William A Smith currently works at the University of Utah in the Huntsman Mental Health Institute as the Chief Executive Administrator and the Department of Psychiatry. Dr. Smith is a full professor in the Department of Education, Culture, and Society and in the Ethnic Studies program. William does research in Higher Education and Educational Policy. His current project is 'Racial Battle Fatigue'.
Background: This study explored whether opinions about the government’s role in addressing the CO... more Background: This study explored whether opinions about the government’s role in addressing the COVID-19 pandemic vary based on demographic characteristics and racial beliefs. We hypothesized that opinions about the United States (U.S.) government’s response to COVID-19 would differ based on an individual’s characteristics such as age, race, and racial beliefs. Methods: We utilized an Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research dataset to examine differences in opinion regarding the government’s pandemic response, considering personal characteristics and racial beliefs. Descriptive statistics depicted respondents’ characteristics, and a Chi-square test for independence assessed whether differences emerged based on racial attitude, self-reported racial identity, sex, income, education, and age. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to independently determine which characteristics were associated with differences in evaluating the government’s pandemic response. Results: The sample consisted of 1028 respondents: 47.5% male and 52.5% female. Overall, the group viewed the government unfavorably, with only 40% reporting that the government responded correctly and 54% believing the government is almost always wasteful and inefficient. Hispanics or Latinos were more likely to view the government as wasteful or inefficient, while more Whites rated the government’s pandemic response as appropriate. Individuals who believed that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead generally regarded the government’s pandemic response more favorably. Only 5% deemed the government’s response excessive. Being Black, younger, and female was associated with the view that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead. Individuals who felt this way viewed the government unfavorably by almost a 2:1 ratio. Conclusions: A majority of U.S. residents do not believe the government responded correctly to the pandemic and more than half viewed the government as wasteful and inefficient. Differences emerged by ethnicity and racial attitudes, with individuals of color holding more negative views of the government’s response. Understanding this perspective can help develop messaging and strategies that resonate with communities where racial and minority groups live.
Differential rewarding of work and experience has been a longtime feature of academic medicine, r... more Differential rewarding of work and experience has been a longtime feature of academic medicine, resulting in a series of academic disparities. These disparities have been collectively called a cultural or minority “tax,” and, when considered beyond academic medicine, exist across all departments, colleges, and schools of institutions of higher learning–from health sciences to disciplines located on university campuses outside of medicine and health. A shared language can provide opportunities for those who champion this work to pool resources for larger impacts across the institution. This article aims to catalog the terms used across academic medicine disciplines to establish a common language describing the inequities experienced by Black, Latinx, American Indian/Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, Women, and other underrepresented people as well as queer, disabled, and other historically marginalized or excluded groups. These ideas are specific to academic m...
This chapter discusses why U.S. higher education must begin to views its campuses as potential in... more This chapter discusses why U.S. higher education must begin to views its campuses as potential institutions of racial violence and stress against racially marginalized students.
The International Handbook of Black Community Mental Health, 2020
What is at stake, here, is the quest for equilibrium versus disequilibrium in a society that marg... more What is at stake, here, is the quest for equilibrium versus disequilibrium in a society that marginalizes human beings into substandard racial groups. Identifying and counteracting the biopsychosocial and behavioral consequences of actual or perceived racism, gendered racism, and racial battle fatigue is a premier challenge of the twenty-first century. The term “racial microaggressions” was introduced in the 1970s to help psychiatrists and psychologists understand the enormity and complications of the subtle but constant racial blows faced by African Americans. Today, racial microaggressions continue to contribute to the negative experiences of African American boys and men in schools, at work, and in society. This chapter will focus on the definition, identification, and long-term effects of racial microaggressions and the resultant racial battle fatigue in anti-black misandric environments.
Journal of Minority Achievement, Creativity, and Leadership, 2020
While separate bodies of research have emerged regarding racial microaggressions in postsecondary... more While separate bodies of research have emerged regarding racial microaggressions in postsecondary settings and the relationship between race-related stressors and health outcomes for African Americans, there is a dearth of empirical investigations that test the effects of “general happiness,” “job satisfaction,” and race-related stress based on the educational attainment of African Americans. This study examines the experiences of 3,320 African Americans who participated in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) conducted by the Program for Research on Black Americans at the University of Michigan. Using a multigroup structural equation modeling approach, findings suggest that experience with more racial microaggressions tends to lead to less general happiness. Furthermore, greater racial microaggressions lead to less job satisfaction regardless of educational attainment. Findings demonstrate that racial microaggressions are entrenched in many parts of society that impact the h...
