Monitoring of compliance in Australian conservation contracts
Government and non-government conservation agencies have long-term goals and objectives to provid... more Government and non-government conservation agencies have long-term goals and objectives to provide environmental services, such as conserving the biodiversity of Australian native vegetation. In addition to national parks and reserves, private lands are often included in conservation programs to achieve these objectives. Formal contracts are entered into between the private landholder and the conservation agency to provide environmental services, or more commonly to provide inputs that are likely to lead to environmental services. The paper examines the costs and benefits of monitoring these conservation contracts when biodiversity change is stochastic.
Monitoring of Compliance in Western Australian Conservation Contracts
Contracting with private landholders for labor towards production of environmental services (paym... more Contracting with private landholders for labor towards production of environmental services (payment for actions) or the environmental services themselves (payment for outcomes) is reliant on the environmental organization's ability to monitor and assess the environmental outcomes provided. Inaccurate and costly assessment reduces the cost effectiveness of the contract. Different assessment technologies will have different impacts on the cost effectiveness and optimal contracting choice of the environmental organization. The paper compares the influence of field assessment by a local expert, and remote assessment via satellite imagery, on the optimal contracting decision for the Western Australian wheat belt.
Conservation and restoration of native vegetation is often a gradual process which may require ma... more Conservation and restoration of native vegetation is often a gradual process which may require many years to transform an ecosystem from one vegetative state to a target ecosystem. This process is stochastic, with some changes potentially irreversible. In contrast, contracts with landholders to undertake conservation measures on their property are typically for less than ten years and often make no contingencies for re-contracting at the end of the contract period. The risk to land holders and conservation agencies of contracts not being renewed and the consequent potential loss of previous investment means including covenants in conservation contracts may be attractive to both parties. A model is developed to empirically examine the optimal dynamic conservation contract and the possible role of covenants in the costs and benefits of contracts.
Payments for ecosystem service outputs have recently become a popular policy prescription for a r... more Payments for ecosystem service outputs have recently become a popular policy prescription for a range of agri-environmental schemes. The focus of this paper is on the choice of instruments in contracts to incentivise the provision of ecosystem service outputs from farms. The farmer is better informed than the regulator in terms of hidden information about costs and hidden-actions relating to effort. Results show that with perfect information, the regulator can contract equivalently on inputs or outputs. With hidden information, input-based contracts are more cost effective at reducing the informational rent related to adverse selection than output-based contracts. Mixed contracts are also cost-effective, especially where one input is not observable. Such contracts allow the regulator to target variables that are "costly-to-fake" as opposed to those prone to moral hazard such as effort. Further results are given for fixed price contracts and input-based contracts with moral hazard. The model is extended to include a discussion of repeated contracting and the scope that exists for the regulator to benefit from information revealed by the initial choice of contract. Results are illustrated with a case study of contracting with farmers to protect high biodiversity native vegetation that also provides a number of socially-valuable ecosystem services.
Result-oriented agri-environmental schemes offer some potential advantages that merit exploration... more Result-oriented agri-environmental schemes offer some potential advantages that merit exploration. However, supporting the caution expressed by Burton and Schwarz in an earlier issue of this journal, this short note offers some additional observations on the need to retain a broader perspective of options for improving scheme performance through a mixed approach: a result-oriented approach will not by itself address all current design weaknesses and improvements may not necessarily require a paymentsby-results approach. For example, better spatial targeting, payment differentiation and monitoring are equally compatible with action-oriented schemes. Moreover, achieving innovation and flexibility may require appropriate advisory support, which again is not restricted to a result-oriented approach.
NELUP: Some Reflections on Undertaking and Reporting InterdisciplinaryRiver Catchment Modelling
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 1998
NELUP was a five-year academic research project into interdisciplinary river catchment modelling.... more NELUP was a five-year academic research project into interdisciplinary river catchment modelling. The experience of staff involved offers useful insights into the intellectual and practical problems associated with interdisciplinary catchment management research and the ...
