Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01715-6
(2023) 15:24
RESEARCH
Using GIS and Geostatistical Techniques to Identify Neanderthal
Campsites at archaeolevel Ob at Abric Romaní
Maria Joana Gabucio1,2 · Amèlia Bargalló1,2 · Palmira Saladié1,2,3
M. Gema Chacón1,2,5 · Josep Vallverdú1,2,3 · Manuel Vaquero1,2
· Francesca Romagnoli4
·
Received: 26 September 2022 / Accepted: 4 January 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
Although intra-site spatial approaches are considered a key factor when interpreting archaeological assemblages, these
are often based on descriptive, qualitative, and subjective observations. Currently, within the framework of research
into spatial taphonomy and palimpsest dissection, several studies have begun to employ more quantitative and objective techniques, implementing tools such as geostatistics and geographic information system (GIS) methods. This is
precisely the approach that the Abric Romaní team is following. In this work, we present GIS and geostatistics methods
applied to the faunal and lithic assemblages from archaeolevel Ob, including an analysis of the spatial structure, the
identification of clusters and sectors, size and fabric analyses, the projection of vertical profiles, and the reconstruction of a digital elevation model of the paleosurface. The results obtained indicate a clustered distribution, primarily
concentrated into four dense accumulations. The predominance of remains < 3 cm in length and the absence of preferential orientations make it possible to rule out a generalised postdepositional movement affecting most of the site,
although some local movement has been identified. The horizontal and vertical spatial analyses allow us to identify
accumulations of a single material (lithic or faunal) in addition to mixed accumulations (lithic and faunal). Integrating
all this data with the results of previous studies (zooarchaeological, refits, combustion structures, and partial lithic
technological analyses), we evaluate and combine the interpretations proposed previously using different approaches,
thereby improving the overall interpretation of the archaeolevel Ob. Finally, we also develop a preliminary comparison
between Ob and some other levels at the same site (in particular M and P).
Keywords Intra-site spatial analysis · Faunal remains · Lithic remains · GIS · Geostatistics · Abric Romaní · Middle
Palaeolithic
Introduction
* Maria Joana Gabucio
mj.gabucio@gmail.com; mjgabucio@iphes.cat
1
Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social
(IPHES-CERCA), Zona Educacional 4, Campus Sescelades
URV (Edifici W3), 43007 Tarragona, Spain
2
Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Àrea de Prehistòria,
Avinguda Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain
3
Unit Associated with CSIC, Departamento de Paleobiologia,
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, Spain
4
Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Universidad
Autónoma de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco,
28049 Madrid, Spain
5
UMR7194–HNHP (CNRS–MNHN–UPVD–Sorbonne
Universités), Musée de l’Homme, 17 Place du Trocadero,
75116 Paris, France
Intra-site spatial approaches have long been recognised as a
very useful, even necessary, tool when trying to understand
and interpret Palaeolithic archaeological assemblages. Such
approaches can provide key information on both anthropogenic activities and the actions of various natural agents,
since all of these usually impact the spatial distribution of
the remains. Consequently, intra-site spatial analyses provide
valuable data on site formation (including both depositional
and postdepositional processes) and past human behaviour.
Ethnoarchaeological studies have demonstrated the ability of humans to generate a recognisable spatial pattern and
shown that the distribution of remains is related to the social
behaviour of human groups (Yellen 1977a, b; Binford 1978a,
b; O’Connell 1987; O’Connell et al. 1991; Bartram et al.
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1991; Fisher and Strickland 1991; Kroll and Price 1991).
This occurs because human activities are generally organised,
that is, they occur in specific temporal and spatial sequences
(Schiffer 1972, 1983; Estévez et al. 1998; García-Piquer and
Estévez-Escalera 2018; Domínguez-Rodrigo and CoboSánchez 2017). However, certain intrinsic characteristics of
the archaeological record hamper the use of ethnoarchaeological models for interpreting archaeological spatial patterns.
For instance, most archaeological sites are palimpsests, understood as an accumulation and superposition of remains resulting from multiple different activities (both anthropogenic and
natural), carried out over a variable period of time (Lucas
2005, 2012; Bailey 2007). As a consequence, the archaeological record has a much lower temporal resolution than the
ethnoarchaeological work. To try to resolve this issue, some
authors have opted for a spatiotemporal approach, introducing the concept of time into spatial analyses. The main goal
for this is to dissect the palimpsest into archaeological associations with a higher temporal resolution, closer to “ethnographic time.” To achieve this complex objective, a wide
range of different disciplines, techniques, and methods have
been developed and applied, including archaeostratigraphy,
micromorphology, raw material unit (RMU) analysis, lithic
and faunal refits, and computer-based tools (Chenorkian 1988;
Canals 1993; de Loecker 1994, 2004; Audouze and Enloe
1997; Baxter et al. 1997; Baales 2001; Leesch et al. 2004;
Vaquero et al. 2007, 2012, 2017; Hovers et al. 2011; Enloe
2012; Carbonell 2012; Street et al. 2012; Turq et al. 2013;
Machado et al. 2013, 2019; Bisson et al. 2014; Mallol et al.
2013; Bargalló et al. 2016; Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016;
Spagnolo et al. 2016, 2019, 2020a, b, c; Romagnoli et al.
2018; Geiling et al. 2017; Gabucio et al. 2018a, b).
In terms of natural taphonomic modifications, various
neotaphonomic studies and subsequent archaeological
applications have shown the impact that certain natural
processes, such as carnivore action or water flows, have
on the location and disposition of previously deposited
objects (e.g., Voorhies 1969; Behrensmeyer 1975; Frostick
and Reid 1983; Frison and Todd 1986; Marean and Bertino
1994; Petraglia and Potts 1994; Bertran et al. 2006; 2012;
Lenoble et al. 2008; Camarós et al. 2013; Arilla et al. 2014;
Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2014, 2018; Giusti and Arzarello
2016; Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016; Organista et al. 2017;
de la Torre and Wehr 2018; Mendez-Quintas et al. 2019).
Among these works, those that reproduce fluvial environments stand out, although the potential of other natural
agents to mobilise pre-deposited items has also been studied. Recently, a new area of research in taphonomic studies,
spatial taphonomy, has been developed, which underlines the
importance of spatial proxies. Spatial taphonomy addresses
the spatial analysis of taphonomic attributes by applying several multiscalar geostatistical methods (Domínguez-Rodrigo
et al. 2018; Giusti et al. 2018). Its objective is to go beyond
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mere graphic representations, expanding the systemic vision
of taphonomy and demonstrating that the spatial distribution
of the attributes can help to identify the agents, as well as the
superposition and interaction of different taphonomic processes (Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2018; Giusti et al. 2018).
Although intra-site spatial approaches are not new in
archaeology, in most cases, these have been based mainly
on visual, descriptive, and qualitative analyses, where subjective evaluations prevail (Bevan et al. 2013; Giusti and
Arzarello 2016; Giusti et al. 2018; Domínguez-Rodrigo et al.
2018). This fact might limit the validity of the conclusions
and, in addition, makes it extremely difficult to compare
different assemblages. However, some authors have pushed
the boundaries of these techniques, implementing statistical
and, more recently, geographic information system (GIS)
methods in their intra-site spatial studies (e.g., Whallon
1973, 1974; Doran and Hodson 1975; Hivernel and Hodder
1984; Baxter et al. 1997; Bevan and Conolly 2006; Lenoble
et al. 2008; Alperson-Afil 2008, 2012; Crema et al. 2010;
Keeler 2010; Moseler 2011; Gallotti et al. 2011; Nigst and
Antl-Weiser 2012; Bosch et al. 2012; Bevan et al. 2013;
Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2014, 2018; Baxter 2015; Giusti
and Arzarello 2016; Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016, 2020,
2021; Spagnolo et al. 2016, 2019, 2020a, b, c; DomínguezRodrigo and Cobo-Sánchez 2017; Organista et al. 2017;
de la Torre and Wehr 2018; Giusti et al. 2018; Gonçalves
et al. 2018; Discamps et al. 2019; Mendez-Quintas et al.
2019; Marín et al. 2020; Saladié et al. 2021). New areas of
research, such as palimpsest dissection and spatial taphonomy, are employing these techniques in search of a more
quantitative and objective approach. As a result, statistical
tools previously implemented in other disciplines, including
geology, ecology, and epidemiology, are being applied to
intra-site spatial analyses. In addition, GIS methods, commonly applied to inter-site and regional studies, are increasingly being used in intra-site studies.
An approach of this type is being applied to the study of
the Abric Romaní, one of the main key sites for the study of
Neanderthal behaviour. The rock shelter, with a stratigraphy
of approximately 30 m of mostly travertine sediments, has
been dated to between 110 and 40 ka (Sharp et al. 2016)
(Fig. 1). The site is characterised by a rapid sedimentation rate, estimated at about 0.46 mm/year (Vallverdú et al.
2012b; Vaquero et al. 2019), which is one of the features that
make this site exceptional, conserving combustion structures, wood imprints, and minimising palimpsest formation. Almost the entire sequence corresponds to the Middle
Palaeolithic, except for level A, which is Proto-Aurignacian.
The research team led by Prof. Eudald Carbonell has
been working on this site for 40 years, extensively excavating and gathering information in great detail to document the
maximum occupied area in each layer, over a surface area
of approximately 300 m2 (Carbonell 2012). The excavation
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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Fig. 1 A Geographic location of the Abric Romaní site in Capellades
(Barcelona, Spain). B Lithostratigraphic column of the Abric Romaní
Coveta Nord profile (figure elaborated and courtesy by Vallverdú
et al. 2012b); legend for the comment columns: a: rock-fall of traver-
tine blocks and megablocks; b: archaeological bed letters; c: sedimentary sequences; d: chronology. C A photograph of the site during the
excavation of level O (Photo/IPHES)
system was designed with the final objective of reconstructing the behaviour of Neanderthals from a palaeoethnographic perspective. This goal conditioned the research
methodology, both in the field and the subsequent studies,
promoting a multi- and transdisciplinary approach.
