The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality, 2015
A sexual double standard (SDS) is the application of different standards to the sexual behaviors ... more A sexual double standard (SDS) is the application of different standards to the sexual behaviors of different groups or individuals, most often women and men. Sexual double standards (SDSs) take many forms, varying in the individuals and sexual behaviors being evaluated, the context of these behaviors, and the types of evaluations being made. Research findings about SDSs depend on who is studied, how SDSs are defined, and how acceptance of SDSs is measured. Acceptance of SDSs varies over time and across countries and subcultures.
The study of norms and close relationships are two pillars of social psychological scholarship, y... more The study of norms and close relationships are two pillars of social psychological scholarship, yet the two topics are rarely studied in tandem. When relationship norms have been the subject of empirical study, researchers have focused on evaluating the importance of their content for relational processes. In the present dissertation, I propose the strength of relationship norms as a topic worthy of empirical attention. Across five studies, including correlational, quasi-experimental, experimental, and dyadic designs, I evaluated the primary hypothesis that relationship norms would be stronger in relationships characterized by greater affiliative motivation, operationalized both in terms of organically occurring relationship types, and ratings of relationship quality. Throughout the five studies, I also tested secondary hypotheses related to the association between relationship norm strength and perceived similarity, asset and resource sharing, and conflict between relationship partners, as well as the extent to which members of romantic couples abided by the norms of their relationship. In Study 1, participants (n = 100) perceived relationship types implying greater commitment (e.g., committed romantic relationships) as having stronger norms than those implying lesser commitment (e.g., casual sex relationships). In Study 2, I piloted a multidimensional measure of relationship norm strength and documented similar differences in norm strength and relationship quality among participants (n = 312) who were currently in the relationship types examined in Study 1. In Study 3, some aspects of relationship norm strength and relationship quality were positively associated for members of romantic dyads (ncouples = 25, nindividuals = 11). Individuals in a relationship with stronger norms generally reported complying with their relationship’s norms to a greater extent, though the opposite was sometimes true of their partner; individuals also exhibited a large amount of bias in appraising their partner’s level of norm compliance. In Study 4, participants currently in a romantic relationship (n = 286) primed to recall memories of high relationship quality reported feeling stronger norms in their romantic relationship, relative to those primed to recall moments of low relationship quality. Finally, in Study 5, participants currently in a romantic relationship (n = 239) primed to perceive their relationship norms as strong perceived their relationship as being higher quality than those in a control condition. These five studies provide initial promising support for the hypothesized role of relationship norm strength. I discuss their implications and the importance of continued investigations of relationship norm strength.
In this article, we propose analytic review (AR) as a solution to the problem of misreporting sta... more In this article, we propose analytic review (AR) as a solution to the problem of misreporting statistical results in psychological science. AR requires authors submitting manuscripts for publication to also submit the data file and syntax used during analyses. Regular reviewers or statistical experts then review reported analyses in order to verify that the analyses reported were actually conducted and that the statistical values are accurately reported. We begin by describing the problem of misreporting in psychology and introduce the basic AR process. We then highlight both primary and secondary benefits of adopting AR and describe different permutations of the AR system, each of which has its own strengths and limitations. We conclude by attempting to dispel three anticipated concerns about AR: that it will increase the workload placed on scholars, that it will infringe on the traditional peer-review process, and that it will hurt the image of the discipline of psychology. Although implementing AR will add one more step to the bureaucratic publication process, we believe it can be implemented in an efficient manner that would greatly assist in decreasing the frequency and impact of misreporting while also providing secondary benefits in other domains of scientific integrity.
Attachment styles are often primed by having participants recall and describe a relationship that... more Attachment styles are often primed by having participants recall and describe a relationship that is prototypical of a given attachment style. Researchers may exclude participants who cannot recall such a relationship or who describe relationships that do not conform to the assigned prime. I suggest that excluding participants is untenable and may threaten a study’s validity. In the present research, I examine predictors of exclusion from an attachment-priming study. Priming insecure attachment resulted in greater odds of exclusion relative to a control condition. Female participants with greater sexual experience also had lesser odds of exclusion. These results suggest that attachment- priming procedures contribute to participant exclusion that compromise internal and external validity. Discussion focuses on directions for future attachment-priming research.
In this article, we present results from a‘‘cohort-longitudinal’’ analysis of sexual attitudes an... more In this article, we present results from a‘‘cohort-longitudinal’’ analysis of sexual attitudes and behaviors based on a large sample of young adults (N = 7,777) obtained from a university setting over a 23-year period. We investigated gender, ethnicity, and cohort differences in sexual permissive- ness, endorsement of the double standard, and sociosexuality. Compared to women, men had more permissive attitudes, par- ticularly about sex in casual relationships, endorsed the double standard to a greater degree, and had a more unrestricted socio- sexuality. Black men were generally more permissive than White, Hispanic, and Asian men, whereas ethnic differences were not found among women. Participants from the 1995–1999 cohort were slightly less permissive than those from the 1990–1994 and 2005–2012 cohorts. Although prior meta-analytic studies (e.g., Petersen & Hyde, 2010) found reduced gender differences in sexuality over time, our cohort analyses suggest that gender differences in sexual permissiveness have not changed over the past two decades among college students.