Agricultural Nitrate Emission Patterns in the Tyne Catchment
Journal of Environmental Management, 1993
Nitrate pollution is of importance in catchment planning from both a hydrological and ecological ... more Nitrate pollution is of importance in catchment planning from both a hydrological and ecological standpoint, but is, by its nature, difficult to monitor. Yet the design of "optimal" nitrate control policies requires knowledge of both the location of pollutant sources and the transport of ...
his paper evaluates alternative designs for contracts between a regulator and an agricultural pro... more his paper evaluates alternative designs for contracts between a regulator and an agricultural producer to increme the supPlj of environmental public goods. Contract design, T based on thepincipal-agent model, takes into account an asymmetry of infmation between the regulator and producer where4 the regutator is unabfe to observe preciselj tht floducer's compliance costs. An example is included of contracts designed for nitrate abatement. * Information costs are the costs associated with acquiring information, and may be viewed as a subset of vansaction costs.
Efficient Compliance with Agricultural Nitrate Pollution Standards
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1994
... This work was undertaken as part of the NERCESRC Land Use Pro amme. We acknowledge the assist... more ... This work was undertaken as part of the NERCESRC Land Use Pro amme. We acknowledge the assistance of Paul Allanson and Colin McClean on this paper. ... From (1) a benefit function can be defined (Xepapadeas, 1992) Bii(eij) = max Tij(qij,eij) = max [p qij - cij(qij,eii)] (2) ...
The paper analyses the differences of technical, allocative, cost and scale efficiencies of irrig... more The paper analyses the differences of technical, allocative, cost and scale efficiencies of irrigated and rain-fed rice farmers in Sri Lanka in two different perspectives; first, relative to a common metafrontier, defined as the boundary of an unrestricted technology set and second relative to group frontiers defined to be the boundaries of restricted technology sets in each group. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) metafrontier and group frontier approaches are used for cross section survey data of 90 farms. Rain-fed farms perform comparably with the irrigated farms based on the group frontier results. Rain-fed farmers may be operating as technically efficient as they could, given the existing production technology. However rain-fed farms move significantly towards inefficiency compared to the irrigated farms under the metafrontier technology. Results indicate that the irrigation shifts the rice sector production frontier to a higher level. In addition, a second stage bootstrapped tru...
Policy choice and riverine water quality in developing countries: An integrated hydro-economic modelling approach
Journal of environmental management, 2018
Industrialization and urbanization, as a result of rapid economic development, have led to the de... more Industrialization and urbanization, as a result of rapid economic development, have led to the deterioration of water quality in many rivers in developing countries. The Kelani River in Sri Lanka provides drinking water to Colombo and a range of market and non-market ecosystem services; but these services are threatened by deteriorating water quality. We apply a hydro-economic model that accounts for spatial patterns of water quality and abatement cost variability between firms in the catchment. The hydro-economic model combines a hydrological model of water quality with an economic optimization model to determine a cost-effective policy under alternate policy regimes. These include: the existing policy based on effluent concentration standards, effluent trading and effluent trading with multiple zones and an effluent tax. Tradeable permits with multiple zones are the least cost policy option that accounts for both spatial externalities and abatement costs. However, given current in...
The export of grain from Western Australia depends on a grain supply network that takes grain fro... more The export of grain from Western Australia depends on a grain supply network that takes grain from farms to port through Cooperative Bulk Handling (CBH) receival and storage sites. The ability of the network to deliver pest free grain to port and ship depends on the quality of grain delivered by farmers and the efficacy of phosphine based fumigation in controlling stored grain pests. Unfortunately, over time, common stored grain pests have developed resistance to phosphine. There is some evidence that phosphine resistance, develops on farm due to inadequate biosecurity management. This paper considers the design of farm biosecurity contracts using a principal agent approach. An optimizing non-linear programming model with different effort levels of Cooperative Bulk Handling (principal) and farmer (agent) is developed to determine: (i) whether the farmer's effort level affect the CBH's profit function, and (ii) whether increasing monitoring effort by the CBH has an impact on farmer's performance on farm. Results show that; (i) the optimal effort level of farmer is higher for perfect information assumption than moral hazard one. Meanwhile, (ii) under moral hazard assumption, when Bulk Handler is engaged in intensive monitoring level, the farmer is engaged in a higher level of effort. Price premium represents the incentive for farmers, while cost-reduction represents the incentive for Grain Bulk Handler.