These working methods, together with the rapid sedimentation rate, have enabled various intra-site spatiotemporal
studies based on different archaeological levels from the site
(Vaquero & Pastó 2001; Vallverdú et al. 2005, 2010; Vaquero
et al. 2007, 2012, 2015, 2017, 2019; Fernández-Laso 2010;
Rosell et al. 2012; Carbonell 2012; Bargalló 2014; Gabucio
2014; Bargalló et al. 2016, 2020b; Romagnoli and Vaquero
2016; Modolo and Rosell 2017; Gabucio et al. 2018a, b;
Marín et al. 2019; Fernández-Laso et al. 2020). Despite the
rapid sedimentation, the palimpsests still have a much lower
temporal resolution than that typical in ethnoarchaeological
works, a fact that limits their direct comparison. Between
the various levels, there are differences between the amount
of remains and their distribution. Consequently, some show
well-defined concentrations, produced in a reduced number
of occupations, while others — such as level O — correspond to a more developed palimpsest. In order to dissect
these palimpsests and bring them as close as possible to
ethnographic time, a wide range of techniques, methods, and
disciplines have been applied, including archaeostratigraphy,
micromorphology, RMU analysis, lithic and faunal refits,
computer-based tools, and mathematical methods.
Currently, the Abric Romaní research team is promoting a
more quantitative approach to the intra-site spatial organisation of the archaeological record. The aim of this strategy,
already initiated by Vaquero (1999), is to obtain more quantitative spatial data and thus favour a diachronic comparison
between the different levels at the site. The approach has
already been applied to some of the assemblages, including
the lithic assemblage from level M (Romagnoli and Vaquero
2016) and the faunal assemblage from level P (Marín et al.
2019). In this work, we propose a similar proxy for archaeolevel Ob, including both lithic and faunal assemblages.
Abric Romaní level O, dated at around 54.6 ka BP
(Vaquero et al. 2013), was excavated between 2004
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Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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◂Fig. 2 Archaeostratigraphic analysis of level O at Abric Romaní,
showing the separation between archaeolevels Oa and Ob and microlevels Ob1 and Ob2. (Modified from Gabucio et al. 2018b)
and 2011, and provided more than 40,000 archaeological remains. The study of this level has led to numerous
publications (Vallverdú et al. 2012a; Courty et al. 2012;
Gabucio et al. 2012, 2014a, b, 2018a, b; López-García
et al. 2014; Picin et al. 2014; Picin and Carbonell 2016;
Chacón et al. 2015; Bargalló et al. 2016, 2020a, b; Carrancho et al. 2016; Allué et al. 2017; Fernández-García
et al. 2018, 2020; Gómez de Soler et al. 2020a, b; Eixea
et al. 2020, 2021). Some of these (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio
2014; Bargalló et al. 2016; Gabucio et al. 2018a), based
on faunal and/or lithic remains and aimed at dissecting the
original palimpsest from a spatiotemporal perspective, led
to the identification of two main archaeolevels, Oa and Ob
(Fig. 2). In addition, for both archaeolevels, the authors
proposed a site function (mainly as a campsite), intra-site
structure (different activity areas), connections between
areas (long connections between the E and the W of the
rock shelter in Ob), and settlement dynamics (short occupations in Oa; a higher number of individuals and possibly
longer occupations in Ob) (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014;
Bargalló et al. 2016, 2020a, b; Gabucio et al. 2018a, b).
The lithic and faunal results were obtained separately, but
the authors shared information with each other throughout all the phases of the study. Nevertheless, comparisons
between lithic and faunal results can be difficult since the
methodology applied, although very similar, is not exactly
the same. In addition, the analysis of the lithic technology
from archaeolevel Ob is still in progress.
In this work, we present the first application of GIS and
geostatistical methods to archaeolevel Ob. This includes a
determination of the spatial structure (basically Besag’s L
(r) function), the identification of clusters and sectors (Kernel density and k-means analysis), the exploration of size
and orientation distribution patterns, the visualisation of the
vertical distribution of the remains, and a palaeotopographic
reconstruction using a digital elevation model. In this way,
we contribute to the quantitative approach that is currently
being developed at the site and facilitate its diachronic study.
Unlike previous works within this area, we selected a specific archaeolevel, Ob, identified as a result of a previous
exhaustive archaeostratigraphic study. Another singularity of
this work is the simultaneous application of a great variety
of analyses to both lithic and faunal remains.
In summary, our main objectives are to: (1) characterise
the point pattern of the lithic and faunal remains in Ob; (2)
contribute to the dissection of the palimpsest; (3) improve
our knowledge of the deposit’s formation processes and postdepositional disturbance; (4) provide an optimal basis for the
integration of lithic and faunal data; (5) produce quantitative
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data that facilitates the diachronic study of the site; and (6)
take the first steps towards such a diachronic comparison.
Materials and methods
This study focuses on Ob, the most extensive and complex
archaeolevel in level O. It varies in thickness, being thinner
in the inner area (maximum 25 cm) and reaching 55 cm in
the outer area of the rock shelter. A similar trend is observed
in the slope, which is 12.92° towards the theoretical SW,
although it is almost flat in the inner area. A total of 21,748
piece-plotted lithic remains and 8596 piece-plotted faunal
remains have been recovered from Ob. Until 2010, all the
lithic and faunal remains detected during the excavation
were piece-plotted. Instead, as of 2011, it was decided to
piece-plot lithic remains > 1 cm and faunal remains > 2 cm.
Figure 3 shows the location of the travertine blocks, the
wood imprints, and the 50 combustion structures assigned
to the archaeolevel Ob.
Spatial analyses and geostatistical techniques were
applied considering both lithic and faunal remains. Cartesian
coordinates are available for all the lithic and faunal remains
that were recorded during the excavation. Any remains for
which the spatial position was not recorded (recovered from
the sediment after water-sieving using nested meshes of
5 mm and 0.5 mm) have not been taken into account in this
study. First, we analysed the two assemblages (faunal and
lithic) together, to better characterise archaeolevel Ob, and
then separately, to compare the two materials. This should
enable a clearer understanding the formation processes
and facilitate the future integration of the faunal and lithic
results, once the latter is fully available.
The spatial and geostatistical analyses were performed
using R and its environment (R Core Development Team
2011) and (QGIS 2016) software (version 2.18 Las Palmas
and version 3.26 Buenos Aires). Occasionally, we used other
open-source software, such as CrimeStat software (National
Institute of Justice, Washington, DC, USA) and SAGA GIS.
The following subsections detail the methods applied to the
specific analyses.
Horizontal distribution
Spatial structure
Besag’s L (r) function was used to to characterise the spatial
structure of the three assemblages (lithic and faunal remains/
lithic remains/faunal remains) by specifying whether the
points had a uniform, random, or aggregated distribution
(Besag 1977). Complete spatial randomness was used as
the null hypothesis (Diggle 1983). This procedure is key in
point pattern characterisation, and is now being used more
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Fig. 3 Top: Location of combustion structures, travertine
blocks, and wood imprints
classified as belonging to
archaeolevel Ob. The representation of combustion structures
is based on the extension of
the thermoaltered floor. The
labels denote the names of the
different combustion structures
(Roman Numerals in the case of
the structures excavated during
the years 2004 and 2005; acronym of the site, year of excavation and Arabic numerals in
the case of structures excavated
after 2006). (Figure elaborated
and courtesy by J. Vallverdú
and A. Bargalló, taken from
Gabucio et al. 2018a). Bottom:
Horizontal distribution of lithic
and faunal remains according to
the rock shelter limit
systematically in intra-site spatial studies, although in most
cases Ripley’s original K (r) function (Ripley 1976, 1977) is
selected (e.g., Bevan and Conolly 2006; Crema et al. 2010;
Giusti and Arzarello 2016; Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016;
Spagnolo et al. 2016, 2019, 2020a, b, c; Thacher et al. 2017;
Domínguez-Rodrigo and Cobo-Sánchez 2017; de la Torre
& Wehr 2018; Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2018; Gonçalves
et al. 2018; Giusti et al. 2018).
We prefer the modified function L (r) proposed by Besag
(1977) to the original Ripley’s K (r) function because the
former is easier to interpret, especially when the function
is represented with respect to 0. In the case of aggregated
13
distributions where this type of representation is used, the
highest point of the observed curve clearly indicates the
approximate radius of the clusters. Moreover, Besag’s L
(r) function is normalised, so it allows the point pattern of
assemblages with different number of points to be compared.
Although we prefer Besag’s L (r) function, with the
intention of broadening our understanding of the data and
facilitating future comparisons, we also calculated Ripley’s
K (r) function and added the results into the Supplementary
Information (SI Figs. 1–8). Likewise, we included Monte
Carlo simulations of the tests (Robert and Casella 2004),
generating 50 sets of artificial points with the same density
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as the observed points but with random spatial locations (SI
Figs. 1–8). In this way, we checked if the K and L values
deviated with respect to the expected theoretical K and L
values for random point patterns.
The “isotropic” edge correction was preferred as this was
developed for irregular polygons (Ripley 1977), such as the
excavated area of level O. However, in the Supplementary
Information, we provide the calculations of Ripley’s K (r)
function and Besag’s L (r) function with both isotropic and
border corrections (SI Figs. 1–8).
Before using Besag’s L (r) function, a homogeneity
test was carried out on the three assemblages to be able to
determine the most appropriate method (homogeneous or
inhomogeneous). This step is not always performed, since
homogeneous formats (which tend to provide more powerful
and clearer results) are sometimes selected directly. Thus,
although inhomogeneous tests are considered to be better
adapted to the features of archaeological sites, in practice
they are little used. In this regard, Domínguez-Rodrigo
and collaborators intentionally used the two methods with
specific objectives: the homogeneous test to show spatial
trends; and the inhomogeneous one to correct the former
(Domínguez-Rodrigo and Cobo-Sánchez 2017; DomínguezRodrigo et al. 2018). The results of both the homogeneous
and inhomogeneous tests are included in the Supplementary
Information (SI Figs. 1–8).
DC, USA) to carry out the k-means analysis. This analysis
allowed us to classify all the items in different sectors and
identify the main clusters (one cluster within each sector).
Then, we visualised the results in QGIS. K-means analyses have been widely used in archaeology since the 1970s,
although their use in Palaeolithic contexts came somewhat
later (Doran and Hodson 1975; Ammerman et al. 1983; Kintigh and Ammerman 1982; Simek and Larick 1983; Simek
1984; Rigaud and Simek 1991; Baxter et al. 1997; Vaquero
1999). Nowadays, the use of k-means analysis is declining,
although some authors still use this method, complementing it with other techniques, or use similar methods (Baxter
2015; Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016; Domínguez-Rodrigo and
Cobo-Sánchez 2017; Mendez-Quintas et al. 2019; SánchezRomero et al. 2021).
