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Hauptmann, A. & Modarressi-Tehrani, D. (ed) Archaeometallurgy in Europe III. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum, June 29 – July 1, 2011. Der ANSCHNITT Beiheft 26, pp. 55-62, 2015
Abstract. The earliest gold and copper objects from Northeastern Iberian Peninsula are dated to the Late Neolithic (c. 3300 cal BC). Until now it was assumed that these communities were carrying out mine, smelting and melting metal activities. However, according to our research, first unequivocal confirmation of metal production is not dated until later, related to Bell Beaker (c. 2800 cal BC). It was carried out a study of these early metal objects by compositional, metallographic and typological analysis. Our findings suggest, first, the existence of close links with metallurgical centres from Western Switzerland and mainly southern France (Cabrières-Péret district, Hérault). From there final metal products would have distributed but not the knowledge or the techniques for their production. These would have been "captive", being North Eastern Iberia communities simple consumers with little or no understanding of the metallurgical process. Secondly, within the socio-economic field, these objects would have a very relative impact. Functional analysis indicate that both tools and ornaments were used repeatedly and continuously in daily life activities. However in no case came to be used exclusively in any sphere of social production. Finally, the funerary practices of this moment show that arrival of the metal did not involve substantial changes in existing community social relations. First signs of social asymmetries will not appear until the beginning of Bell Beaker. Keywords: First Metallurgy, Copper, Gold, Late Neolithic, Northeastern Iberian Peninsula
Burmeister, S., Hansen, S., Michael, M. y Müller-Scheeßel, N. (Eds.): Metal Matters. Innovative Technologies and Social Change in Prehistory and Antiquity. Rahden/Westf.: Leidorf: 231-239, 2013
Evidence for copper production dates back as early as the local Middle Neolithic (5th millennium cal BC), that is, earlier than in the surrounding countries. After a long hiatus, the spread of metallurgy was well established in the first half of the 3rd millennium cal BC. From the point of view of technology, this early metallurgy is characterized by working oxide ores that were easy to reduce in open fire structures with the use of smelting crucibles. The facet that makes the Iberian Peninsula a singular place when compared to other European and Eastern Mediterranean regions is that this very simple metallurgical technology lasted without appreciable changes up to pre-Roman times, despite the fact that other metallurgical advances such as tin-bronze making were accepted and adapted very early to local needs. Some topics concerning the main subject here (the primitive traits of the prehistoric Iberian metallurgy) are discussed in this contribution.
Abstract Big narratives on the role of metallurgy in social change and technological innovations are common in archaeology. However, informed discussion of these issues requires a contextualised characterisation of metallurgical technology at the local level in its specific social and technological contexts. This paper approaches early metallurgy in Iberia from a technological perspective.We focus on the site of Las Pilas in the Vera Basin (Mojácar, Almería, Spain), where the whole metallurgical chaîne opératoire has been documented in situ through archaeological excavation of a third millennium BC context. The study includes microstructural, mineralogical and chemical analyses of ores, slag, technical ceramics and finished artefacts, as well as domestic pottery used for comparative purposes. These results are discussed with reference to the archaeological context and evidence for other domestic activities and crafts. Our aim is to contribute to better characterise the early metallurgical tradition of Southeast Iberia, paying particular attention to specific technological tools, knowledge and recipes that may allow future comparative approaches to knowledge transmission or independent innovation debates. For this particular case, we demonstrate the direct production of arsenical copper in a low-scale, low-specialisation, low-efficiency set up that involved the crucible smelting of complex oxidic ores in a context that suggests associations with cereal roasting and, indirectly, with basket and pottery making.
2017
Big narratives on the role of metallurgy in social change and technological innovations are common in archaeology. However, informed discussion of these issues requires a contextualised characterisation of metallurgical technology at the local level in its specific social and technological contexts. This paper approaches early metallurgy in Iberia from a technological perspective. We focus on the site of Las Pilas in the Vera Basin (Mojácar, Almería, Spain), where the whole metallurgical chaîne opératoire has been documented in situ through archaeological excavation of a third millennium BC context. The study includes microstructural, mineralogical and chemical analyses of ores, slag, technical ceramics and finished artefacts, as well as domestic pottery used for comparative purposes. These results are discussed with reference to the archaeological context and evidence for other domestic activities and crafts. Our aim is to contribute to better charac-terise the early metallurgical tradition of Southeast Iberia, paying particular attention to specific technological tools, knowledge and recipes that may allow future comparative approaches to knowledge transmission or independent innovation debates. For this particular case, we demonstrate the direct production of arsenical copper in a low-scale, low-spe-cialisation, low-efficiency set up that involved the crucible smelting of complex oxidic ores in a context that suggests associations with cereal roasting and, indirectly, with basket and pottery making.