Industrial pollution and the management of river water quality: a model of Kelani River, Sri Lanka
Environmental monitoring and assessment, Jan 19, 2017
Water quality of the Kelani River has become a critical issue in Sri Lanka due to the high cost o... more Water quality of the Kelani River has become a critical issue in Sri Lanka due to the high cost of maintaining drinking water standards and the market and non-market costs of deteriorating river ecosystem services. By integrating a catchment model with a river model of water quality, we developed a method to estimate the effect of pollution sources on ambient water quality. Using integrated model simulations, we estimate (1) the relative contribution from point (industrial and domestic) and non-point sources (river catchment) to river water quality and (2) pollutant transfer coefficients for zones along the lower section of the river. Transfer coefficients provide the basis for policy analyses in relation to the location of new industries and the setting of priorities for industrial pollution control. They also offer valuable information to design socially optimal economic policy to manage industrialized river catchments.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2002
The most important obstacle to solving diffuse pollution problems is that emissions are either un... more The most important obstacle to solving diffuse pollution problems is that emissions are either unobservable or cannot be observed at a reasonable cost. Biophysical models may provide suf cient information to set a cost-effective emission tax. However, evidence from recent studies has shown that transaction costs for emission-based policies are higher per hectare than for input-based policies. An economic model of agriculture for the Kennet catchment in southeast England shows that, when transaction costs are accounted for, an input tax is more ef cient than an emission tax over a range of emission standards. This result has policy implications in that it indicates, rst, that economists' policy recommendations should account for transaction costs, and, secondly, that the standard advice that emission-based policies are superior may be wrong where transaction costs differ substantially between emission-and input-based policies.
Paying private landholders for environmental services, rather than input-based payments, has been... more Paying private landholders for environmental services, rather than input-based payments, has been proposed as a way to improve the performance of contracts for conservation agencies. A challenge is that the assessment of environmental services is subjective, raising the question of how assessment accuracy impacts on landholder behaviour and contract design. A model is developed of a contract between a conservation agency and a private landholder for the provision of environmental services. The model is used to estimate the impact of inaccurate and costly assessment on the optimal landholder labour effort and the optimal incentive payment. The model shows that inaccurate and costly assessment reduces the cost-effectiveness of the contract. Application of the model to Western Australian broad acre agriculture suggests that remote assessment by field assessment by a scientist is preferred to remote assessment by satellite. The study also shows the feasibility of contracts for environmental services is potentially dependent on the ability of the conservation agency to observe the landholder's behaviour during the contract.
Optimal dynamic regulation of the environmental impact of mining across diverse land types
New Zealand Economic Papers, Apr 19, 2012
ABSTRACT Optimal dynamic regulation of mineral extraction and environmental rehabilitation across... more ABSTRACT Optimal dynamic regulation of mineral extraction and environmental rehabilitation across diverse land assets is studied using discrete-time, distributed optimal control. An extension of Hotelling's Rule is derived that indicates the need to manage both processes over space and time to maximise social welfare. Key empirical insights are drawn from a case study involving the Western Australian mineral sands industry. The incorporation of temporal and spatial dimensions allows for greater precision in the analysis of alternative management strategies. However, numerical analysis shows that optimal regulation may not require information-intensive tax instruments if abatement occurs in the year that land is damaged. Rather, a tax that is constant across time or space that provides a sufficient incentive for firms to rehabilitate degraded land can suffice. Bond instruments are shown unequivocally to provide too weak an incentive for timely rehabilitation by mining firms.
This study uses panel data at suburb level to estimates the elasticity water demands in Perth, Au... more This study uses panel data at suburb level to estimates the elasticity water demands in Perth, Australia from 1995 to 2005. After deriving the consumer's water demand under a non-linear budget constraint, we estimate the water demand model, which accounts for how water (and other purchased goods) is used to satisfy fundamental desires of the household. We have applied the specification of price that provided the correctly estimated marginal price from the block tariff structure, and employed a maximum likelihood estimation technique to tackle the endogeneity and heteroskedasticity issues. Our estimation of water demand price elasticities are slightly higher (more elastic) than previous study in Perth, but broadly in line with other estimates in the literature.
RIMPhil: a bioeconomic model for integrated weed management of annual barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) in Philippine rice farming systems
... Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, 3119, Philippines 3Centre for Environmental Eco... more ... Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, 3119, Philippines 3Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia 4Department of Economics, Waikato University, Private Bag 3109, Hamilton, New Zealand. ...