While much is known about how Black students negotiate and navigate undergraduate studies, there ... more While much is known about how Black students negotiate and navigate undergraduate studies, there is a dearth of research on what happens when these students enter graduate school. This article presents the results of a study of 21 Black male graduate students in engineering from one highly ranked research-intensive institution. This article provides evidence of structurally racialized policies within the engineering college (e.g., admissions) and racialized and gendered interactions with peers and advisors that threaten Black males’ persistence in engineering. We argue for taking an anti-deficit approach to understanding Black males’ persistence in engineering. We conclude with implications for policy, practice, and research that could further improve the scholarship and experiences of Black males in engineering graduate programs.
ABSTRACT Guided by a critical race theory framework, this study tested W.E.B. DuBois’ hypothesis ... more ABSTRACT Guided by a critical race theory framework, this study tested W.E.B. DuBois’ hypothesis that Black students need not attend integrated schools to succeed academically. DuBois offered this controversial hypothesis nineteen years before Brown v Board of Education, in his 1935 essay, “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” His concern focused on the hostility and aversion toward Blacks evident in integrated school settings. In the landmark Brown case, the integration rationale successfully convinced the Court to rule for desegregating schools. However, it also positioned Black students as the source of the problem instead of the racially unequal distribution of educational resources. Unfortunately, instead of finding a remedy for inferior schooling conditions, U.S. Supreme Court decisions on school desegregation, such as Seattle/Louisville (2007), continue to perpetuate this troubling message. We analyzed African American students’ math achievement scores from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study to test DuBois’ hypothesis and challenge the underlying inferences of the integration rationale. In our discussion of the study findings, we also considered the need to redefine the racial ‘‘tipping point’’ in schools.
This study examined factors contributing to achievement gaps between White and African American s... more This study examined factors contributing to achievement gaps between White and African American students in 2,868 diverse school districts across the United States. Using pooled data across five school years (2008-2013), six grade levels (grades third to eighth, which typically include students aged 8 years-14 years) and two different subjects (math and English language), descriptive, correlational, and multiple linear regressions were used to identify relevant factors in predicting an achievement gap. Achievement gaps were largest in the south and southwest United States. In addition, results indicate that economic inequality, racial inequality, and household adult education attainment are strongly associated with Black/White student achievement gaps. School-based factors such as per pupil expenditures and teacher/student ratios were not significant predictors. Household adult education attainment was the most significant contributor to achievement gaps, with higher levels of adult...
Black men's lives are racialized contradictions. They are told that contemporary educational ... more Black men's lives are racialized contradictions. They are told that contemporary educational and professional institutions-particularly historically White institutions (HWJs)-are places where, through hard work, they can achieve the so-called American dream. However, for far too many Black men, HWls represent racial climates that are replete with gendered racism, blocked opportunities, and mundane, extreme, environmental stress (MEES). This study examined the experiences of661 Black men. A structural equation modeling approach was used to analyze the data. Findings indicate that as educational attainment increases toward college completion, both racial microaggressions and societal problems contribute to more than one third of the cause of MEES. Results suggest predominantly White environments are prime contexts for producing racial battle fatigue among Black men.
In this article, Tara Yosso, William Smith, Miguel Ceja, and Daniel Solórzano expand on their pre... more In this article, Tara Yosso, William Smith, Miguel Ceja, and Daniel Solórzano expand on their previous work by employing critical race theory to explore and understand incidents of racial microaggressions as experienced by Latina/o students at three selective universities. The authors explore three types of racial microaggressions—interpersonal microaggressions, racial jokes, and institutional microaggressions—and consider the effects of these racist affronts on Latina/o students. Challenging the applicability of Vincent Tinto's three stages of passage for college students, the authors explore the processes by which Latinas/os respond to racial microaggressions and confront hostile campus racial climates. The authors find that, through building community and developing critical navigation skills, Latina/o students claim empowerment from the margins.
Previous literature demonstrates that as a result of racial microaggressions and hostile campus r... more Previous literature demonstrates that as a result of racial microaggressions and hostile campus racial climates, Latina/o students often state they experience psychological, physiological, and behavioral stress responses during and after racialized incidents on campuses. The purpose of this study is to quantitatively test the racial battle fatigue framework for Latina/o students using structural equation modeling. Findings suggest that psychological stress responses for Latinas/os are most impacted by racial microaggressions in the racial battle fatigue framework.