"The beginnings of extractive metallurgy in Eurasia are contentious. The first cast copper objects in this region emerge c. 7000 years ago, and their production has been tentatively linked to centres in the Near East. This assumption, however, is not substantiated by evidence for copper smelting in those centres. Here, we present results from recent excavations from Belovode, a Vin ca culture site in Eastern Serbia, which has provided the earliest direct evidence for copper smelting to date. The earliest copper smelting activities there took place c. 7000 years ago, contemporary with the emergence of the first cast copper objects. Through optical, chemical and provenance analyses of copper slag, minerals, ores and artefacts, we demonstrate the presence of an established metallurgical technology during this period, exploiting multiple sources for raw materials. These results extend the known record of copper smelting by more than half a millennium, with substantial implications. Extractive metallurgy occurs at a location far away from the Near East, challenging the traditional model of a single origin of metallurgy and reviving the possibility of multiple, independent inventions. "
Journal of Archaeological Sciences 37, 2010
The beginnings of extractive metallurgy in Eurasia are contentious. The first cast copper objects in this region emerge c7000 years ago, and their production has been tentatively linked to centres in the Near East. This assumption, however, is not substantiated by evidence for copper smelting in those centres. Here, we present results from recent excavations from Belovode, a Vinča culture site in Eastern Serbia, which has provided the earliest direct evidence for copper smelting to date. The earliest copper smelting activities there took place c7000 years ago, contemporary with the emergence of the first cast copper objects. Through optical, chemical and provenance analyses of copper slag, minerals, ores and artefacts, we demonstrate the presence of an established metallurgical technology during this period, exploiting multiple sources for raw materials. These results extend the known record of copper smelting by more than half a millennium, with substantial implications. Extractive metallurgy occurs at a location far away from the Near East, challenging the traditional model of a single origin of metallurgy and reviving the possibility of multiple, independent inventions.
Fraga dos Corvos is a Bronze Age habitat site recently studied and located in the northwestern versant of Serra de Bornes, Eastern Trás-os-Montes (Macedo de Cavaleiros, Bragança, Portugal). The site visually controls the Macedo de Cavaleiros basin. The results of the first four campaigns at Fraga dos Corvos Early/Middle Bronze Age habitat site, namely the excavation of its Huts 4 and 6 (foundry area), provide the opportunity to discuss the relations between the socioeconomic constraints of metal production (the first actual production of binary bronzes in Northern Portugal) and the symbolic of power in northern Portugal emerging Bronze Age societies. We argue that metal production in these societies is an uneconomic process which provides the means for the symbolic expression of status, otherwise difficult in societies with a very conservative and modest economy, close to what Shalins called the "domestic mode of production".
This paper examines the debate concerning the spread of early copper mining and metallurgy in Europe, in terms both of the a priori premises of the scholars concerned and of the actual archaeological evidence. It discusses the development of the diffusionist paradigm exemplified by Childe and Wertime, who argued for a single origin for metallurgical knowledge and practice in the Near East, and the challenge from Renfrew’s model of multiple centres of development of copper metallurgy (the Near East, the Balkans and Iberia). Specifically, it critiques the neo-diffusionist model recently proposed by Roberts, Thornton and Pigott (2009), who argue that metallurgy developed in a single region, in the area of eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq, from whence it diffused to other areas. It is shown that whether or not one agrees with the premises of the argument put forward by Roberts et al. (2009), the single origin diffusionist model for copper metallurgy is unproven on the basis of the available evidence. For example, copper smelting first appears in the Balkans (Belovode, Serbia – 5000-4650 cal BC), Iberia (Cerro Virtud, Almería – 4910-4460 cal BC) and southeastern Iran (Tal-i Iblis – second half of the 6th / first half of the 5th millennium cal BC) rather than in Anatolia or northern Iraq. The paper also examines the evidence for the earliest copper mining and metallurgy in Italy and southern France in the light of this debate, arguing that the pattern shown by the evidence does not support a simple diffusion from East to West. A new model is proposed which posits that information flowed throughout Eurasia, and that different technological developments may in fact have first emerged in different areas.
This article explores the role of metallurgy and metal mining in the NE region of the Southem Plateau of Spain, an area that roughly coincides with the province of Cuenca. During the Bronze Age this area was interconnected with El Argar, as it is seen by the commonalities they shared. These included permanent settlements and a relatively high degree of violence as seen by the construction of settlement high up in the hills and the building of defensive walls in some of them. The degree of economic relevance of metallurgical activities in this region is assessed. The results are discussed in the framework of the debates on whether metallurgy played a key role or not both in Cuenca and in El Argar area.
Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 2017
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