Sexual script research (Simon & Gagnon 1969, 1986) bourgeoned following Simon and Gagnon's ground... more Sexual script research (Simon & Gagnon 1969, 1986) bourgeoned following Simon and Gagnon's groundbreaking work. Empirical measurement of sexual script adherence has been limited, however, as no measures exist that have undergone rigorous development and validation. We conducted three studies to examine current dominant sexual scripts of heterosexual adults and to develop a measure of endorsement of these scripts. In Study 1, we conducted three focus groups of men (n = 19) and four of women (n = 20) to discuss the current scripts governing sexual behavior. Results supported scripts for sex drive, physical and emotional sex, sexual performance, initiation and gatekeeping, and evaluation of sexual others. In Study 2, we used these qualitative findings to develop a measure of script endorsement, the Sexual Script Scale. Factor analysis of data from 721 participants revealed six interrelated factors demonstrating initial construct validity. In Study 3, confirmatory factor analysis of a separate sample of 289 participants supported the model from Study 2, and evidence of factorial invariance and test-retest reliability was obtained. This article presents the results of these studies, documenting the process of scale development from formative research through to confirmatory testing, and suggests future directions for the continued development of sexual scripting theory.
Quantitative research has resulted in inconsistent evidence for the existence of a sexual double ... more Quantitative research has resulted in inconsistent evidence for the existence of a sexual double standard, leading Crawford and Popp (2003) to issue a call for methodological innovation. The Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) is a measure that may provide a means to examine the double standard without the contamination of the demand characteristics and social desirability biases that plague self-report research (Marks & Fraley, 2005). The purpose of this study was to examine the factors influencing explicit and implicit double standards, and to examine the relationship between these explicit and implicit double standards, and levels of socially desirable responding. One hundred and three university students completed a sexual double standard IAT, an explicit measure of the double standard, and measures of socially desirable responding. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that levels of socially desirable responding were not related to implicit or explicit double standards. Men endorsed a stronger explicit traditional double standard than women, whereas for implicit sexual standards, men demonstrated a relatively gender-neutral evaluation and women demonstrated a strong reverse double standard. These results suggest the existence of a complex double standard, and indicate that more research of sexual attitudes should include implicit measures.
The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality, 2015
A sexual double standard (SDS) is the application of different standards to the sexual behaviors ... more A sexual double standard (SDS) is the application of different standards to the sexual behaviors of different groups or individuals, most often women and men. Sexual double standards (SDSs) take many forms, varying in the individuals and sexual behaviors being evaluated, the context of these behaviors, and the types of evaluations being made. Research findings about SDSs depend on who is studied, how SDSs are defined, and how acceptance of SDSs is measured. Acceptance of SDSs varies over time and across countries and subcultures.
The study of norms and close relationships are two pillars of social psychological scholarship, y... more The study of norms and close relationships are two pillars of social psychological scholarship, yet the two topics are rarely studied in tandem. When relationship norms have been the subject of empirical study, researchers have focused on evaluating the importance of their content for relational processes. In the present dissertation, I propose the strength of relationship norms as a topic worthy of empirical attention. Across five studies, including correlational, quasi-experimental, experimental, and dyadic designs, I evaluated the primary hypothesis that relationship norms would be stronger in relationships characterized by greater affiliative motivation, operationalized both in terms of organically occurring relationship types, and ratings of relationship quality. Throughout the five studies, I also tested secondary hypotheses related to the association between relationship norm strength and perceived similarity, asset and resource sharing, and conflict between relationship partners, as well as the extent to which members of romantic couples abided by the norms of their relationship. In Study 1, participants (n = 100) perceived relationship types implying greater commitment (e.g., committed romantic relationships) as having stronger norms than those implying lesser commitment (e.g., casual sex relationships). In Study 2, I piloted a multidimensional measure of relationship norm strength and documented similar differences in norm strength and relationship quality among participants (n = 312) who were currently in the relationship types examined in Study 1. In Study 3, some aspects of relationship norm strength and relationship quality were positively associated for members of romantic dyads (ncouples = 25, nindividuals = 11). Individuals in a relationship with stronger norms generally reported complying with their relationship’s norms to a greater extent, though the opposite was sometimes true of their partner; individuals also exhibited a large amount of bias in appraising their partner’s level of norm compliance. In Study 4, participants currently in a romantic relationship (n = 286) primed to recall memories of high relationship quality reported feeling stronger norms in their romantic relationship, relative to those primed to recall moments of low relationship quality. Finally, in Study 5, participants currently in a romantic relationship (n = 239) primed to perceive their relationship norms as strong perceived their relationship as being higher quality than those in a control condition. These five studies provide initial promising support for the hypothesized role of relationship norm strength. I discuss their implications and the importance of continued investigations of relationship norm strength.
