Thereafter, the story of Arthur’s “swords” becomes a struggle to account for, and lay the puzzle to rest. In the course of this, new tales began to be introduced to account for the origins of Arthur’s sword, and to relate its passing, while at the same time, new swords are introduced to fill the place of Excalibur in Arthur’s hand.
Most of these swords are now largely forgotten, but the stories told to account for them have much to tell us about the way cultural and linguistic differences and sometimes simple biases continually reshaped the very Arthurian legend itself. And they also reveal something too often overlooked about the role of the King’s sword in the hand of the King’s Champion.
This paper was presented and published in 1999. The current text has been subject to minor revisions to correct typographical errors, but the substance of the text remains unchanged.
In the incomplete Le Conte du Graal the number of lines devoted to Perceval’s story is about 5000... more In the incomplete Le Conte du Graal the number of lines devoted to Perceval’s story is about 5000, compared to the 4000 spent relating Gawain’s adventures. In the Grail poem, we are early on presented with a prophecy that, if Perceval lives long enough, there will never be a better knight than he. It is a prophecy never to be fulfilled in the unfinished work. But later on in the poem we do see Sir Gawain pass the test of the Bed of Marvels, a challenge which the text makes clear could only be met by the very best and noblest of knights. Yet for all that, scholars continue to dismiss Gawain’s role as being no more than that of a role model for Perceval, a model that Perceval as hero is bound to surpass. And some even go so far as to dismiss the Gawain section of the narrative almost entirely from their discussion of the romance.
Through a comparison of various modern interpretations of Gawain’s adventures at Tintagel, this paper examines the way pre-conceptions about Gawain’s role shapes the way different scholars interpret the same events. Following this, a single modern study is looked at to see how another instance of retrospective interpretation the term “les isles de Mer” can lead to a very novel reinterpretation of the Grail legend.
Though focusing on the particular, this paper complements and corroborates the arguments of my 2008 paper, “Chrétien’s Conte du Graal and the Fatal Flaw in Feudalism”.
Early in Malory’s Morte d'Arthur, King Arthur makes his knights swear an oath to abide by the sta... more Early in Malory’s Morte d'Arthur, King Arthur makes his knights swear an oath to abide by the standards he expects of them. This paper is a brief examination of Malory’s concept of chivalry and how different knights, including the king, himself, either succeeded or failed to meet the standards of that oath. And the consequences of failing to adhere to it. In the process I'll also looks at the way Malory modified his sources to develop this theme, particularly with respect to Lancelot, who Malory sought to present as the best of Arthur’s knights. The paper was originally written in 1979 for a Middle English course . When I wrote it, I had no knowledge of the French sources Malory used, beyond references in the Middle English text books cited. Translations of many of the French works have only become available in the last couple of decades. For completeness, I have added additional comments to my footnotes to identify Malory's Old French sources, where these have been identified.
A critical evaluation of this book, together with a look at an ongoing problem in modern scholars... more A critical evaluation of this book, together with a look at an ongoing problem in modern scholarship, "the need to be continually in print, ready or not".
The initial draft of my review of Andrea Williams book was longer than the published version. The... more The initial draft of my review of Andrea Williams book was longer than the published version. The final copy was shortened solely to fit the editorial requirements of the journal in which it appeared. To achieve this, my comments on the work as a whole had to be shortened, and discussion on particular sections of the work had to be dropped. The material published here offers further clarification of points raised in the published review.
In this 3rd year paper I take a critical look at a specific quote from the eminent Roman scholar,... more In this 3rd year paper I take a critical look at a specific quote from the eminent Roman scholar, Ronald Syme, on Nerva's accession as emperor after the death of Domitian.
This short Appendix follows on from discussion on the Academia Session regarding my most recent T... more This short Appendix follows on from discussion on the Academia Session regarding my most recent Thesis Chapter on the Pinarus River to demonstrate how much ancient geography has been obliterated by urban development. This was the reason I chose not to include a modern map in Chapter 4 of my Thesis.
Harpalus
For several months I’ve been working on revising a paper I’d written on the assassinati... more Harpalus
For several months I’ve been working on revising a paper I’d written on the assassination of Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.
In the course of this I found myself looking at the so called 'friends' of the young Alexander who were exiled shortly before Philip was killed. I had already dismissed as ‘fiction’ the alleged Pixodarus affair described by Plutarch. But that left raised the question that if that affair did not happen, why were they exiled? So I started to look at each of the hetairoi in a new appendix. That was largely straightforward except for Harpalus. As this draft paper will explain, his story is quite complex and has taken more work than all the other hetairoi.
The current draws upon a number of diverse and conflicting sources. In reconstructing Harpalus’ life the paper takes a critical look at what I consider the way Harpalus has been misrepresented in some of the primary sources, while providing a fresh interpretation of some of the key events in his life, including in particular his first flight from Asia.