In order to gain a better understanding of the differences
and similarities between the distinct materials, all these methods were applied first to the combination of lithic and faunal
remains and then for the two assemblages separately. However, we then proceeded to examine the remains in greater
detail, taking into account only the sectors and clusters calculated for the combined lithic and faunal remains. For instance,
considering the area and the number of remains (lithic/faunal/
both), we calculated the average intensity of each of these sectors and clusters, as has already been performed for level M at
the same site (Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016).
Clustering pattern
Size distribution pattern
As a first step, we used density maps generated using the
kernel algorithm as an informal approach to spatial cluster
analysis (Baxter et al. 1997). In this task, we considered the
radius suggested from the results of Besag’s L (r) functions.
Kernel density estimation (KDE) uses point data to create
a smoothed density map taking into account the proximity between the points (Baxter et al. 1997). We used QGIS
software to create the density maps, generating both 2D and
3D maps. KDE has been applied to different archaeological
contexts in several previous studies, including recent examples relating to Palaeolithic sites (e.g., Keeler 2010; Moseler
2011; Nigst and Antl-Weiser 2012; Blasco et al. 2016; Spagnolo et al. 2016, 2019, 2020a, b, c; Romagnoli and Vaquero
2016; Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016, 2020, 2021; de la Torre
and Wehr 2018; Giusti et al. 2018; Marín et al. 2019).
As a second step, a k-means analysis was performed,
after calculating the ideal number of clusters using the
elbow method (Kintigh and Ammerman 1982; Baxter
2015; Kasambara 2017). In elbow graphs, the point where
the curves abruptly change trend indicates the ideal number
of clusters, which must be read on the x-axis. We used the
R language and environment to calculate the ideal number
of clusters (R Core Development Team 2011), and CrimeStat software (National Institute of Justice, Washington,
Both faunal and lithic remains were classified into the following size classes: ≤ 1 cm; > 1–2 cm; > 2–3 cm; > 3–5 cm;
and > 5 cm. These measurements correspond to the longest
axis of each item, regardless of their technical or anatomical features. Despite the fact that many remains ≤ 1 cm were
surely not noticed nor piece-plotted during the excavation
(especially the bones recovered from the year 2011, due to
the change in the cut-off size for piece-plotting), we decided
to add the category ≤ 1 cm because the amount of small
remains is huge in the assemblage. However, we will take
this bias into account when interpreting the results.
Next, we explored the horizontal distribution of these categories using two methods. The first consisted of generating density maps (KDE, representations in 2D and 3D) for
each size class, taking into account the two materials studied
(lithic/faunal). The second method was based on quantifying the number of remains in each size category and material contained in the different sectors and clusters identified
using the k-means analysis. This bimodal approach allowed
us to address the size distribution pattern in both a visual
and quantitative way.
The distribution of the remains according to size categories is considered very informative in terms of assessing
the degree of postdepositional disturbance in archaeological
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deposits (Petraglia and Potts 1994; Bertran et al. 2006, 2012;
Spagnolo et al. 2016, 2020a, b, c; de la Torre et al. 2018;
Mendez-Quintas et al. 2019). For instance, water flows tend
to displace the lightest pieces, which are often the smallest
(although other factors are also involved, such as density
and shape). Consequently, deposits in fluvial environments
usually have scarce, or even no, small remains. In contrast,
when the remains are dispersed by gravity, it is the heavier
remains (usually the largest) that move downslope.
Fabric analysis
During the fieldwork, the general orientation data (NS,
NESW, EW, NWSE, or SQUARE — in the case of items
with the same length and width) of each remain was
recorded prior to its removal. To assign an orientation to the
remains, the theoretical north of the site, located on the wall
at the bottom of the rock shelter, was taken as a reference. In
line with previous work (Bertran and Texier 1995; Bertran
and Lenoble 2002; McPherron 2005; Benito-Calvo and de
la Torre 2011; Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2014; SánchezRomero et al. 2016; de la Torre and Wehr 2018; Giusti et al.
2018; Spagnolo et al. 2020a, c), we selected a subsample of
remains appropriate for the orientation analysis, comprising
those larger than 2 cm and with an elongation index (length/
width) > 1.6. As in the case of the size categories, we generated 2D and 3D density maps for each orientation (NS,
NESW, EW, and NWSE) and quantified the number of items
with each orientation in the different sectors and clusters.
In both cases, we differentiated lithic and faunal remains.
Fabric analysis is particularly relevant for detecting reworking processes, since different processes lead to different orientation patterns (Voorhies 1969; Petraglia and Potts 1994;
Bertran et al. 1997; Bertran and Lenoble 2002; Lenoble and
Bertran 2004; McPherron 2005; Benito-Calvo and de la Torre
2011; Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016; de la Torre and Wehr 2018;
Giusti et al. 2018; Mendez-Quintas et al. 2019; Spagnolo et al.
2020a, c). For instance, generalised water transport usually
generates preferential orientations. Thus, in fluvial contexts,
the longitudinal axis of most small remains will be aligned
with the direction of the flow, whereas the larger remains tend
to align transversally to this. In contrast, debris-flow deposits usually present massive and poorly bedded mixtures of
unsorted sediments and random clast orientation (except at
the flow margins). Finally, undisturbed archaeological assemblages tend to have a planar orientation pattern.
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
profiles were plotted with a thickness of 20 cm. In each
one, lithic and faunal remains were differentiated (different
colours) in order to compare their vertical distributions. In
addition, the location of the different sectors and clusters
was indicated in all the profiles (considering the lithic and
faunal remains together).
The generation of profile projections is considered a key
factor in the study of site formation processes, although
it is not applied systematically in all studies (Cacho et al.
2016; Giusti and Arzarello 2016; Giusti et al. 2018; Discamps et al. 2019). For instance, vertical profiles show
the thickness and slope of the layer, the possible existence
of different sublayers with a greater temporal resolution,
and the morphology of the palaeosurface on which the
layer accumulated. In addition, vertical distribution analyses help to identify massive processes and differentiate
between autochthonous and allochthonous assemblages.
Digital elevation model (DEM)
We used the depth values of the remains as a proxy to
reconstruct the morphology of the base of the archaeolevel
Ob. From a database containing the Z-values of both lithic
and faunal remains, a grid file was generated using SGA
GIS software. During this process, we indicated that, in
the case of multiple Z-values for the same pixel, the lower
value would be selected. Next, the grid file was interpolated
(Multilevel B-Spline Interpolation) using the same software. The result of the interpolation was represented in 3D
by applying the QGIS tool “QGis 2threejs.” Finally, using
the same interpolation, a terrain analysis (Analytical Hillshading) was performed. As a result, we obtained detailed
2D and 3D images of the surface of archaeolevel Ob.
Similar methods have been used by other authors to produce palaeotopographic reconstructions (e.g., Giusti et al.
2018; Bargalló et al. 2020a; Spagnolo et al. 2020a, b, c;
Sánchez-Romero et al. 2020). Determining the relief of the
surface on which the archaeological remains are preserved
is important when interpreting the spatial distribution of
the materials, since the existence of steep slopes, depressions, high points, and so on can influence the location of the
remains and some of their traits, such as orientation and slope.
Results
Vertical distribution
Horizontal distribution
To observe the vertical distribution of the remains, a
total of 13 profiles were drawn using the Z-values. These
included both longitudinal and cross-sectional profiles,
covering the complete surface area of the rock shelter. All
Spatial structure
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The results of the homogeneity test indicated that the assemblage
formed by lithic and faunal remains together is inhomogeneous
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24
Fig. 4 Inhomogeneous Besag’s L (r) function with isotropic edge cor- ▸
rection for combined lithic and faunal remains (top), lithic remains
(middle), and faunal remains (bottom). The x-axis represents the distance (cm), the continuous black line represents the observed Besag’s
L (r) function, and the discontinuous red line represents the poisson line
(χ2 = 288,960, df = 285, p-value < 2.2e-16). When analysed independently, both lithic (χ2 = 232,530, df = 285, p-value < 2.2e-16)
and faunal (χ2 = 94,266, df = 285, p-value < 2.2e-16) remains are
also inhomogeneous. Consequently, the inhomogeneous method
was preferred when calculating Besag’s L (r) function.
Besag’s L (r) function showed that the point patterns were
clustered (Fig. 4), ruling out the null hypothesis of complete
spatial randomness. The point pattern is clustered both when
the lithic and faunal remains are considered at the same time
and when they are processed separately. The presence of
the observed line (L value) above the poisson line in all the
three cases indicates this. However, the results suggest that
the faunal remains are more strongly clustered.
In the graph for the two materials together, the maximum height of the observed curve suggests a radius of about
80 cm for the clusters. A similar result (between 60 and
80 cm) is observed in the graph of faunal remains. In contrast, the graph of the lithic remains suggests a radius of
approximately 120 cm.
The Supplementary Information includes the results of the
homogeneous and inhomogeneous tests (Ripley’s K (r) function and Besag’s L (r) function), using isotropic and border
corrections, and their corresponding Monte Carlo simulations
(SI Figs. 1–8). In all the homogeneous tests, Monte Carlo
simulations confirm the clustered pattern of the assemblages,
whereas in the inhomogeneous tests, they only confirm the
clustered pattern of the faunal assemblage. In no case do the
results indicate a random distribution of the remains.
Clustering pattern
We plotted all the lithic and faunal remains horizontally
(X/Y) and then compared the distribution of these remains
with the location of the structural elements (combustion
structures, travertine blocks, and wood imprints). The resulting scatterplots show that the archaeological remains tend
to cluster around and within the hearths, especially those
located in the inner half of the rock shelter (Figs. 3 and
5). However, there is also a very strong tendency of the
remains to concentrate towards the theoretical NW (grid
squares R-U/58–62, approximately) and N (grid squares
U-W/51–54) of the rock shelter (Fig. 5).
Although the general distribution pattern is similar, there
are some significant differences between the lithic and faunal
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Fig. 5 Planimetric distribution of lithic and faunal remains, separately and combined, represented using scatterplots and density maps (2D and 3D)
remains (Fig. 5). For instance, lithic remains are more abundant
in the NW corner, where they clearly predominate over faunal
remains, while bones are more abundant in the N, where the
proportions between both materials are more equal (even faunal
remains predominating over the lithic remains in grid squares
V/52–53). In addition, there is a well-defined cluster towards
the theoretical W (approximately grid squares Q-P/57–60) composed almost solely of lithic remains. Finally, the outermost
area, especially towards the E, contains proportionally more
faunal than lithic remains.