Monitoring of compliance in Australian conservation contracts
Government and non-government conservation agencies have long-term goals and objectives to provid... more Government and non-government conservation agencies have long-term goals and objectives to provide environmental services, such as conserving the biodiversity of Australian native vegetation. In addition to national parks and reserves, private lands are often included in conservation programs to achieve these objectives. Formal contracts are entered into between the private landholder and the conservation agency to provide environmental services, or more commonly to provide inputs that are likely to lead to environmental services. The paper examines the costs and benefits of monitoring these conservation contracts when biodiversity change is stochastic.
Monitoring of Compliance in Western Australian Conservation Contracts
Contracting with private landholders for labor towards production of environmental services (paym... more Contracting with private landholders for labor towards production of environmental services (payment for actions) or the environmental services themselves (payment for outcomes) is reliant on the environmental organization's ability to monitor and assess the environmental outcomes provided. Inaccurate and costly assessment reduces the cost effectiveness of the contract. Different assessment technologies will have different impacts on the cost effectiveness and optimal contracting choice of the environmental organization. The paper compares the influence of field assessment by a local expert, and remote assessment via satellite imagery, on the optimal contracting decision for the Western Australian wheat belt.
Conservation and restoration of native vegetation is often a gradual process which may require ma... more Conservation and restoration of native vegetation is often a gradual process which may require many years to transform an ecosystem from one vegetative state to a target ecosystem. This process is stochastic, with some changes potentially irreversible. In contrast, contracts with landholders to undertake conservation measures on their property are typically for less than ten years and often make no contingencies for re-contracting at the end of the contract period. The risk to land holders and conservation agencies of contracts not being renewed and the consequent potential loss of previous investment means including covenants in conservation contracts may be attractive to both parties. A model is developed to empirically examine the optimal dynamic conservation contract and the possible role of covenants in the costs and benefits of contracts.
Payments for ecosystem service outputs have recently become a popular policy prescription for a r... more Payments for ecosystem service outputs have recently become a popular policy prescription for a range of agri-environmental schemes. The focus of this paper is on the choice of instruments in contracts to incentivise the provision of ecosystem service outputs from farms. The farmer is better informed than the regulator in terms of hidden information about costs and hidden-actions relating to effort. Results show that with perfect information, the regulator can contract equivalently on inputs or outputs. With hidden information, input-based contracts are more cost effective at reducing the informational rent related to adverse selection than output-based contracts. Mixed contracts are also cost-effective, especially where one input is not observable. Such contracts allow the regulator to target variables that are "costly-to-fake" as opposed to those prone to moral hazard such as effort. Further results are given for fixed price contracts and input-based contracts with moral hazard. The model is extended to include a discussion of repeated contracting and the scope that exists for the regulator to benefit from information revealed by the initial choice of contract. Results are illustrated with a case study of contracting with farmers to protect high biodiversity native vegetation that also provides a number of socially-valuable ecosystem services.
Result-oriented agri-environmental schemes offer some potential advantages that merit exploration... more Result-oriented agri-environmental schemes offer some potential advantages that merit exploration. However, supporting the caution expressed by Burton and Schwarz in an earlier issue of this journal, this short note offers some additional observations on the need to retain a broader perspective of options for improving scheme performance through a mixed approach: a result-oriented approach will not by itself address all current design weaknesses and improvements may not necessarily require a paymentsby-results approach. For example, better spatial targeting, payment differentiation and monitoring are equally compatible with action-oriented schemes. Moreover, achieving innovation and flexibility may require appropriate advisory support, which again is not restricted to a result-oriented approach.
NELUP: Some Reflections on Undertaking and Reporting InterdisciplinaryRiver Catchment Modelling
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 1998
NELUP was a five-year academic research project into interdisciplinary river catchment modelling.... more NELUP was a five-year academic research project into interdisciplinary river catchment modelling. The experience of staff involved offers useful insights into the intellectual and practical problems associated with interdisciplinary catchment management research and the ...
