The function of chemical signalling in non-territorial solitary carnivores is still relatively un... more The function of chemical signalling in non-territorial solitary carnivores is still relatively unclear. Studies on territorial solitary and social carnivores have highlighted odour capability and utility, however the social function of chemical signalling in wild carnivore populations operating dominance hierarchy social systems has received little attention. We monitored scent marking and investigatory behaviour of wild brown bears Ursus arctos, to test multiple competing hypotheses relating to the social function of chemical signalling in a non-territorial solitary carnivore. Camera traps were stationed facing bear ‘marking trees’ to document behaviour by different age sex classes, during breeding and non-breeding seasons.
Members of the order Carnivora employ a wide range of postures and stereotyped patterns to mark t... more Members of the order Carnivora employ a wide range of postures and stereotyped patterns to mark their scent onto objects and thereby communicate with conspecifics. Despite much anecdotal evidence on the marking behaviour of ursids, empirical evidence of scent marking motor patterns displayed by wild populations is lacking. Analysing the time bears spend at marking trees and the behaviours involved, could provide further insight into the function of marking and highlight time and energy investment. Over a 3-year period, camera traps stationed at marking trees were used to investigate scent marking and investigatory behaviour by wild brown bears (Ursus arctos) in coastal British Columbia. This work follows on from data presented at the 18th, 19th & 20th IBA conferences.
Evidence was found to support the prediction that males would invest more time and energy in marking than other age/sex classes, which suggests they gain higher net fitness benefits from chemical signalling. As time and energy investment at marking trees did not appear to vary between seasons for any age/sex class, chemical signalling may contribute to individual fitness throughout the whole non-denning period. Transitions between marking postures were assessed using Markov chain analysis. Scent marking patterns varied by age and sex; adult males exhibited a stereotyped pattern of marking behaviour which included some postures which were continually used more often than others, termed here ‘core’ and ‘secondary’ marking postures. The marking behaviour of adult females was less repetitive than adult males and displayed core marking postures only. The behaviour of subadults (sexes combined) was a variation and simplification of the patterns displayed by adult males and females. The wider variety of marking postures selected by adult males may function to convey a more complex chemical signal. The behaviour of cubs depended on their age and the behaviour of their mother. Younger cubs were more likely to conduct the same behaviour as their mother, whereas older cubs exhibited behaviours independently. Scent marking in brown bear cubs may function in learning or safety.
This study is the first to assess the time invested in marking and receiving scents, and to present empirical data on stereotyped marking behaviour in wild ursids. This study also presents the first assessment of the behaviour of young at marking trees in any member of the Ursidae, and evidence on the development of marking behaviour in young bears.
For many species, chemical signalling is used to signal the competitive ability of individuals an... more For many species, chemical signalling is used to signal the competitive ability of individuals and therefore plays an important role in the breeding system. As breeding generally promotes intrasexual competition, the potential fitness costs associated with competitive behavior may be mitigated if individuals are able to assess their own ability, and the competitive ability of others, prior to agonistic encounters. Due to their hierarchical social structure and large home-range size, bears (Ursidae) are thought to rely highly on olfactory methods of communication. Through camera traps orientated towards bear‘rub trees’ over a 3-year period, we have begun to establish the function of strategic tree selectivity and the social function of marking behaviour for brown bears (Ursus arctos) in the Glendale drainage, British Columbia. We hypothesised that marking trees function to signal competitive ability between individuals, with dominant individuals signalling their high competitive ability and receivers detecting these cues and modifying their behaviour accordingly. Here, we provide evidence to further these hypotheses by demonstrating how scent marking frequencies vary in relation to food availability.
Scent marking frequencies were analysed during the pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha run (August–October) of 2010 and 2011. Pink salmon stock monitoring by Fisheries & Oceans Canada provide a count of individuals entering the Glendale river system and spawning channel. As the diet of brown bears in the study area has previously been reported to comprise 82% marine meat, pink salmon return data provides a rare insight into food availability during hyperphagia.
Moreover, 2010 was considered as a year of “low” pink salmon return and 2011 a year of “high” pink salmon return, providing a method of assessing scent marking behaviour in years of varying levels of competition.
Evidence was found to support the prediction that adult males would mark significantly more in years of low food availability (high competition). We also found evidence to suggest that adult males investigate marking trees more in years of lower food availability (high competition). Knowledge of the dominance of other individuals may be retained across seasons and affect social behaviour in the following breeding season. Adult females displayed an interesting change in behaviour between 2010 and 2011, by marking and investigating trees more in the year of higher food availability (low competition). They were more likely to engage with a marking tree by marking or investigating it when passing in 2011 than 2010. In plentiful years adult females may have more time and energy to display dominance for the following breeding season. As adult males reduce their frequency of investigation in such years, female scent marks may be signals to other females. The trend of marking and investigating trees did not change significantly for females with young or subadults between years of varying food availability/competition; they were associated with marking and investigating trees as expected from their frequency on trails containing marking trees. This study is the first to examine the plasticity of scent marking behaviour in relation to food availability in an ursid species.