We can better appreciate these differences using kernel
density maps, especially when displayed in 3D (Fig. 5).
Density maps were developed choosing a radius of 80 cm,
as suggested by Besag’s L (r) functions. If we look closely
at the theoretical NW corner, we can identify three highdensity points towards the NW. This is more evident in the
case of lithic remains, although they can also be appreciated
from the distribution of faunal remains.
Once we had confirmed that the spatial structure is
clustered and before performing the k-means analysis,
we explored the ideal number of clusters by means of the
elbow method. We applied this method to the faunal and
lithic assemblages both together and separately, in order
13
to compare the results (Fig. 6). Considering only the lithic
remains, the elbow method suggested four or five clusters.
When only the faunal remains were taken into account, this
method suggested that the ideal number of clusters was three
or four. Finally, when both materials were analysed together,
the elbow method indicated four clusters. Consequently, we
decided to conduct the k-means analysis selecting four clusters, classifying the assemblage according to four sectors.
Figure 6 shows the distribution of these sectors considering lithic and faunal remains together and both assemblages
separately. Light-coloured polygons correspond to sectors
whereas dark ellipses correspond to the main clusters. The
results obtained from all the remains are practically identical to those obtained from lithic remains alone (which are
quantitatively more numerous than faunal remains). Here,
three clusters are concentrated in the NW area, whereas the
fourth cluster extends through the eastern half of the rock
shelter, coinciding with the four high-density points visible
on the density maps (Fig. 5). In contrast, the results obtained
from the faunal remains alone are quite different: there are
two clusters in the W, one in the N and another in the E.
In the following analyses, the classification into four
sectors and the clusters obtained considering the lithic and
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24
Fig. 6 Results of the elbow method and k-means analysis calculated
first for lithic and faunal remains separately, and then for the two assemblages combined. The blue and red lines in elbow method correspond
to the inter- and intra-class curves. The labels on the k-means analysis
considering the two assemblages together correspond to the names of
the sectors (light-coloured polygons) and accumulations (dark ellipses)
faunal assemblages together were taken as a reference. We
named the sectors KM1–4, starting from the W and going
clockwise (Fig. 6). Likewise, the main clusters were named
by adding a “c” to the beginning of the sector name to which
they belong (cKM1–4).
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Table 1 Average intensity of the
different sectors and clusters of
Ob calculated from area in cm2,
as in previous works of Abric
Romaní site (Romagnoli and
Vaquero 2016)
Sector/cluster
Area
m
KM1
cKM1
KM2
cKM2
KM3
cKM3
KM4
cKM4
2
39.64
3.86
5.64
1.93
18.35
4.42
166.6
29.63
Number of remains
cm
2
396447.5
38598.8
56377.3
19296.7
183489.3
44205.9
1,665974.4
296305.9
The first step in the characterisation of these sectors
and clusters involved calculating their average intensity
(Table 1). Considering the sectors, both the lithic and
faunal remains were concentrated more intensely in
KM2 (which is the smallest sector), followed by KM3,
KM1, and, at some distance, by KM4 (which has a larger
area). If we look at the clusters, we can see that the
greatest intensity of lithic remains was accumulated in
cKM2, followed by cKM1, cKM3, and cKM4 (which is
the cluster with the largest area), while the accumulations of faunal remains had similar intensities in cKM3
and cKM1, followed by cKM2 and cKM4 (where the
extent of the area blurs the large concentration of bones
observed in the N of the rock shelter, coinciding with
the NW area of cKM4).
Size distribution patterns
Figure 7 presents the density maps (in 2D and 3D) of the
complete assemblage by length categories. In contrast,
Figs. 8 and 9 contain the density maps related to lithic and
faunal remains, respectively. These figures can be visually
compared to Fig. 5, which contains the density maps of all
the remains (lithic and faunal remains together and separately). In addition, Table 2 provides quantitative information on the distribution of both materials by length categories, sectors, and accumulations.
The lithic remains ≤ 1 cm in length are concentrated in
two points in the NW of the site, coinciding with clusters
cKM1 and cKM3 (Fig. 8). If we compare this with the
general distribution of all the lithic pieces (Fig. 5), we can
see that, although many lithic remains are concentrated
in cKM2, the items smaller than 1 cm are scarce in that
area. This fact is even more evident if we look at Table 2.
The distribution by sectors and accumulations of the lithic
remains that are between 1 and 2 cm long, which are the
most abundant, is very similar to that of the total lithic
remains: there are significant concentrations at three points
in the NW (cKM1–3) and another to the N (several points
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Average intensity
Lithic
Faunal
Total
Lithic
Faunal
Total
6335
4458
5138
2898
5400
3664
4875
3305
1735
1255
964
626
2015
1288
3882
2903
8070
5713
6102
3524
7415
4952
8757
6208
0.01598
0.11550
0.09114
0.15018
0.02943
0.08288
0.00293
0.01115
0.00438
0.03251
0.01710
0.03244
0.01098
0.02914
0.00233
0.00980
0.02036
0.14801
0.10824
0.18262
0.04041
0.11202
0.00526
0.02095
inside cKM4). However, as the length category increases,
the global number of remains decreases and their proportion in KM2 gradually increases. Thus, of the 734 lithic
remains > 5 cm, 244 are in KM2 (33.24%). Likewise, Fig. 8
indicates that several remains > 3–5 cm and > 5 cm are
located in the outermost fringe of the rock shelter, where
the total number of remains is very low.
As far as faunal remains are concerned, Fig. 9 shows that
the remains ≤ 1 cm in length are mostly concentrated to the
N, mainly at two points (one much more pronounced than
the other) within the cluster cKM4. There are also two lesser
points in the NW zone, coinciding with the clusters cKM1
and cKM3. However, as in the case of the lithics, cKM2
presents a low density of small remains. Table 2 illustrates
this: the proportion of remains ≤ 1 cm is very high in sector
KM4 (26.71%, 33.24% in cKM4) and very low in sector
KM2 (5.50%, 5.75% in cKM2). In fact, of the 1599 faunal remains ≤ 1 cm in length, 1037 (64.85%) are in KM4.
Both the figure and table indicate similar dynamics with
respect to faunal remains > 1–2 cm: there is a greater density of remains in the N zone, followed by the NW, but with
an increase in the proportion of remains in the NW area
(especially in clusters cKM1 and cKM3, but also cKM2). In
the higher length categories, which have increasingly fewer
items, most remains are concentrated in the NW area, mainly
in the KM2 sector, followed by the KM3 sector (but not in
the cKM3 accumulation).
Fabric analysis
Figures 10, 11, and 12 contain, respectively, the density
maps by orientation categories for the complete assemblage,
the lithic sub-assemblage, and the faunal sub-assemblage.
Likewise, Table 3 shows the number and percentage of
remains by orientation, material (lithic and faunal), sector,
and cluster.
Both the figures and the table show a fairly similar proportion of the four orientations (NS, NESW, EW, and NWSE)
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Fig. 7 Density maps (in 2D and 3D) showing the distribution of the remains (lithic and faunal) according to length categories
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Fig. 8 Density maps (in 2D and 3D) showing the distribution of lithic remains according to length categories
13
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Fig. 9 Density maps (in 2D and 3D) showing the distribution of faunal remains according to length categories
13
4657
8681
4724
2952
734
21748
1599
3503
2037
1026
431
8596
30344
1018 (30.80%)
1332 (40.30%)
579 (17.52%)
313 (9.47%)
63 (1.91%)
3305
965 (33.24%)
1358 (46.78%)
363 (12.50%)
151 (5.20%)
66 (2.27%)
2903
6208
1376 (28.23%)
1945 (39.90%)
894 (18.34%)
520 (10.67%)
140 (2.87%)
4875
1037 (26.71%)
1719 (44.28%)
642 (16.54%)
323 (8.32%)
161 (4.15%)
3882
8757
1132 (30.90%)
1349 (36.82%)
667 (18.20%)
415 (11.33%)
101 (2.76%)
3664
205 (15.92%)
553 (42.93%)
310 (24.07%)
166 (12.89%)
54 (4.19%)
1288
4952
13
Total
Faunal remains
The % is calculated according to total number of faunal or lithic remains of each KM or cKM
1462 (27.07%)
2046 (37.89%)
1079 (19.98%)
666 (12.33%)
147 (2.72%)
5400
291 (14.44%)
802 (39.80%)
525 (26.05%)
275 (13.65%)
122 (6.05%)
2015
7415
490 (9.54%)
2076 (40.40%)
1377 (26.80%)
951 (18.51%)
244 (4.75%)
5138
53 (5.50%)
298 (30.91%)
359 (37.24%)
190 (19.71%)
64 (6.64%)
964
6102
1329 (20.98%)
2614 (41.26%)
1374 (21.69%)
815 (12.87%)
203 (3.20%)
6335
218 (12.56%)
684 (39.42%)
511 (29.45%)
238 (13.72%)
84 (4.84%)
1735
8070
≤ 1 cm
> 1–2 cm
> 2–3 cm
> 3–5 cm
> 5 cm
Total
≤ 1 cm
> 1–2 cm
> 2–3 cm
> 3–5 cm
> 5 cm
Total
Lithic remains
996 (22.34%)
1906 (42.75%)
954 (21.40%)
496 (11.13%)
106 (2.38%)
4458
165 (14.29%)
489 (42.34%)
283 (24.50%)
174 (15.06%)
44 (3.81%)
1255
5713
262 (9.04%)
1209 (41.72%)
780 (26.92%)
525 (18.12%)
122 (4.21%)
2898
36 (5.75%)
192 (30.67%)
241 (38.50%)
119 (19.01%)
38 (6.07%)
626
3524
cKM4
KM4
cKM3
KM3
cKM2
KM2
cKM1
KM1
NR (%)
Table 2 Number of remains and % according to size categories by material, sector, and cluster
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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Total
24
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and a very similar distribution over the entire surface area.
Nevertheless, there is a mild general tendency for the NS and
EW orientations to be slightly better represented than the
NESW and NWSE ones (Table 3). This trend is more evident
among lithic remains than among faunal remains.
In Table 3, we can see some small differences between
the lithic and faunal subsets. For example, for lithics, in all
sectors and clusters, the lowest percentage corresponds to
the NWSE orientation, while in the case of faunal remains,
the lowest percentage sometimes corresponds to the NWSE
orientation (sectors KM1–3 and cluster cKM3) while other
times this is represented by the NS orientation (sector KM4
and clusters cKM1, cKM2, and cKM4).