Agricultural Nitrate Emission Patterns in the Tyne Catchment
Journal of Environmental Management, 1993
Nitrate pollution is of importance in catchment planning from both a hydrological and ecological ... more Nitrate pollution is of importance in catchment planning from both a hydrological and ecological standpoint, but is, by its nature, difficult to monitor. Yet the design of "optimal" nitrate control policies requires knowledge of both the location of pollutant sources and the transport of ...
his paper evaluates alternative designs for contracts between a regulator and an agricultural pro... more his paper evaluates alternative designs for contracts between a regulator and an agricultural producer to increme the supPlj of environmental public goods. Contract design, T based on thepincipal-agent model, takes into account an asymmetry of infmation between the regulator and producer where4 the regutator is unabfe to observe preciselj tht floducer's compliance costs. An example is included of contracts designed for nitrate abatement. * Information costs are the costs associated with acquiring information, and may be viewed as a subset of vansaction costs.
Efficient Compliance with Agricultural Nitrate Pollution Standards
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1994
... This work was undertaken as part of the NERCESRC Land Use Pro amme. We acknowledge the assist... more ... This work was undertaken as part of the NERCESRC Land Use Pro amme. We acknowledge the assistance of Paul Allanson and Colin McClean on this paper. ... From (1) a benefit function can be defined (Xepapadeas, 1992) Bii(eij) = max Tij(qij,eij) = max [p qij - cij(qij,eii)] (2) ...
The paper analyses the differences of technical, allocative, cost and scale efficiencies of irrig... more The paper analyses the differences of technical, allocative, cost and scale efficiencies of irrigated and rain-fed rice farmers in Sri Lanka in two different perspectives; first, relative to a common metafrontier, defined as the boundary of an unrestricted technology set and second relative to group frontiers defined to be the boundaries of restricted technology sets in each group. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) metafrontier and group frontier approaches are used for cross section survey data of 90 farms. Rain-fed farms perform comparably with the irrigated farms based on the group frontier results. Rain-fed farmers may be operating as technically efficient as they could, given the existing production technology. However rain-fed farms move significantly towards inefficiency compared to the irrigated farms under the metafrontier technology. Results indicate that the irrigation shifts the rice sector production frontier to a higher level. In addition, a second stage bootstrapped tru...
Policy choice and riverine water quality in developing countries: An integrated hydro-economic modelling approach
Journal of environmental management, 2018
Industrialization and urbanization, as a result of rapid economic development, have led to the de... more Industrialization and urbanization, as a result of rapid economic development, have led to the deterioration of water quality in many rivers in developing countries. The Kelani River in Sri Lanka provides drinking water to Colombo and a range of market and non-market ecosystem services; but these services are threatened by deteriorating water quality. We apply a hydro-economic model that accounts for spatial patterns of water quality and abatement cost variability between firms in the catchment. The hydro-economic model combines a hydrological model of water quality with an economic optimization model to determine a cost-effective policy under alternate policy regimes. These include: the existing policy based on effluent concentration standards, effluent trading and effluent trading with multiple zones and an effluent tax. Tradeable permits with multiple zones are the least cost policy option that accounts for both spatial externalities and abatement costs. However, given current in...
The export of grain from Western Australia depends on a grain supply network that takes grain fro... more The export of grain from Western Australia depends on a grain supply network that takes grain from farms to port through Cooperative Bulk Handling (CBH) receival and storage sites. The ability of the network to deliver pest free grain to port and ship depends on the quality of grain delivered by farmers and the efficacy of phosphine based fumigation in controlling stored grain pests. Unfortunately, over time, common stored grain pests have developed resistance to phosphine. There is some evidence that phosphine resistance, develops on farm due to inadequate biosecurity management. This paper considers the design of farm biosecurity contracts using a principal agent approach. An optimizing non-linear programming model with different effort levels of Cooperative Bulk Handling (principal) and farmer (agent) is developed to determine: (i) whether the farmer's effort level affect the CBH's profit function, and (ii) whether increasing monitoring effort by the CBH has an impact on farmer's performance on farm. Results show that; (i) the optimal effort level of farmer is higher for perfect information assumption than moral hazard one. Meanwhile, (ii) under moral hazard assumption, when Bulk Handler is engaged in intensive monitoring level, the farmer is engaged in a higher level of effort. Price premium represents the incentive for farmers, while cost-reduction represents the incentive for Grain Bulk Handler.