Background: Racial primes are an outgrowth and inculcation of a well-structured, highly developed... more Background: Racial primes are an outgrowth and inculcation of a well-structured, highly developed, racially conservative, “race-neutral” or “color-blind” racial socialization process in which children learn race-specific stereotypes about African Americans and other race/ethnic groups. As they get older, they continue to receive—both involuntary and voluntary—corroborating messages of anti-Black stereotypes from adults, friends, games, folklore, music, television, popular media, and the hidden curriculum. A result of this belief system is Black misandry. Black misandry refers to an exaggerated pathological aversion toward Black men created and reinforced in societal, institutional, and individual ideologies, practices, and behaviors. Findings: Through the use of focus group interview data from African American male students at four universities, it reveals that potent Black misandric beliefs exist in both academic and social spaces in the collegiate environment. Conclusions: Using c...
... Authors'Note: The authors thank their partners at Utah's Department of Youth Correc... more ... Authors'Note: The authors thank their partners at Utah's Department of Youth Corrections, the participants, and their research assistants: graduate students Julie Carmalt and Misty McIntyre; undergraduates Melissa Garn, Adrienne Kelly, Lisa McKitrick-VanDyke, Sunny Nakae ...
Background: This study explored whether opinions about the government’s role in addressing the CO... more Background: This study explored whether opinions about the government’s role in addressing the COVID-19 pandemic vary based on demographic characteristics and racial beliefs. We hypothesized that opinions about the United States (U.S.) government’s response to COVID-19 would differ based on an individual’s characteristics such as age, race, and racial beliefs. Methods: We utilized an Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research dataset to examine differences in opinion regarding the government’s pandemic response, considering personal characteristics and racial beliefs. Descriptive statistics depicted respondents’ characteristics, and a Chi-square test for independence assessed whether differences emerged based on racial attitude, self-reported racial identity, sex, income, education, and age. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to independently determine which characteristics were associated with differences in evaluating the government’s pandemic response. Results: The sample consisted of 1028 respondents: 47.5% male and 52.5% female. Overall, the group viewed the government unfavorably, with only 40% reporting that the government responded correctly and 54% believing the government is almost always wasteful and inefficient. Hispanics or Latinos were more likely to view the government as wasteful or inefficient, while more Whites rated the government’s pandemic response as appropriate. Individuals who believed that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead generally regarded the government’s pandemic response more favorably. Only 5% deemed the government’s response excessive. Being Black, younger, and female was associated with the view that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead. Individuals who felt this way viewed the government unfavorably by almost a 2:1 ratio. Conclusions: A majority of U.S. residents do not believe the government responded correctly to the pandemic and more than half viewed the government as wasteful and inefficient. Differences emerged by ethnicity and racial attitudes, with individuals of color holding more negative views of the government’s response. Understanding this perspective can help develop messaging and strategies that resonate with communities where racial and minority groups live.
Differential rewarding of work and experience has been a longtime feature of academic medicine, r... more Differential rewarding of work and experience has been a longtime feature of academic medicine, resulting in a series of academic disparities. These disparities have been collectively called a cultural or minority “tax,” and, when considered beyond academic medicine, exist across all departments, colleges, and schools of institutions of higher learning–from health sciences to disciplines located on university campuses outside of medicine and health. A shared language can provide opportunities for those who champion this work to pool resources for larger impacts across the institution. This article aims to catalog the terms used across academic medicine disciplines to establish a common language describing the inequities experienced by Black, Latinx, American Indian/Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, Women, and other underrepresented people as well as queer, disabled, and other historically marginalized or excluded groups. These ideas are specific to academic m...
This chapter discusses why U.S. higher education must begin to views its campuses as potential in... more This chapter discusses why U.S. higher education must begin to views its campuses as potential institutions of racial violence and stress against racially marginalized students.
The International Handbook of Black Community Mental Health, 2020
What is at stake, here, is the quest for equilibrium versus disequilibrium in a society that marg... more What is at stake, here, is the quest for equilibrium versus disequilibrium in a society that marginalizes human beings into substandard racial groups. Identifying and counteracting the biopsychosocial and behavioral consequences of actual or perceived racism, gendered racism, and racial battle fatigue is a premier challenge of the twenty-first century. The term “racial microaggressions” was introduced in the 1970s to help psychiatrists and psychologists understand the enormity and complications of the subtle but constant racial blows faced by African Americans. Today, racial microaggressions continue to contribute to the negative experiences of African American boys and men in schools, at work, and in society. This chapter will focus on the definition, identification, and long-term effects of racial microaggressions and the resultant racial battle fatigue in anti-black misandric environments.