There are also some discrepancies in the orientations with
higher percentages. On the one hand, the lithic remains present a higher proportion of NS orientations in KM1 and
KM4 and the cKM2 and cKM4 clusters, while KM2 and
KM3 and the cKM1 and cKM3 accumulations have a higher
proportion of EW orientations. On the other hand, the faunal
remains show a higher percentage of NS orientations only in
KM3 and cKM3, with EW orientations being more abundant
in all other sectors and clusters.
The strongest contrast between the orientations of the
lithic and faunal assemblages is found in KM4, especially in
cluster cKM4, where NS orientations are the most frequent
among the lithic remains (33.21%) but the rarest among the
faunal remains (18.21%). However, it should be considered
that, in general, the differences between the percentages of
each orientation are low, with cKM4, the most extensive
cluster, presenting the greatest difference. Finally, it should
also be mentioned that, of the ten slope categories determined during the field work (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW,
vertical, and flat), the flat slope clearly predominates, this
being the case for approximately 30% of the remains in each
of the clusters (KM1–4).
Vertical distribution
A total of 13 profile projections were made, five oriented
EW (A–E), and eight NS (F–M) (Figs. 13, 14, and 15).
The vertical view of these profiles shows that the inner
half of the rock shelter (approximately lines Q–W) is very
flat. Thus, in the NS-oriented profiles, a change of slope is
observed between the inner zone, flat, and the outer zone,
more inclined. This change is seen towards the Q line in the
western area of the site (profiles G, H, and I), towards the
wall of the rock shelter in the central zone (in section K, the
change occurs on line U). In the eastern area, this change is
less noticeable (not observed in section L; in section M, it
seems to occur in line N).
In both the EW-oriented profiles and, especially, the NSoriented ones, the Ob archaeolevel only shows internal stratification at some points. Thus, in the NW (extreme N end
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Fig. 10 Density maps (in 2D and 3D) showing the distribution of remains (lithic and faunal) according to orientation categories
of sector KM1 and sectors KM2 and KM3) and N (W end
of sector KM4) zones, two layers can be observed. These
layers were also reported in previous publications (Chacón
et al. 2015; Gabucio et al. 2018a, b), where they were
named microlevel Ob1 (upper) and microlevel Ob2 (lower).
Unlike archaeolevels Oa and Ob, which are separated by a
continuous sterile layer, microlevels Ob1 and Ob2 are separated by a discontinuous sterile layer. While the N zone of
Ob2 contains more remains than Ob1, in the NW zone, the
number of remains from the two microlevels seems more
equal. These microlevels have not been detected in any
other area of archaeolevel Ob. Finally, at some points, a few
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Fig. 11 Density maps (in 2D and 3D) showing the distribution of lithic remains according to orientation categories
remains were found at a level significantly lower than the
others, but these do not present any type of lateral continuity
(profiles B, G, and H).
The vertical distribution also shows differences between
the faunal and lithic remains. Thus, concentrations of a single material were detected in some profiles, some of which
13
had already been identified when analysing the horizontal
distribution of the remains. For example, in profiles G, H,
and I, an accumulation of lithics was observed in squares
Q-P/57–60. Likewise, profile I also showed a cluster of faunal
remains in squares M/58–59. In addition, the large concentration of bones identified in UW/51–54 (especially in V/52–53)
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Fig. 12 Density maps (in 2D and 3D) showing the distribution of faunal remains according to orientation categories
appeared clearly in profiles A and K. Most of the remains
from this last faunal accumulation belong to microlevel
Ob2. The profile projections also revealed another difference between the distribution of lithic and faunal remains that
could not be detected by analysing the horizontal distribution.
Thus, profiles J and K showed an inverse proportion of the
materials by microlevels, while in Ob1, the lithic remains
apparently dominated over the faunal ones, and in Ob2, the
faunal remains seemed to predominate over lithics.
In order to integrate the combustion structures into the
study of the vertical distribution of the remains, we have classified the structures from the NW and N zones into the two
13
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
88 (33.21%)
58 (21.89%)
67 (25.28%)
52 (19.62%)
265
65 (18.21%)
104 (29.13%)
108 (30.25%)
80 (22.41%)
357
622
127 (30.02%)
91 (21.51%)
117 (27.66%)
88 (20.80%)
423
121 (21.61%)
151 (26.96%)
160 (28.57%)
128 (22.86%)
560
983
112 (25.99%)
100 (23.20%)
138 (32.02%)
81 (18.79%)
431
96 (28.15%)
79 (23.17%)
87 (25.51%)
79 (23.17%)
341
772
13
Faunal remains
The % is calculated according to total number of faunal or lithic remains of each KM or cKM
167 (25.23%)
155 (23.41%)
204 (30.82%)
136 (20.54%)
662
139 (26.28%)
134 (25.33%)
132 (24.95%)
124 (23.44%)
529
1191
159 (30.29%)
130 (24.76%)
133 (25.33%)
103 (19.62%)
525
69 (23.71%)
73 (25.09%)
77 (26.46%)
72 (24.74%)
291
816
255 (26.90%)
240 (25.32%)
266 (28.06%)
187 (19.73%)
948
255 (26.90%)
109 (24.55%)
123 (27.70%)
109 (24.55%)
444
1392
236 (29.06%)
180 (22.17%)
222 (27.34%)
174 (21.43%)
812
133 (23.05%)
146 (25.30%)
169 (29.29%)
129 (22.36%)
577
1389
NS
NESW
EW
NWSE
Total
NS
NESW
EW
NWSE
Total
Total
Lithic remains
158 (28.94%)
116 (21.25%)
164 (30.04%)
108 (19.78%)
546
88 (21.62%)
101 (24.82%)
125 (30.71%)
93 (22.85%)
407
953
cKM4
KM4
cKM3
KM3
cKM2
KM2
cKM1
KM1
NR (%)
Table 3 Number of remains and % according to orientations by material, sector, and cluster
785
666
809
585
2845
496
540
584
490
2110
4955
Page 20 of 37
Total
24
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microlevels (Table 4). In turn, this has allowed us to relate
these combustion structures to the archaeological material
(lithic and/or faunal) associated with them. In both microlevels, there are medium-sized hearths separated from the wall
by a couple of metres and associated with a large quantity of
both lithic and faunal remains. This is the case of the combustion structures AR08-10–11/1 (Ob2) and AR07-08–11/1
(Ob1). Smaller hearths closer to the rock shelter wall have
also been documented in both microlevels, such as AR11-1
(Ob2), AR11-8, AR11-9, AR11-11, and AR11-12 (Ob1).
These combustion structures, unlike the previous ones, are
usually associated with a small number of remains. Also
noteworthy is the identification in some structures of different combustion phases, each phase coinciding with a different microlevel. This occurs in AR11-10, where both phases
are similarly associated with both lithic and faunal remains.
In contrast, in AR06-07–10-11/1, each of the two phases is
associated with different archaeological material: with a predominance of lithic remains in Ob1 and an accumulation of
bones (the one identified in grid squares V/52–53) in Ob2.
Finally, the visualisation of the profiles also made it
possible to trace the morphology of the lower limit and
the thickness of the more relevant clusters (cKM1–4).
As for clusters cKM1–3, profiles B, C, D, and E showed
that these accumulations are fairly thick, but when
viewed more closely, for instance through profiles F, G,
H, and J, it could be seen that this thickness is due more
to the existence of two microlevels (with a discontinuous
sterile layer in the middle) than to the thickness of each
of the microlevels. Profile F, in addition, showed how
in that area both microlevels describe a shape similar to
that of a cuvette, joining cKM1 and cKM2. In fact, many
remains from Ob1 were in one of the deepest areas of
this microlevel, which coincides partially with cKM1.
Likewise, most of the deepest remains from KM2 were
accumulated in cKM2. Profiles C and D suggest that
the western part of the cKM3 accumulation could be
part of this cuvette. Inside the cuvette, the remains from
sector KM2 had Z-values that were generally somewhat
higher than those of sectors KM1 and KM3 (projections
B, C, D, F, and G). Profiles I and J indicated that the
central part of KM3 presented no concave morphology
and it was in quite a high and flat area. However, the
zone between KM3 and KM4 seemed somewhat more
depressed than the zones around it towards the E and W
(projections C and D). Regarding cluster cKM4, all the
EW-oriented profiles (A, B, C, and D) showed a very
flat surface, although in C, an accumulation of remains
towards T51 coincides with the lower Z-value in the part
of the profile corresponding to cKM4. In addition, in
profile K, it could be seen how the huge accumulation
of bones was in a fairly flat area that did not coincide
with the most depressed zone of cKM4.
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Fig. 13 Situation of the profile
projections made for the Ob
archaeolevel in relation to the
distribution of the remains
Digital elevation model
Both the 2D and 3D representations of the palaeosurface
confirmed that the slope in the inner part of the rock shelter was slight (Fig. 16). Likewise, they confirmed that the
change towards a more pronounced slope occurred towards
the Q line in KM1, between the T and U lines in KM3, and
the W half of KM4, while the E half of KM4 maintained
a flatter surface and only began to descend significantly
from the lines L–M. This change in slope became more
pronounced towards the theoretical W of the rock shelter,
highlighting the depressed area towards the S of cKM1.
Figure 16 shows the elliptical morphology of the NW zone,
where the cluster cKM2, and part of the cKM1 and cKM3
clusters were located. This morphology fits well with the
distribution of the remains presented in Fig. 5: the distribution of both lithic and faunal remains (although it is more
evident in the latter) describes an oval, with a much emptier
central space.
Discussion
General spatial pattern of the faunal and lithic
remains
One of the main contributions of this work is the simultaneous study of the point patterns of lithic and macrofaunal
remains, enabling their comparison and allowing common
conclusions to be drawn from the two materials. The application of different GIS and statistical methods (scatterplots,
KDE, Besag’s L function, and k-means analysis) to the
lithic and faunal remains separately as well as to the two
assemblages together allowed us to distinguish similarities
and differences between the distributions of the two materials. Both assemblages show a clustered spatial structure,
although the faunal remains show a stronger trend in this
sense.
Both faunal and lithic remains tend to be concentrated
towards the inner zone of the rock shelter. This trend is especially strong when considering only the remains ≤ 2 cm in
size. The densest clusters are in the NW zone (cKM1–3)
and N zone (cKM4). However, while lithics clearly dominate over faunal remains in cKM1–3, cKM4 presents a
more equal proportion between both materials (although
lithic remains are still more abundant than faunal remains).