Industrial pollution and the management of river water quality: a model of Kelani River, Sri Lanka
Environmental monitoring and assessment, Jan 19, 2017
Water quality of the Kelani River has become a critical issue in Sri Lanka due to the high cost o... more Water quality of the Kelani River has become a critical issue in Sri Lanka due to the high cost of maintaining drinking water standards and the market and non-market costs of deteriorating river ecosystem services. By integrating a catchment model with a river model of water quality, we developed a method to estimate the effect of pollution sources on ambient water quality. Using integrated model simulations, we estimate (1) the relative contribution from point (industrial and domestic) and non-point sources (river catchment) to river water quality and (2) pollutant transfer coefficients for zones along the lower section of the river. Transfer coefficients provide the basis for policy analyses in relation to the location of new industries and the setting of priorities for industrial pollution control. They also offer valuable information to design socially optimal economic policy to manage industrialized river catchments.
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2002
The most important obstacle to solving diffuse pollution problems is that emissions are either un... more The most important obstacle to solving diffuse pollution problems is that emissions are either unobservable or cannot be observed at a reasonable cost. Biophysical models may provide suf cient information to set a cost-effective emission tax. However, evidence from recent studies has shown that transaction costs for emission-based policies are higher per hectare than for input-based policies. An economic model of agriculture for the Kennet catchment in southeast England shows that, when transaction costs are accounted for, an input tax is more ef cient than an emission tax over a range of emission standards. This result has policy implications in that it indicates, rst, that economists' policy recommendations should account for transaction costs, and, secondly, that the standard advice that emission-based policies are superior may be wrong where transaction costs differ substantially between emission-and input-based policies.
Paying private landholders for environmental services, rather than input-based payments, has been... more Paying private landholders for environmental services, rather than input-based payments, has been proposed as a way to improve the performance of contracts for conservation agencies. A challenge is that the assessment of environmental services is subjective, raising the question of how assessment accuracy impacts on landholder behaviour and contract design. A model is developed of a contract between a conservation agency and a private landholder for the provision of environmental services. The model is used to estimate the impact of inaccurate and costly assessment on the optimal landholder labour effort and the optimal incentive payment. The model shows that inaccurate and costly assessment reduces the cost-effectiveness of the contract. Application of the model to Western Australian broad acre agriculture suggests that remote assessment by field assessment by a scientist is preferred to remote assessment by satellite. The study also shows the feasibility of contracts for environmental services is potentially dependent on the ability of the conservation agency to observe the landholder's behaviour during the contract.
Optimal dynamic regulation of the environmental impact of mining across diverse land types
New Zealand Economic Papers, Apr 19, 2012
ABSTRACT Optimal dynamic regulation of mineral extraction and environmental rehabilitation across... more ABSTRACT Optimal dynamic regulation of mineral extraction and environmental rehabilitation across diverse land assets is studied using discrete-time, distributed optimal control. An extension of Hotelling's Rule is derived that indicates the need to manage both processes over space and time to maximise social welfare. Key empirical insights are drawn from a case study involving the Western Australian mineral sands industry. The incorporation of temporal and spatial dimensions allows for greater precision in the analysis of alternative management strategies. However, numerical analysis shows that optimal regulation may not require information-intensive tax instruments if abatement occurs in the year that land is damaged. Rather, a tax that is constant across time or space that provides a sufficient incentive for firms to rehabilitate degraded land can suffice. Bond instruments are shown unequivocally to provide too weak an incentive for timely rehabilitation by mining firms.
This study uses panel data at suburb level to estimates the elasticity water demands in Perth, Au... more This study uses panel data at suburb level to estimates the elasticity water demands in Perth, Australia from 1995 to 2005. After deriving the consumer's water demand under a non-linear budget constraint, we estimate the water demand model, which accounts for how water (and other purchased goods) is used to satisfy fundamental desires of the household. We have applied the specification of price that provided the correctly estimated marginal price from the block tariff structure, and employed a maximum likelihood estimation technique to tackle the endogeneity and heteroskedasticity issues. Our estimation of water demand price elasticities are slightly higher (more elastic) than previous study in Perth, but broadly in line with other estimates in the literature.
RIMPhil: a bioeconomic model for integrated weed management of annual barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) in Philippine rice farming systems
... Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, 3119, Philippines 3Centre for Environmental Eco... more ... Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, 3119, Philippines 3Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia 4Department of Economics, Waikato University, Private Bag 3109, Hamilton, New Zealand. ...
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