Journal of Minority Achievement, Creativity, and Leadership, 2020
While separate bodies of research have emerged regarding racial microaggressions in postsecondary... more While separate bodies of research have emerged regarding racial microaggressions in postsecondary settings and the relationship between race-related stressors and health outcomes for African Americans, there is a dearth of empirical investigations that test the effects of “general happiness,” “job satisfaction,” and race-related stress based on the educational attainment of African Americans. This study examines the experiences of 3,320 African Americans who participated in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) conducted by the Program for Research on Black Americans at the University of Michigan. Using a multigroup structural equation modeling approach, findings suggest that experience with more racial microaggressions tends to lead to less general happiness. Furthermore, greater racial microaggressions lead to less job satisfaction regardless of educational attainment. Findings demonstrate that racial microaggressions are entrenched in many parts of society that impact the h...
While much is known about how Black students negotiate and navigate undergraduate studies, there ... more While much is known about how Black students negotiate and navigate undergraduate studies, there is a dearth of research on what happens when these students enter graduate school. This article presents the results of a study of 21 Black male graduate students in engineering from one highly ranked research-intensive institution. This article provides evidence of structurally racialized policies within the engineering college (e.g., admissions) and racialized and gendered interactions with peers and advisors that threaten Black males’ persistence in engineering. We argue for taking an anti-deficit approach to understanding Black males’ persistence in engineering. We conclude with implications for policy, practice, and research that could further improve the scholarship and experiences of Black males in engineering graduate programs.
ABSTRACT Guided by a critical race theory framework, this study tested W.E.B. DuBois’ hypothesis ... more ABSTRACT Guided by a critical race theory framework, this study tested W.E.B. DuBois’ hypothesis that Black students need not attend integrated schools to succeed academically. DuBois offered this controversial hypothesis nineteen years before Brown v Board of Education, in his 1935 essay, “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” His concern focused on the hostility and aversion toward Blacks evident in integrated school settings. In the landmark Brown case, the integration rationale successfully convinced the Court to rule for desegregating schools. However, it also positioned Black students as the source of the problem instead of the racially unequal distribution of educational resources. Unfortunately, instead of finding a remedy for inferior schooling conditions, U.S. Supreme Court decisions on school desegregation, such as Seattle/Louisville (2007), continue to perpetuate this troubling message. We analyzed African American students’ math achievement scores from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study to test DuBois’ hypothesis and challenge the underlying inferences of the integration rationale. In our discussion of the study findings, we also considered the need to redefine the racial ‘‘tipping point’’ in schools.
This study examined factors contributing to achievement gaps between White and African American s... more This study examined factors contributing to achievement gaps between White and African American students in 2,868 diverse school districts across the United States. Using pooled data across five school years (2008-2013), six grade levels (grades third to eighth, which typically include students aged 8 years-14 years) and two different subjects (math and English language), descriptive, correlational, and multiple linear regressions were used to identify relevant factors in predicting an achievement gap. Achievement gaps were largest in the south and southwest United States. In addition, results indicate that economic inequality, racial inequality, and household adult education attainment are strongly associated with Black/White student achievement gaps. School-based factors such as per pupil expenditures and teacher/student ratios were not significant predictors. Household adult education attainment was the most significant contributor to achievement gaps, with higher levels of adult...
Black men's lives are racialized contradictions. They are told that contemporary educational ... more Black men's lives are racialized contradictions. They are told that contemporary educational and professional institutions-particularly historically White institutions (HWJs)-are places where, through hard work, they can achieve the so-called American dream. However, for far too many Black men, HWls represent racial climates that are replete with gendered racism, blocked opportunities, and mundane, extreme, environmental stress (MEES). This study examined the experiences of661 Black men. A structural equation modeling approach was used to analyze the data. Findings indicate that as educational attainment increases toward college completion, both racial microaggressions and societal problems contribute to more than one third of the cause of MEES. Results suggest predominantly White environments are prime contexts for producing racial battle fatigue among Black men.
In this article, Tara Yosso, William Smith, Miguel Ceja, and Daniel Solórzano expand on their pre... more In this article, Tara Yosso, William Smith, Miguel Ceja, and Daniel Solórzano expand on their previous work by employing critical race theory to explore and understand incidents of racial microaggressions as experienced by Latina/o students at three selective universities. The authors explore three types of racial microaggressions—interpersonal microaggressions, racial jokes, and institutional microaggressions—and consider the effects of these racist affronts on Latina/o students. Challenging the applicability of Vincent Tinto's three stages of passage for college students, the authors explore the processes by which Latinas/os respond to racial microaggressions and confront hostile campus racial climates. The authors find that, through building community and developing critical navigation skills, Latina/o students claim empowerment from the margins.