In addition, a predominance of faunal remains is observed
in the external area, especially in the theoretical SE of the
rock shelter.
In terms of the distribution of faunal remains in the inner
area, however, a previous study focused on the macrofauna
from level O (Gabucio et al. 2014b) qualifies these results.
That study (where contour plots were used to locate different taphonomic and zooarchaeological variables, including
categories other than length) showed that, if the remains
recovered from bags of general findings and wet sieving are
taken into account (i.e., the remains recovered but not pieceplotted), the densest accumulation of faunal remains is in the
NW corner (as we see here in the lithics), followed by the
N zone. This mismatch could be related to the fact that the
smallest remains are the most sensitive to factors such as differences between different field methodologies, such as the
change in the cut-off size for piece-plotting. In addition, the
smaller remains are more visible (and therefore more often
piece-plotted) when grouped into well-defined accumulations, as is the case of the accumulation of bones identified
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◂Fig. 14 Profile projections oriented in the EW direction (A–E). Con-
tinuous lines indicate the location of the sectors (KM1–4), and discontinuous lines show the location of the clusters (cKM1–4)
in the N of the rockshelter (cKM4). These remains, moreover, were found inside a combustion structure, which was
excavated very carefully, and they presented striking taphonomic features (they were burnt, mostly calcined) favouring
their visibility (Gabucio et al. 2014b, 2018a, b).
Despite the differences observed between the lithic and
faunal spatial patterns, as lithic fragments are more numerous than bones, the sectors and clusters calculated from the
combined materials almost mirror those calculated using only
lithics while they are quite different from those calculated
using the faunal remains. This fact may have distorted the
study of the faunal assemblage distribution, which was not
carried out according to its ideal subdivisions. However, we
believe that it was worth doing, since in this way, all the
remains were classified into the same categories, allowing
the two materials to be directly compared in terms of their
dimensions, orientations, and so on. Likewise, the extent of
sectors KM1 and KM4 and the high density of the clusters
recognised using KDE and k-means made it difficult to identify and study more modest accumulations, which have had to
be explored using other techniques, such as vertical analyses.
Both the horizontal spatial analysis and the vertical projections allowed us to identify accumulations with mixed
materials and others formed exclusively (or almost exclusively) of either faunal or lithic remains. The main clusters
in the NW zone, cKM1–3 (except the W zone of cKM-3),
present a mixture of the two materials in both microlevels,
although lithics are generally more abundant. In the NE zone
of the KM4 sector, a similar mixed distribution of materials
is observed, this time with a lower density, in a single layer
and with more similar proportions between the bone and
lithic remains.
As for the single-material accumulations, in the inner half
of the rock shelter, the most evident case is the accumulation of bones in the central-northern zone, which coincides
with the NE end of the cKM4 cluster (Figs. 9 and 14 profile
A, Fig. 15 profile K). Many of these bones are burnt, as
evidenced in previous work (Gabucio et al. 2014b; Chacón
et al. 2015). The other accumulations of one specific material were identified in the external part of the site, where the
density of remains is lower. For instance, a cluster of lithic
remains was identified in the central area of KM1 (Fig. 15,
profiles G, H, and I). Somewhat more towards the theoretical
S, also in KM1, is a faunal accumulation (Fig. 15, profile I).
Likewise, in the SE quadrant of KM4, there is a very evident
preponderance of faunal remains over lithics. In addition,
in profiles H, I, J, and K (Fig. 15), it is possible to appreciate a difference in the proportions of materials according to
microlevels in KM4 and part of KM3, while in Ob1, lithic
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24
remains dominate over faunal ones, in Ob2 faunal remains
dominate over lithics. This fact had already been pointed out
in the N zone (extreme NW of sector KM4) in Chacón et al.
(2015), but this is the first time the phenomenon has been
identified in the NW zone (sector KM3).
Before delving into the interpretation of these different
accumulations (both the mixed ones and those that mainly
present either lithic or faunal remains), the site formation
processes must be addressed.
Site formation processes
Earlier publications recognised Neandeprthals as being the
main accumulators and modifiers in archaeolevel Ob (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2012, 2014a, b, 2018a, b). Likewise,
previous taphonomic, spatial, and refit analyses evidenced
that, although the preservation of the remains and their spatial properties are generally very good, some postdepositional processes have altered the assemblage, occasionally
causing some local movement (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al.
2012, 2018a). This study has allowed us to clarify and reinforce the interpretation of postdepositional processes and
their effect on the spatial distribution.
The predominance of remains < 3 cm in length, which
represent more than 70% of the coordinated lithic and faunal remains, in all sectors and clusters, corroborates the
absence of a generalised transport phenomenon that would
have affected a large part of the assemblage. The fact that
small-scale remains are proportionally more abundant in
clusters cKM1, cKM3, and cKM4, located inside the shelter, when the slope of the rock shelter descends from the
flat area of the interior to the exterior, reinforces this idea,
ruling out general water transport. Furthermore, the fabric
analysis shows similar proportions of the four orientations
(NS, NESW, EW, and NWSE) and a fairly even distribution of these in the rock shelter, confirming this conclusion.
The slight predominance of NS and EW orientations could
be related to a natural tendency for excavators to indicate
NS and EW orientations more frequently than NESW and
NWSE, as already suggested by Romagnoli and Vaquero
(2016) for the lithic assemblage from level M at the same
site. All this evidence ruling out the generalised transport of
archaeological materials is added to other data from previous analyses, such as the presence of most of the calcined
fragments inside the combustion structures, the abundance
of lithic and faunal refitting groups, and the predominance of
very short connection lines (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014;
Bargalló et al. 2016; Gabucio et al. 2018a).
However, as we noted before, there is data that reveals
the effects of local and short postdepositional movements.
Previous publications analysing the taphonomy of the macrofaunal assemblage (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2018a)
have evidenced the existence of a few items (68, 0.79%)
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Fig. 15 Profile projections oriented in the NS direction (F–M). Continuous lines indicate the location of the sectors (KM1–4), and discontinuous
lines show the location of the clusters (cKM1–4)
that show a high degree of rounding on all their surfaces
(R3, following the methodology proposed by Cáceres 1995),
suggesting active role in the abrasion process and therefore
local removal (displacement of items accumulated over
the substrate). In addition, the location of a few calcined
remains a certain distance from the hearths (following the
natural slope), and some refitted dry broken bones separated
by medium distances have been interpreted as the result of
local and isolated movements on the surface caused by occasional water flows or gravitational movements. Finally, the
very few refitted bones connecting microlevels Ob1 and Ob2
only in the NW corner of the rock shelter indicate that not
only horizontal but also vertical postdepositional movements
took place in this area. In this regard, a local taphonomic
phenomenon, interpreted as a pond that would have filled
and dried cyclically, was identified in this area (Gabucio
2014; Gabucio et al. 2018a).
This study has added further evidence in this regard.
The main change in slope detected in the vertical profiles
(Fig. 15) and the DEM (Fig. 16) from the flat inner area to
the lower outer area can serve as a reference to locate the
13
cornice limit (differentiating an interior space from an exterior space). In turn, the cornice limit is useful for identifying other related phenomena, such as drip zones and scour
surfaces, which may have played an important role in the
postdepositional mobilisation of archaeological remains. For
instance, the depressed area visible in the W of Fig. 16C
and profile G (Fig. 15) could be interpreted in this way.
Likewise, the fact (easier to appreciate in the lithic material) that in the outermost fringe of the rock shelter, located
downslope, there are larger remains than in the inner area,
located upslope, could be related to gravitational transport
of these heavier objects (Figs. 7, 8, and 9). However, we cannot rule out other explanations for this pattern, including the
lack of small remains in the outer area of the rock shelter.
In the NW corner, the horizontal distribution of the
remains in the form of an ellipse with many remains on the
perimeter and fewer remains inside has been complemented
with vertical projections, which reveal a cuvette-shaped
arrangement of the remains in this area. Furthermore, the
projections show that, inside the cuvette, the KM2 sector
is generally in a slightly higher position than the KM1 and
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24
Table 4 Combustion structures of archaeolevel Ob that could be classified into microlevels Ob1 and Ob2
Combustion structure Grid square Z sup,
Z inf
Area m2 Microlevel
AR06-07–10-11/1
V52
-731, -743
6.9
AR07-08–11/1
AR08-3
AR08-10–11/1
S60
S58
T58
-738, -749
-749, -753
-745, -758
1.6
0.15
0.8
AR10-1
AR10-3
AR10-4
AR10-5
AR10-6
AR11-1
AR11-2
AR11-3
AR11-4
AR11-5
AR11-6
AR11-7
AR11-8
AR11-9
AR11-10
V51
U57
U57
U55
V54
R62
Q61
U56
S61
R61
S62
U59
S61
T61
U57
-728, -741
-732, -737
-734, -744
-728, -747
-725, -729
-746, -753
-736,- 737
-740, -743
-749, -751
-750, -755
-740, -749
-717, -732
-726, -730
-724, -730
-721, -746
0.2
0.04
0.02
0.4
0.12
0.07
0.01
0.05
0.26
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.1
0.12
0.5
AR11-11
AR11-12
AR11-13
T60
U60
T60
-728, -729
-725, -727
-733, -740
0.08
0.03
0.1
Observations
Ob1 and Ob2
Two overlapping combustion phases which wedge towards the
rock shelter wall. More lithic remains in Ob1, more faunal
remains (especially burned bones) in Ob2
Ob1
Abundant lithic and faunal remains
Ob2
Abundant lithic and faunal remains
Ob2
Two overlapping combustion phases belonging to the same
microlevel. The upper associated with abundant lithic and
faunal remains and the with few remains (almost all lithic)
Ob2
Lithic and especially faunal remains. Abundant burned bones
Ob1
Few lithic and faunal remains
Ob1*
Lithic and faunal remains
Ob1
Few remains (almost all lithics)
Ob1
Very few remains (all lithics)
Ob2
Very few remains
Ob1
Lithic and faunal remains
Ob2*
Few lithic and faunal remains
Ob2
Lithic and faunal remains. Some remains are below the hearth
Ob2
Lithic and faunal remains
Ob1
Lithic and faunal remains
Ob1
Very few remains (all lithics)
Ob1
Very few remains (all lithics)
Ob1
Few remains (almost all lithics)
Ob1 and Ob2* Two overlapping combustion phases with lithic and faunal
remains
Ob1
Few remains (almost all lithics)
Ob1
Few remains (all lithics)
Ob1
Abundant lithic and faunal remains
*Doubtful assignment to a microlevel due to slope changes caused by wood imprints
KM3 sectors. The digital elevation model complements the
delimitation of this area: its superimposition with the location of the clusters (Fig. 16B) shows that the dynamics of the
pond fully affected cKM2 and partially affected cKM1 and
cKM3. The combination of all this data and the scarcity of
remains ≤ 1 cm in length in KM2 and cKM2 might suggest
that the humidification and drying cycles of the pond would
have caused the horizontal displacement of the smaller and
lighter archaeological remains from the KM2 sector towards
the nearby areas of sectors KM1 and KM3. However, as
many remains ≤ 1 cm were not seen by archaeologists during
fieldwork and, therefore, were not piece-plotted (especially
in the case of the remains recovered from the year 2011,
due to the change in the cut-off size for piece-plotting), to
verify this possibility, it is necessary to review the remains
stored in the bags of general findings and wet sieving. With
this aim, we tested the content of these bags for a selection of squares. Specifically, we selected squares R60, R61
(both located entirely in KM1, practically all its surface
area being included in cKM1), T58, T59 (both located in
KM3, largely included in cKM3), T60 and T61 (both located
entirely within KM2, practically all its surface area being
included in cKM2). As the lithic assemblage is still under
study, only the faunal remains were taken into account for
this test. The results indicate that bags of general findings
and wet sieving from T60 and T61 (in KM2) contain a lot of
remains that are ≤ 1 cm in length, even proportionally more
than the rest of the tested squares. In fact, if we add the uncoordinated faunal remains to the coordinated ones from these
two grid squares and calculate the percentages of remains
by length categories, we can see that the items ≤ 1 cm represent 61.57% of the remains recovered from these two
squares, while in the rest of the grid squares (related to
KM1 or KM3), the percentage of this category is around
50%. Consequently, the quantity and ratio of items ≤ 1 cm
in the tested squares do not support the theory of the smallest debris from the KM2 sector being displaced to the KM1
and KM3 sectors.