In this article, we propose analytic review (AR) as a solution to the problem of misreporting sta... more In this article, we propose analytic review (AR) as a solution to the problem of misreporting statistical results in psychological science. AR requires authors submitting manuscripts for publication to also submit the data file and syntax used during analyses. Regular reviewers or statistical experts then review reported analyses in order to verify that the analyses reported were actually conducted and that the statistical values are accurately reported. We begin by describing the problem of misreporting in psychology and introduce the basic AR process. We then highlight both primary and secondary benefits of adopting AR and describe different permutations of the AR system, each of which has its own strengths and limitations. We conclude by attempting to dispel three anticipated concerns about AR: that it will increase the workload placed on scholars, that it will infringe on the traditional peer-review process, and that it will hurt the image of the discipline of psychology. Although implementing AR will add one more step to the bureaucratic publication process, we believe it can be implemented in an efficient manner that would greatly assist in decreasing the frequency and impact of misreporting while also providing secondary benefits in other domains of scientific integrity.
Attachment styles are often primed by having participants recall and describe a relationship that... more Attachment styles are often primed by having participants recall and describe a relationship that is prototypical of a given attachment style. Researchers may exclude participants who cannot recall such a relationship or who describe relationships that do not conform to the assigned prime. I suggest that excluding participants is untenable and may threaten a study’s validity. In the present research, I examine predictors of exclusion from an attachment-priming study. Priming insecure attachment resulted in greater odds of exclusion relative to a control condition. Female participants with greater sexual experience also had lesser odds of exclusion. These results suggest that attachment- priming procedures contribute to participant exclusion that compromise internal and external validity. Discussion focuses on directions for future attachment-priming research.
In this article, we present results from a‘‘cohort-longitudinal’’ analysis of sexual attitudes an... more In this article, we present results from a‘‘cohort-longitudinal’’ analysis of sexual attitudes and behaviors based on a large sample of young adults (N = 7,777) obtained from a university setting over a 23-year period. We investigated gender, ethnicity, and cohort differences in sexual permissive- ness, endorsement of the double standard, and sociosexuality. Compared to women, men had more permissive attitudes, par- ticularly about sex in casual relationships, endorsed the double standard to a greater degree, and had a more unrestricted socio- sexuality. Black men were generally more permissive than White, Hispanic, and Asian men, whereas ethnic differences were not found among women. Participants from the 1995–1999 cohort were slightly less permissive than those from the 1990–1994 and 2005–2012 cohorts. Although prior meta-analytic studies (e.g., Petersen & Hyde, 2010) found reduced gender differences in sexuality over time, our cohort analyses suggest that gender differences in sexual permissiveness have not changed over the past two decades among college students.
Sexual script research (Simon & Gagnon 1969, 1986) bourgeoned following Simon and Gagnon's ground... more Sexual script research (Simon & Gagnon 1969, 1986) bourgeoned following Simon and Gagnon's groundbreaking work. Empirical measurement of sexual script adherence has been limited, however, as no measures exist that have undergone rigorous development and validation. We conducted three studies to examine current dominant sexual scripts of heterosexual adults and to develop a measure of endorsement of these scripts. In Study 1, we conducted three focus groups of men (n = 19) and four of women (n = 20) to discuss the current scripts governing sexual behavior. Results supported scripts for sex drive, physical and emotional sex, sexual performance, initiation and gatekeeping, and evaluation of sexual others. In Study 2, we used these qualitative findings to develop a measure of script endorsement, the Sexual Script Scale. Factor analysis of data from 721 participants revealed six interrelated factors demonstrating initial construct validity. In Study 3, confirmatory factor analysis of a separate sample of 289 participants supported the model from Study 2, and evidence of factorial invariance and test-retest reliability was obtained. This article presents the results of these studies, documenting the process of scale development from formative research through to confirmatory testing, and suggests future directions for the continued development of sexual scripting theory.
Quantitative research has resulted in inconsistent evidence for the existence of a sexual double ... more Quantitative research has resulted in inconsistent evidence for the existence of a sexual double standard, leading Crawford and Popp (2003) to issue a call for methodological innovation. The Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) is a measure that may provide a means to examine the double standard without the contamination of the demand characteristics and social desirability biases that plague self-report research (Marks & Fraley, 2005). The purpose of this study was to examine the factors influencing explicit and implicit double standards, and to examine the relationship between these explicit and implicit double standards, and levels of socially desirable responding. One hundred and three university students completed a sexual double standard IAT, an explicit measure of the double standard, and measures of socially desirable responding. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that levels of socially desirable responding were not related to implicit or explicit double standards. Men endorsed a stronger explicit traditional double standard than women, whereas for implicit sexual standards, men demonstrated a relatively gender-neutral evaluation and women demonstrated a strong reverse double standard. These results suggest the existence of a complex double standard, and indicate that more research of sexual attitudes should include implicit measures.
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