Because it began life as part of a much larger whole, the work does include references to other parts of the original paper, such as Appendix 2, in which I look at the chronology of Philip’s marriages. If you have any questions on those matters I’m happy to answer them.
Part of that involved looking at the conspiracy theories that Alexander’s mother, Olympias, and/or Alexander himself were behind the assassination. This has led me to make my own revision on the chronology of those marriages in a new appendix on the subject. I’m open to all constructive feedback. I’m also considering the worth of publishing the paper in its own right, after some adjustments, and welcome any thoughts or suggestions on that front.
This paper argues that Marius political career was shaped more by the circumstances of the times ... more This paper argues that Marius political career was shaped more by the circumstances of the times in which he lived, rather than by his military achievements and possible Army reforms. The paper was originally written as an assignment in 1979. I have made a couple of amendments and added some new comments in the footnotes to take account of my tutor's feedback. (Sadly, I can't remember his full name), and recent work by Michael Taylor available from academia.edu.
Some five years separate the battle of Gaugamela from Alexander's next major battle against Porus... more Some five years separate the battle of Gaugamela from Alexander's next major battle against Porus at the Hydaspes in India. This paper is the first of two to review the course of events over those five years, starting with Alexander's consolidation of control of the centre of the empire, the death of Darius, changes to the nature and structure of Alexander's army.
This paper, written in the second year of my Honours’ degree, takes a brief look at the Athenian ... more This paper, written in the second year of my Honours’ degree, takes a brief look at the Athenian politician and general, Alcibiades. The paper does not offer a detailed account of Alcibiades’ career. Rather, it examines key events in his life from the perspective of what the fluctuations of his career can tell us about the vulnerabilities of Athenian politics to manipulation during the Peloponnesian War.
Because this was one of my early assignments, the original paper did take it for granted that the person marking the paper was well acquainted with the historical background to the discussion. This was quite acceptable for the time, but for a broader audience I have added some background notes to put the discussion in context.
In 336 BCE the father of Alexander the Great, Philip II of Macedon, was murdered. The issues of w... more In 336 BCE the father of Alexander the Great, Philip II of Macedon, was murdered. The issues of who was or were responsible for the death and why, have been the subject of ongoing debate back to the time of Alexander, with at least eight theories now current. Much has already been written on this subject, and in modern debate, the question has largely focused on motive. The trouble with this approach is that after the fact it is quite easy to attach motives to all the suspects. But assassination and the murder of prominent public figures remains an ongoing problem. And there has been considerable research undertaken in recent years into trying to understand the mind and motives of the modern assassin. It is through the lens of this research that I have undertaken a new examination of the killer of Philip II of Macedon, while seeking to establish the facts of the actual event, in so far as they can reasonably be derived from the surviving ancient sources.
Please note: This is now the final draft of this paper, and replaces both the original article an... more Please note: This is now the final draft of this paper, and replaces both the original article and the later part 2 article. If you have never read A E van Vogt's novel "The Voyage of the Space Beagle", it's likely you will have never heard of Nexialism. Fortunately, van Vogt gave his readers a definition of this then putative new science at the start of Chapter 7. "Nexialism is the science of joining in an orderly fashion the knowledge of one field of learning with that of other fields." A. E. van Vogt, The Voyage of the Space Beagle, 1950. Essentially, Nexialism was an anticipation of the interdisciplinary, cross-disciplinary and multidisciplinary lines of research we now find proliferating in modern scholarship. But beyond that, van Vogt argues that to get scientists from different disciplines to work together in a truly effective way, a bridge-builder was needed: a properly trained specialist in the mechanics of interdisciplinary studies, who could br...
An examination of the early career of the Emperor Domitian, younger son of Vespasian. This is a r... more An examination of the early career of the Emperor Domitian, younger son of Vespasian. This is a recent revision of a research paper first written in my Honours' year. Brian Jones, whose works are cited herein, was my supervisor for this work. Roman Imperial History. Roman History. Historiography. Prosopography. Epigraphy. Numismatics.
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Thesis Chapters by Kathleen Toohey
As well as looking at the evidence from a historiographic perspective, I shall also consider the signs within these accounts of the kinds of tactical developments Alexander will later come to use in his major battles and campaigns.
The main battle will be discussed in the next chapter.
This paper looks at how the army of King Porus was shaped by Indian history and culture, and the impact that had on how his forces responded to Alexander's invasion.
The chapter looks at Alexander’s entry into Taxila and his journey to the Hydaspes River.
In this chapter I will discuss issues such as the cause of the battle, the dating of the battle, and review how much we know of where the battle was fought. I will also discuss the composition of the Indian army under Porus, and the way Alexander’s Companion cavalry had been reorganised as Hipparchies.