When the analysis of the lithic material is complete
(the flint remains in the NW zone, which are the most
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Fig. 16 Two-dimensional (A, B) and the three-dimensional (C) representations of the palaeosurface of the Ob archaeolevel. A shows the
location of the rock shelter wall and the grid squares on the terrain
analysis. B shows the location of sectors and clusters on the terrain
analysis. The colour indicates the depth, with white corresponding
to the highest points (taken here as a reference, i.e., as value 0) and
darker purple to the deepest points (which are up to 210 cm lower
than the highest points)
abundant, are currently being analysed), we will be able to
address the taphonomic data obtained from the lithic and
faunal analyses according to the approach developed in this
work: using density maps, tables quantifying alterations
by sector and cluster, and visualisating the vertical distribution of the remains according to their modifications.
This proxy will allow us to further refine our understanding
of the local postdepositional processes and their effects
on the spatial distribution of archaeological materials. A
first exploration of the results from the faunal analysis has
allowed us to see, as an example, that the very rounded
bones (R3 on all their surfaces) are more abundant in sector KM2 (1.86%), followed by sectors KM1 (1.03%), KM3
(0.84%), and KM4 (0.38%). In KM2 and KM1, most of
these remains are located within the cuvette zone, although
some of those in KM1 are found in the depressed zone at
the W end or in the SW corner (related to the formation of
a drip zone and scour surfaces), the two zones with the lowest Z-values. In KM3, some remains fall within the cuvette
while others appear at the border with the KM4 sector,
which presents quite low Z-values. Finally, the bones with
R3 rounding from KM4 appear fairly uniformly distributed
in the N zone of this sector, being totally absent from the
E half (columns 39–45). All this suggests that the high
degree of rounding is not related to long-distance transport,
but rather to repetitive processes that involved the action of
water, sediment, and archaeological remains in a reduced
space, such as the pond, the drip zones, and short-distance
scour surfaces. This evidence is in line with the results
obtained from other levels of the site, such as the absence
of size sorting between abraded bones observed in level J
(Cáceres et al. 2012).
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Neanderthal space management in archaeolevel Ob
Once it had been confirmed that the spatial distribution of
the materials mainly reflects the activity of the Neanderthals
(but keeping in mind the short-distance postdepositional
movements detected), it was time to interpret the anthropic
use of the rock shelter during the formation of archaeolevel
Ob. To do this, we combined the results presented here with
other previously published data: location and features of the
combustion structures (Vallverdú et al. 2012a, b; Vallverdú
2018; Borrell 2018; Gabucio et al. 2018b); partial technological analysis (Bargalló, 2014); zooarchaeological analysis (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2014a, b, 2018a, b); and
refits (Bargalló, 2014; Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2018a,
b). Three figures in the Supplementary Information (SI
Figs. 9–11) illustrate and summarise this subsection.
The three clusters with the highest density of material
(cKM1–3) are located in the NW corner of the rock shelter
and coincide totally or partially with the combustion structures AR11-2, AR11-5, AR07-08–11/1 (cKM1), AR114, AR11-11, AR11-13 (cKM2), AR10-2, AR08-10–11/1,
AR10-4, and AR10-3 (cKM3) (Fig. 3). Several of these
hearths are small (Fig. 3), although two of them, AR0708–11/1 (Ob1) and AR08-10–11/1 (Ob2), located a couple of
metres from the wall, are medium-sized (Borrell 2018). The
abundance of lithic debris in both microlevels, mainly around
medium-sized hearths, indicates that knapping activities were
frequent in this zone (Bargalló 2014). Likewise, in the same
spaces, a high number of small faunal remains of different
taxa show evidence of carcass processing and consumption
(cut marks, low burning degrees, and percussion products)
(Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2018a, b). Consequently,
according to ethnoarchaeological data (e.g., Yellen 1977a,
b; Binford 1978b; Hayden 1979; Kent 1987; O’Connell 1987;
Gifford-Gonzalez 1989, Kroll and Price 1991; Gamble and
Boismier 1991; O’Connell et al. 1991), these accumulations
have been interpreted primarily as the product of repeated
domestic activities, although some peculiarities have been
observed in KM2 (notably the percentage of lithic cores and
faunal percussion products) (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014;
Gabucio et al. 2018a, b). This study, by evidencing the mixed
nature of these accumulations around hearths in both the Ob1
and Ob2 microlevels (except at the E end of cKM3, where the
microlevels show differential proportions of the materials),
seems to support the interpretation of cKM1–3 as a recurrent domestic activity area, where technological activities and
carcass processing and consumption might have occurred in
an interspersed and continuous manner. The predominance
of lithic remains over faunal ones suggests various possibilities: this domestic space was used more for technological
than food purposes; this space oscillated between a domestic
area and a technical area (which we cannot separate archaeostratigrahically, perhaps due to postdepositional processes);
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or there was more systematic cleaning of the bone refuse
(for instance, accumulating and calcining this at the NW end
of cKM4). However, the complexity of the postdepositional
processes that occurred in this zone makes a more detailed
interpretation difficult.
A similar mixed distribution of materials, although less
dense and with more equal proportions between the different materials (lithic/faunal), is observed in the NE of
KM4 (one part coinciding with the E half of cKM4 and
another part extending towards the NE corner of the rock
shelter). The remains are spatially related to several small
and medium-sized combustion structures: AR07-1, AR06-1,
AR07-8, XIIb-b (cKM4), AR07-3, AR09-2, AR07-6, AR072, AR08-2, AR07-5, and AR07-7 (Vallverdú et al. 2012a, b;
Vallverdú 2018; Borrell 2018). As in cKM1–3, technological and zooarchaeological analyses point to a recurrent use
of this zone as a domestic activity area where Neanderthals
carried out their daily tasks (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014;
Gabucio et al. 2018a, b). Once again, this work reinforces
this interpretation by demonstrating that the lithic and faunal
remains present a joint distribution, this time in a single and
less dense layer.
Between the mixed accumulations of material, interpreted mainly as domestic activity areas (cKM1–3 and E
half of cKM4), and the wall of the rock shelter, there are
some combustion structures that present several characteristic features of the hearths found in resting and sleeping areas: they are small, suitable for providing light and
heat, separated from one another by approximately 1 m,
located near the wall, and associated with scant archaeological material (Binford 1983; Vaquero and Pastó,
2001; Vallverdú et al. 2010, 2012a; Vallverdú 2018; Borrell 2018; Gabucio et al. 2018b; Spagnolo et al. 2019).
The clearest examples of these combustion structures
are AR11-1 (KM1, Ob2), AR11-6 (KM1, Ob1), AR118, AR11-9 (KM2, Ob1), AR11-7 (KM3), AR09-1, and
AR08-1 (KM4) (Fig. 3), although a geospatial study of
the combustion structures using GIS methods did evidence other less visible sleeping areas (Borrell 2018).
In microlevel Ob1, the aligned distribution and location close to the wall of these hearths are reminiscent
of the combustion structures in the resting area identified in level N at the same site (Vallverdú et al. 2010).
However, while level N is a highly visible archaeological
assemblage resulting from short-term occupations, the
palimpsest of level O is much more developed than that
of level N. Possible resting and sleeping areas have also
been proposed for level M and archaeolevel Oa (Gabucio
et al. 2018b; Bargalló et al. 2020a, b). Other European
and Near Eastern Middle Palaeolithic sites, mainly dated
as MIS3, present similar evidence of possible resting and
sleeping areas, for example, Oscurusciuto (Spagnolo et al.
2019, 2020b) and Tor Faraj (Hayden 2012; Henry 2012).
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The E half of cluster cKM4, occupying the inner central zone of the rock shelter, is more difficult to interpret
when taking into account both the faunal and lithic remains.
Considering only the technological analysis, this zone could
also be considered a domestic activity area (Bargalló 2014).
However, the faunal analysis indicates a more specialised
use of this space. Firstly, the huge cluster of small bone fragments identified in cKM4 (Figs. 9 and 14 profile A, Fig. 15
profile K) actually corresponds to an accumulation of calcined bones recovered from inside a combustion structure
(AR06-07–10-11/1) located primarily in microlevel Ob2
(although there are some calcined bones in microlevel Ob1).
This accumulation has been interpreted in previous works as
a possible post-hoc zone where skeletal remains would have
been systematically burned to reduce the volume of waste
and, possibly, take advantage of skeletal fat as a complementary fuel (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2014b, 2018a, b).