Previous literature demonstrates that as a result of racial microaggressions and hostile campus r... more Previous literature demonstrates that as a result of racial microaggressions and hostile campus racial climates, Latina/o students often state they experience psychological, physiological, and behavioral stress responses during and after racialized incidents on campuses. The purpose of this study is to quantitatively test the racial battle fatigue framework for Latina/o students using structural equation modeling. Findings suggest that psychological stress responses for Latinas/os are most impacted by racial microaggressions in the racial battle fatigue framework.
Background: Racial primes are an outgrowth and inculcation of a well-structured, highly developed... more Background: Racial primes are an outgrowth and inculcation of a well-structured, highly developed, racially conservative, “race-neutral” or “color-blind” racial socialization process in which children learn race-specific stereotypes about African Americans and other race/ethnic groups. As they get older, they continue to receive—both involuntary and voluntary—corroborating messages of anti-Black stereotypes from adults, friends, games, folklore, music, television, popular media, and the hidden curriculum. A result of this belief system is Black misandry. Black misandry refers to an exaggerated pathological aversion toward Black men created and reinforced in societal, institutional, and individual ideologies, practices, and behaviors. Findings: Through the use of focus group interview data from African American male students at four universities, it reveals that potent Black misandric beliefs exist in both academic and social spaces in the collegiate environment. Conclusions: Using c...
... Authors'Note: The authors thank their partners at Utah's Department of Youth Correc... more ... Authors'Note: The authors thank their partners at Utah's Department of Youth Corrections, the participants, and their research assistants: graduate students Julie Carmalt and Misty McIntyre; undergraduates Melissa Garn, Adrienne Kelly, Lisa McKitrick-VanDyke, Sunny Nakae ...
Smith, W. A. (Forthcoming). The psychosocial antecedents to racial battle fatigue. In K. Lomotey & W. A. Smith (Eds.), The Racial crisis in American higher education: Ongoing Dilemmas, Setbacks, and New Challenges. New York: SUNY Press. , 2020
Uploads
Papers by William A Smith
racial beliefs. Descriptive statistics depicted respondents’ characteristics, and a Chi-square test for independence assessed whether differences emerged based on racial attitude, self-reported racial identity, sex, income, education, and age. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to independently determine which characteristics were associated with differences in evaluating the government’s pandemic response.
Results: The sample consisted of 1028 respondents: 47.5% male and 52.5% female. Overall, the group viewed the government unfavorably, with only 40% reporting that the government responded correctly and 54% believing the government is almost always wasteful and inefficient. Hispanics or Latinos were more likely to view the government as wasteful or inefficient, while more Whites rated the government’s pandemic response as appropriate. Individuals who believed that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead generally regarded the government’s pandemic response more favorably. Only 5% deemed the government’s response excessive. Being Black, younger, and female was associated with the view that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead. Individuals who felt this way viewed the government unfavorably by almost a 2:1 ratio. Conclusions: A majority of U.S. residents do not believe the government responded correctly to the pandemic and more than half viewed the government as wasteful and inefficient. Differences emerged by ethnicity and racial attitudes, with
individuals of color holding more negative views of the government’s response. Understanding this perspective can help develop messaging and strategies that resonate with communities where racial and minority groups live.
racial beliefs. Descriptive statistics depicted respondents’ characteristics, and a Chi-square test for independence assessed whether differences emerged based on racial attitude, self-reported racial identity, sex, income, education, and age. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to independently determine which characteristics were associated with differences in evaluating the government’s pandemic response.
Results: The sample consisted of 1028 respondents: 47.5% male and 52.5% female. Overall, the group viewed the government unfavorably, with only 40% reporting that the government responded correctly and 54% believing the government is almost always wasteful and inefficient. Hispanics or Latinos were more likely to view the government as wasteful or inefficient, while more Whites rated the government’s pandemic response as appropriate. Individuals who believed that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead generally regarded the government’s pandemic response more favorably. Only 5% deemed the government’s response excessive. Being Black, younger, and female was associated with the view that racial discrimination is the main reason why many Black people cannot get ahead. Individuals who felt this way viewed the government unfavorably by almost a 2:1 ratio. Conclusions: A majority of U.S. residents do not believe the government responded correctly to the pandemic and more than half viewed the government as wasteful and inefficient. Differences emerged by ethnicity and racial attitudes, with
individuals of color holding more negative views of the government’s response. Understanding this perspective can help develop messaging and strategies that resonate with communities where racial and minority groups live.