"Extreme sports, adventure, and ecotourism are bringing increasing numbers of people into remote ... more "Extreme sports, adventure, and ecotourism are bringing increasing numbers of people into remote backcountry areas
worldwide. The number of people visiting wilderness areas is set to increase further. Nature tourism is the fastest growing sector in the $3.5 trillion global annual tourism market (Mehmetoglu 2006). What impacts will this have on the social perceptions and economic and conservation values of these areas and the species which are found there? Reflecting on over a decade’s research on the impacts of the bear-viewing ecotourism industry in British Columbia, Canada, this paper considers place and “place making” via a case study of bear tourism in British Colombia (BC), Canada."
Bears are iconic: how we relate to them spatially, temporally and culturally reflects changing so... more Bears are iconic: how we relate to them spatially, temporally and culturally reflects changing social paradigms relating to nature.
The human lifescape has become less connected with wildlife - driving a desire to reconnect with nature. Remaining brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations are largely found in areas perceived as free from extensive human modification, and as such, begin to symbolise wilderness.
Wilderness areas are increasingly attracting tourists, and people are beginning to reconnect with bears in areas that are now valued for their lack of modification; however, this raises questions of landscape integrity and authenticity.
The development of bear viewing in Knight Inlet British Columbia around a restored salmon population has added a new dynamic to an already modified multi-use landscape.
Landscapes are increasingly expected to perform on many social, cultural and economic levels; necessitating a holistic multi-stakeholder understanding of human-bear relationships. This interdisciplinary PhD uses novel approaches (including visual methods such as participatory video and visual story telling) to explore the place of bears in the landscape, and the narratives people create to contextualize their experience.
Extreme sports, adventure- and eco-tourism are bringing more people than ever into remote backcou... more Extreme sports, adventure- and eco-tourism are bringing more people than ever into remote backcountry areas worldwide. The number of people visiting our remaining wilderness areas is set to increase further; in fact, nature tourism is the fastest growing sector in the <Euro>2.5 trillion global annual tourism market. What impacts will this have on the conservation of these areas and the species which are found there? While Europe is not traditionally seen as an ecotourism destination, the “European Safari” is a new and growing travel market. Romania leads the way in the development of this new genre of ecotourism marketing the Carpathian Mountains as the place to see Europe’s “Big Five” - elk, bison, bear, wolf and lynx. With its focus on carnivores, European safari is often referred to as “carnivore tourism” and we can draw lessons from the management of established carnivore tourism operations in North America. This study draws on spatial data collected using high resolution satellite telemetry and direct behavioural observation of brown bears at an exploited backcountry site in British Columbia to examine the impacts of ecotourism on brown bear spatio-temporal distribution and habitat use.
Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in North America vary widely in their densities from a maximum of 550 ... more Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in North America vary widely in their densities from a maximum of 550 bears /1000 km2 in coastal Alaska to less than 5 bears /1000 km2 for mountain bears in the north; this variation has been attributed to differences in food base. The impacts of security and perceived risk on the exploitation of energy rich environments also have significant impacts on demographic rates within populations. Increasing the energy density of habitat has been identified as an important step in the restoration and maintenance of small brown bear populations in Europe and this is equally applicable to bear populations at risk in North America. Where bears persist at high densities they are in productive ecosystems, where protection has been of low productivity land populations which survive are marginal. Drawing on examples from Yellowstone, coastal British Columbia and Alaska we will present the case for using areas of enhanced habit security and energy density as source populations within a source-sink model of conservation of a species at the edge of its current range to halt the retreat of bears in Alberta.
Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in North America vary widely in their densities from a maximum of 550 ... more Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in North America vary widely in their densities from a maximum of 550 bears /1000 km2 in coastal Alaska to less than 5 bears /1000 km2 for mountain bears in the north; this variation has been attributed to differences in food base. The impacts of security and perceived risk on the exploitation of energy rich environments also have significant impacts on demographic rates within populations. Increasing the energy density of habitat has been identified as an important step in the restoration and maintenance of small brown bear populations in Europe and this is equally applicable to bear populations at risk in North America. Where bears persist at high densities they are in productive ecosystems, where protection has been of low productivity land populations which survive are marginal. Drawing on examples from Yellowstone, coastal British Columbia and Alaska we will present the case for using areas of enhanced habit security and energy density as source populations within a source-sink model of conservation of a species at the edge of its current range to halt the retreat of bears in Alberta.
For several decades eco-tourism has been presented as a viable income source to local communities... more For several decades eco-tourism has been presented as a viable income source to local communities when considering the protection of species and ecosystems and in the declaration of national parks and protected areas. Whether in East Africa, India, even North America it is carnivores which are the key species in many of these systems. Large numbers of well educated, relatively high income with an interest in wildlife and the environment have been travelling to remote regions around the world assigning real economic value to the sites and species they travel to encounter. In many regions this income stream has assured local and regional support for protection and in some cases funded protection and restoration efforts; however, with increasing awareness of the climate impacts of long-haul travel will this continue in the new carbon economy? The typical carnivore ecotourist fits a similar demographic profile to those most likely to monitor and reduce their personal “carbon footprint” and while nature tourism has been is the fastest growing sector in the $3 trillion global annual tourism market this is unlikely to continue. What impacts will this have on the conservation of these areas and the species which are found there?