The chapter follows Alexander’s journey through difficult terrain into the land of the Aspasians. In this and the following chapter, I am seeking to try and understand why Alexander chose the course he did. I am also looking for evidence of the presence of Persian troops in Alexander's army that were present at the Hydaspes, but not mentioned in Arrian's list of the troops he led into India.
In the course of these chapters, Alexander can also be seen to be continually sub-dividing his army to address specific problems and issues. He will later use the same tactical flexibility in manoeuvres leading up to the battle of the Hydaspes.
In Chapter 9, the first of two chapters on the actual fighting, I examine the initial Persian attacks and the related source problems.
This is quite a brief chapter but includes a number of diagrams to illustrate the Macedonian deployment.
When the original Honour's thesis was written I did not have time to adequately address the issues around the Persian side of the battle. I am looking to correct that, now.
In this chapter I have attempted to reconcile the conflict in our sources regarding the composition of the Persian army at Gaugamela, starting with three critical lists in our sources - two in Arrian and one in Curtius.
In the process I have also begun to restructure the whole work, with Section 3 devoted wholly to Gaugamela. Chapter 7 will concentrate on the deployment of the Persian Army, while Chapter 8 will consider the Macedonian deployment and the course of the battle.
In this expanded account I have been able to also look in much more detail at the topography of the battle site and the composition of the Persian army, including a Prosopographic analysis of its known commanders. I have also included a number of diagrams to illustrate my key points.
Most of the major additions are in blue.
As well as looking at the evidence from a historiographic perspective, I shall also consider the signs within these accounts of the kinds of tactical developments Alexander will later come to use in his major battles and campaigns.
The main battle will be discussed in the next chapter.
This paper looks at how the army of King Porus was shaped by Indian history and culture, and the impact that had on how his forces responded to Alexander's invasion.
The chapter looks at Alexander’s entry into Taxila and his journey to the Hydaspes River.
In this chapter I will discuss issues such as the cause of the battle, the dating of the battle, and review how much we know of where the battle was fought. I will also discuss the composition of the Indian army under Porus, and the way Alexander’s Companion cavalry had been reorganised as Hipparchies.
The chapter follows Alexander’s journey through difficult terrain into the land of the Aspasians. In this and the following chapter, I am seeking to try and understand why Alexander chose the course he did. I am also looking for evidence of the presence of Persian troops in Alexander's army that were present at the Hydaspes, but not mentioned in Arrian's list of the troops he led into India.
In the course of these chapters, Alexander can also be seen to be continually sub-dividing his army to address specific problems and issues. He will later use the same tactical flexibility in manoeuvres leading up to the battle of the Hydaspes.
In Chapter 9, the first of two chapters on the actual fighting, I examine the initial Persian attacks and the related source problems.
This is quite a brief chapter but includes a number of diagrams to illustrate the Macedonian deployment.
When the original Honour's thesis was written I did not have time to adequately address the issues around the Persian side of the battle. I am looking to correct that, now.
In this chapter I have attempted to reconcile the conflict in our sources regarding the composition of the Persian army at Gaugamela, starting with three critical lists in our sources - two in Arrian and one in Curtius.
In the process I have also begun to restructure the whole work, with Section 3 devoted wholly to Gaugamela. Chapter 7 will concentrate on the deployment of the Persian Army, while Chapter 8 will consider the Macedonian deployment and the course of the battle.
In this expanded account I have been able to also look in much more detail at the topography of the battle site and the composition of the Persian army, including a Prosopographic analysis of its known commanders. I have also included a number of diagrams to illustrate my key points.
Most of the major additions are in blue.
These last betrayals were what pushed Octavian, now much better placed politically and militarily, back towards the Caesarian faction and the foundation of the Second Triumvirate.
I should also note that a great part of this paper is taken up with resolving the confused chronology of Appian’s account, through careful use of corroborating evidence from Cicero’s letters from that time. This section covers events from April to October 44. I have made some significant restructuring of this section prior to publication here.
The last part of my paper was rather rushed, simply because – when I originally wrote it – I was running out of time. The key events are covered, albeit briefly.
This paper also looks at some of the problems of chronology in the surviving accounts, and the circumstances and possible content of Octavian's first public speech in Rome.
The paper is based on an old 1979 assignment, but with some reference updates and other minor adjustments.
Again, a heavily truncated version of this paper was presented at the Fourth Annual Symposium on Medieval and Renaissance Studies in St Louis, Missouri, USA in June 2016.