Reflecting on over a decade’s research on the impacts of the bear-viewing ecotourism industry in ... more Reflecting on over a decade’s research on the impacts of the bear-viewing ecotourism industry in British Columbia, Canada we consider how the highly motivated wildlife tourist alters the perceived and fiscal value of the bears and their habitat. The changing social and economic value of these ecosystems have the potential to change land planning, resource extraction and conservation decision making but the presence of tourists can also impact the conservation value of the landscape. Interestingly, and perhaps surprisingly, tourists travelling to highly degraded habitats to see bears reflect positively on the quality of the “wilderness” they have visited. If, for the public, a carnivore encounter makes the wilderness wild what is the message for the conservation biologist?
Uploads
Evidence was found to support the prediction that males would invest more time and energy in marking than other age/sex classes, which suggests they gain higher net fitness benefits from chemical signalling. As time and energy investment at marking trees did not appear to vary between seasons for any age/sex class, chemical signalling may contribute to individual fitness throughout the whole non-denning period. Transitions between marking postures were assessed using Markov chain analysis. Scent marking patterns varied by age and sex; adult males exhibited a stereotyped pattern of marking behaviour which included some postures which were continually used more often than others, termed here ‘core’ and ‘secondary’ marking postures. The marking behaviour of adult females was less repetitive than adult males and displayed core marking postures only. The behaviour of subadults (sexes combined) was a variation and simplification of the patterns displayed by adult males and females. The wider variety of marking postures selected by adult males may function to convey a more complex chemical signal. The behaviour of cubs depended on their age and the behaviour of their mother. Younger cubs were more likely to conduct the same behaviour as their mother, whereas older cubs exhibited behaviours independently. Scent marking in brown bear cubs may function in learning or safety.
This study is the first to assess the time invested in marking and receiving scents, and to present empirical data on stereotyped marking behaviour in wild ursids. This study also presents the first assessment of the behaviour of young at marking trees in any member of the Ursidae, and evidence on the development of marking behaviour in young bears.
Scent marking frequencies were analysed during the pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha run (August–October) of 2010 and 2011. Pink salmon stock monitoring by Fisheries & Oceans Canada provide a count of individuals entering the Glendale river system and spawning channel. As the diet of brown bears in the study area has previously been reported to comprise 82% marine meat, pink salmon return data provides a rare insight into food availability during hyperphagia.
Moreover, 2010 was considered as a year of “low” pink salmon return and 2011 a year of “high” pink salmon return, providing a method of assessing scent marking behaviour in years of varying levels of competition.
Evidence was found to support the prediction that adult males would mark significantly more in years of low food availability (high competition). We also found evidence to suggest that adult males investigate marking trees more in years of lower food availability (high competition). Knowledge of the dominance of other individuals may be retained across seasons and affect social behaviour in the following breeding season. Adult females displayed an interesting change in behaviour between 2010 and 2011, by marking and investigating trees more in the year of higher food availability (low competition). They were more likely to engage with a marking tree by marking or investigating it when passing in 2011 than 2010. In plentiful years adult females may have more time and energy to display dominance for the following breeding season. As adult males reduce their frequency of investigation in such years, female scent marks may be signals to other females. The trend of marking and investigating trees did not change significantly for females with young or subadults between years of varying food availability/competition; they were associated with marking and investigating trees as expected from their frequency on trails containing marking trees. This study is the first to examine the plasticity of scent marking behaviour in relation to food availability in an ursid species.
worldwide. The number of people visiting wilderness areas is set to increase further. Nature tourism is the fastest growing sector in the $3.5 trillion global annual tourism market (Mehmetoglu 2006). What impacts will this have on the social perceptions and economic and conservation values of these areas and the species which are found there? Reflecting on over a decade’s research on the impacts of the bear-viewing ecotourism industry in British Columbia, Canada, this paper considers place and “place making” via a case study of bear tourism in British Colombia (BC), Canada."
The human lifescape has become less connected with wildlife - driving a desire to reconnect with nature. Remaining brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations are largely found in areas perceived as free from extensive human modification, and as such, begin to symbolise wilderness.
Wilderness areas are increasingly attracting tourists, and people are beginning to reconnect with bears in areas that are now valued for their lack of modification; however, this raises questions of landscape integrity and authenticity.
The development of bear viewing in Knight Inlet British Columbia around a restored salmon population has added a new dynamic to an already modified multi-use landscape.
Landscapes are increasingly expected to perform on many social, cultural and economic levels; necessitating a holistic multi-stakeholder understanding of human-bear relationships. This interdisciplinary PhD uses novel approaches (including visual methods such as participatory video and visual story telling) to explore the place of bears in the landscape, and the narratives people create to contextualize their experience.