I will argue that, in writing Erec et Enide, Chrétien was laying the foundations for an entire series of Arthurian stories. This does not mean he had a clear vision of the later tales he wanted to tell. Rather, I will argue, the names offer evidence of the poet’s awareness of the rich literary and oral tradition he wanted to draw on, including Wace, non- Arthurian Breton lays, and other names obliquely derived from Welsh or other Celtic traditions. Sometimes, the names were used out of context. In other cases the actual names, possibly in prior transmission or by Chrétien himself, were wrongly translated or transcribed, with some characters occasionally being recreated in forms quite alien to their origin. Viewed as a whole, the way Chrétien initially used these names, and then recast some characters’ roles in later poems, either intentionally or unwittingly, has much to tell us about his overall approach to his work.
A heavily truncated version of this paper was presented at the Fourth Annual Symposium on Medieval and Renaissance Studies in St Louis, Missouri, USA in June 2016.
THE KNIGHT WHO LOST HIS NAME: LANCELOT IN LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARETTE. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236236279_THE_KNIGHT_WHO_LOST_HIS_NAME_LANCELOT_IN_LE_CHEVALIER_DE_LA_CHARETTE [accessed Mar 23, 2015].
Presented at the XXth International Arthurian Congress in Bangor, Wales, July 2002.
This paper examines how the modern confusion has arisen from the way the legend of Arthur’s sword was transmitted across cultures over the course of the Middle Ages. Starting with the earliest Welsh accounts, references to Arthur’s swords are traced through the Latin, Old French and Middle English texts. But it is in the early French tradition that we find the seeds of much of the later confusion. Here, a simple misunderstanding produced much later confusion as to just whose sword Excalibur really was. Thereafter, the story of Arthur’s “swords” becomes a struggle to account for, and lay the puzzle to rest. In the course of this, new tales began to be introduced to account for the origins of Arthur’s sword, and to relate its passing, while at the same time, new swords are introduced to fill the place of Excalibur in Arthur’s hand.
Most of these swords are now largely forgotten, but the stories told to account for them have much to tell us about the way cultural and linguistic differences and sometimes simple biases continually reshaped the very Arthurian legend itself. And they also reveal something too often overlooked about the role of the King’s sword in the hand of the King’s Champion.
This paper was presented and published in 1999. The current text has been subject to minor revisions to correct typographical errors, but the substance of the text remains unchanged.
Through a comparison of various modern interpretations of Gawain’s adventures at Tintagel, this paper examines the way pre-conceptions about Gawain’s role shapes the way different scholars interpret the same events. Following this, a single modern study is looked at to see how another instance of retrospective interpretation the term “les isles de Mer” can lead to a very novel reinterpretation of the Grail legend.
Though focusing on the particular, this paper complements and corroborates the arguments of my 2008 paper, “Chrétien’s Conte du Graal and the Fatal Flaw in Feudalism”.
Misdirections; A critical review of two past interpretations of Le Conte du Graal. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236901171_Misdirections_A_critical_review_of_two_past_interpretations_of_Le_Conte_du_Graal [accessed Mar 22, 2015].
The paper was originally written in 1979 for a Middle English course . When I wrote it, I had no knowledge of the French sources Malory used, beyond references in the Middle English text books cited. Translations of many of the French works have only become available in the last couple of decades. For completeness, I have added additional comments to my footnotes to identify Malory's Old French sources, where these have been identified.
For several months I’ve been working on revising a paper I’d written on the assassination of Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.
In the course of this I found myself looking at the so called 'friends' of the young Alexander who were exiled shortly before Philip was killed. I had already dismissed as ‘fiction’ the alleged Pixodarus affair described by Plutarch. But that left raised the question that if that affair did not happen, why were they exiled? So I started to look at each of the hetairoi in a new appendix. That was largely straightforward except for Harpalus. As this draft paper will explain, his story is quite complex and has taken more work than all the other hetairoi.
The current draws upon a number of diverse and conflicting sources. In reconstructing Harpalus’ life the paper takes a critical look at what I consider the way Harpalus has been misrepresented in some of the primary sources, while providing a fresh interpretation of some of the key events in his life, including in particular his first flight from Asia.
Because it began life as part of a much larger whole, the work does include references to other parts of the original paper, such as Appendix 2, in which I look at the chronology of Philip’s marriages. If you have any questions on those matters I’m happy to answer them.
Part of that involved looking at the conspiracy theories that Alexander’s mother, Olympias, and/or Alexander himself were behind the assassination. This has led me to make my own revision on the chronology of those marriages in a new appendix on the subject.
I’m open to all constructive feedback. I’m also considering the worth of publishing the paper in its own right, after some adjustments, and welcome any thoughts or suggestions on that front.
The paper was originally written as an assignment in 1979. I have made a couple of amendments and added some new comments in the footnotes to take account of my tutor's feedback. (Sadly, I can't remember his full name), and recent work by Michael Taylor available from academia.edu.
Because this was one of my early assignments, the original paper did take it for granted that the person marking the paper was well acquainted with the historical background to the discussion. This was quite acceptable for the time, but for a broader audience I have added some background notes to put the discussion in context.