Secondly, closer to the wall, the abundance of small bone
and teeth fragments and the high number of items showing
diagnostic elements of anthropogenic breakage (especially
in Ob2) suggests that this zone was specifically used for fracturing bones to obtain the marrow (Gabucio et al. 2018a).
The presence of an anvil and some hammerstones in the
vicinity seems to support this interpretation (Bargalló 2014).
Nevertheless, the different lithic/fauna ratio identified
during the vertical analysis of the two microlevels in part
of cKM3 and cKM4 (Fig. 15, profiles J and K) explains
the disparity when interpreting the functionality of this central inner area, since the main accumulations of lithics (in
Ob1) and faunal remains (in Ob2) occurred at two different
times during which this space would have been used for
different purposes. Thus, during the formation of Ob2, this
area could have been used for specialised tasks related to
faunal resource management, while during the formation of
Ob1, it could have been used mainly for lithic technological purposes or as a domestic area. Last but not least, the
microstratigraphic analysis of the largest combustion structure in this zone revealed the existence of several fire-use
areas separated by a little more than a metre and covered by
heterogeneous carbonaceous beds, leading to its interpretation as a low-visibility sleeping and resting area (Vallverdú
2018; Borrell 2018). In short, this central inner zone would
have been repeatedly occupied by Neanderthal groups but
for diversified purposes, giving rise to a complex palimpsest
of anthropogenic activities. Although the evidence of diachrony between these activities is numerous (existence of
two microlevels, evidence of reuse of hearths, etc.), some
synchronous relationships have also been identified thanks
to refits (Chacón et al. 2015) and to the archaeomagnetism
of three combustion foci (Carrancho et al. 2016).
In the external part of the site, no relevant mixed accumulations have been found. In contrast, several accumulations
clearly dominated either by lithics or faunal remains have
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been identified. An example is a cluster of lithic artefacts
located in the central area of KM1 (Fig. 15, profiles G, H,
and I), towards the NW side of combustion structure XVI.
Several pieces of burned limestone were recovered, many of
which are connected by refits. All these pieces have a high
iron content, and are burned, fragmented, and incomplete,
their interior part being missing. For all these reasons, it has
been previously suggested that these remains could be associated with the production of a colouring product (Bargalló
2014). Also, in KM1, towards the S of combustion structure
XVI, the faunal accumulation (Fig. 15, profile I) corresponds
to an almost complete wildcat skeleton. This wildcat was
processed and consumed by the Neanderthals at the same
location (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2014a, 2018a, b).
Likewise, in the SE quadrant of KM4, near combustion
structures I, II, XVIII, and XX, some deer remains were
refitted and identified as a single individual. Since the cranial
skeleton of this individual is almost complete and only right
elements of the postcranial skeleton have been recovered, it
has been proposed that this animal could have been quartered in this area of the rock shelter and then some parts
transported to other areas (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al.
2018a, b). However, the presence in this zone of KM4 of
the only cuvette (I) and à event hearths (XVII and XX) (Vallverdú et al. 2012a) and the high percentage of bones burned
to low degrees have also led to the suggestion that this area
was used to carry out a particular cooking or food preservation technique (Gabucio et al. 2018a). Finally, another bone
cluster in KM4, at the central E end (squares O-Q/40–41),
was interpreted as a natural accumulation, comprising an
abundance of rabbit bones and tooth marks, and a very low
ratio of burned remains (Gabucio 2014; Bargalló et al. 2016;
Gabucio et al. 2018a).
If we combine the sectors and clusters proposed in this
study with the analysis of faunal refits (Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2018a, b) and the partial analysis (without the pending flint remains from the NW zone) of the lithic refits (Bargalló 2014; Bargalló et al. 2016), we obtain interesting, albeit
provisional, information about the relationships between the
different areas. Most refitted pieces are connected by short
distances, although some long connections (up to 18 m) have
been identified. The most noteworthy feature is the main orientation of the longest refits, which connect the theoretical
E and W ends, horizontally crossing the inner half of the
rock shelter, leaving the outer half without inter-sector connections (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio et al. 2018b). Both lithic
and faunal inter-sector refits connect cKM1 with all the
other sectors. The link between cKM1 and the NE corner
of KM4 seems particularly significant, as both have been
interpreted as domestic activity areas and they are related
by bidirectional lithic refits and one faunal refit (mechanical green breakage). Bidirectional lithic refits also connect
KM4 (NE corner) with all the other sectors. No faunal refits
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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connect KM4 to either KM2 or KM3, but other criteria (preponderance of right or left aurochs elements) suggest possible food sharing between KM4 (NE corner) and KM2, and
tooth microwear analysis suggests that horses from KM3 and
KM2 could have died during a short period, for example, the
same season (Gabucio et al. 2018a). The pattern of directionality observed in the lithic refits suggests a possible temporal
order for the sectors: some concentrations of remains in KM4
would thus be older than others in KM2 and KM3, and these
would in turn be older than others in KM1. However, faunal
refits and other zooarchaeological criteria suggest food sharing over time between these sectors (Gabucio et al. 2018a, b).
In any case, as the NW area was affected by a local postdepositional process, we should be cautious when interpreting the
refits from this area, especially with the refits that connect the
cKM1–3 clusters.
The Ob archaeolevel in the framework of the Abric
Romaní site
Our long-term objective is to produce quantitative spatial data
from several levels at Abric Romaní in order to be able to
undertake a reliable diachronic comparison of the site. This
task cannot yet be fully addressed since, prior to this work,
studies of this type (including methods such as Ripley’s K
function, KDE, k-means, and similar) have only been implemented on the lithic assemblage of levels I, J, and M (Vaquero
1999; Vallverdú et al. 2005; Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016)
and the faunal assemblage of level P (Marín et al. 2019).
For level J, Sañudo et al. (2012) used density maps and size
sorting to address the spatial patterns in archaeolevel Ja. In
addition, Bargalló et al. (2020a, b) applied tools including
palaeosurface reconstruction, density maps, and the k-means
neighbour distance to archaeolevel Oa. Lastly, in all these levels, a vertical study of the distribution of the remains has been
carried out. Thus, to date, according to the general features of
the assemblages and the methods applied, levels M, P, and, to
a lesser extent, archaeolevels Ja and Oa provide the best data
to be compared with the results of this work.
However, before comparing the spatial patterns observed
in the Ob archaeolevel and other layers at the site, it should
be noted that during the formation of level O, there was a
significant change in the configuration of the rock shelter. In
the upper levels (from archaeolevel Oa upwards), the wall
of the rock shelter closed towards the W side at the height
of the stratigraphic testimonial, most of the remains located
between this and the “Pou Romaní” pit (approximately, columns 45–54). In contrast, during the formation of archaeolevel Ob (and the lower units), the morphology of the rock
shelter allowed the use of a further area towards the NW
of the stratigraphic testimonial (squares R-W/54–62), not
accessible in the upper levels. This meant that in the lower
levels, there were larger flat areas in the interior than in the
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24
upper ones. Thus, at levels lower than Ob, such as P, Q, and
R, the Neanderthal occupations were preferentially located
on the flat surface towards the NW of the rock shelter. In
turn, this fact conditioned the location of the combustion
structures and activity areas, these being organised differently and displaced with respect to the patterns observed in
the upper levels. It is also likely to have conditioned the main
E-W orientation of long-connected refits in archaeolevel Ob.
Despite the morphological change in the rock shelter
during the formation of level O, there are numerous similarities between the assemblages created before and after this
restructuring. In levels M and P (horse remains), as in Ob,
the remains show clustered spatial structures, tending to be
concentrated in association with the combustion structures
(Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016; Marín et al. 2019). Both
in Oa and Ja, the distribution of the material is also linked
to the location of the combustion structures (Sañudo et al.
2012; Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014; Bargalló et al. 2020a,
b). In level M and archaeolevel Ob, the densest clusters
are located on the flat inner areas (quite close to the wall,
but not attached to it), although there are significant accumulations of material in the central area of level M. If we
compare the average intensity of the inner accumulations
of these two assemblages in terms of lithic remains (only
the currently comparable data), Ob presents much higher
values (up to 0.15018 in cKM2) than M (up to 0.01101 in
M4), but we must remember that the main clusters in Ob
are vertically subdivided into discontinuous microlevels,
something that has not been observed in M (Romagnoli
and Vaquero 2016). In addition, the study of Romagnoli
and Vaquero (2016) does not consider any remains < 1 cm.
Similarly, the remains concentrate in the inner zone in Oa
(Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014; Bargalló et al. 2020a, b),
although in Ja, the materials appear more frequently in the
central area (Sañudo et al. 2012).
In both M and Ob, remains < 3 cm in length predominate in all accumulations (Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016;
Vaquero et al. 2019). Small remains are also preponderant in Ja, where it has been observed, as in Ob, that the
farther outward one proceeds, the fewer small remains are
found. This characteristic of level J was initially interpreted as a possible divergence from the drop (interior)
and toss (exterior) zones, but it was subsequently also
linked to postdepositional phenomena related to the slope
and the greater exposure of the outside area (Carbonell
2012). Nevertheless, several analyses rule out mass transport of remains in any of the studied levels at the site. As
an example, the fabric analysis carried out in M and Ob,
according to different clusters, rules out the presence of
preferential orientations, and in the size analysis of several levels (including Ja, M, and Ob), no size sorting was
identified (Sañudo et al. 2012; Romagnoli and Vaquero
2016; Vaquero et al. 2019).
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Page 30 of 37
In all these assemblages (levels M and P, archaeolevels
Ja, Oa, and Ob), the connection lines established by lithic
and/or faunal refits are generally short. However, there are
some long connections between different areas, especially
between the inner and denser accumulations (Carbonell
2012; Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014; Vaquero et al. 2015,
2019; Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016; Gabucio et al. 2018a,
b; Marín et al. 2019; Bargalló et al. 2020a, b; FernándezLaso et al. 2020).
In levels M and P, as in Ob, the results obtained have
ruled out massive postdepositional movements of archaeological material, pointing to Neanderthals being the main
cause of the spatial patterns. In level P (both archaeolevels,
Pa and Pb), the different patterns of Cervus and Equus have
led to the identification of two different uses of the rock shelter: as a hunting camp for horse exploitation; and as a shortterm transitory campsite related to the exploitation of deer
(Marín et al. 2019). A differential pattern between different
taxa was also noted in Ob, where horses appear to have been
obtained over a short period of time, while aurochs, in contrast, evidence a long period of time (Gabucio et al. 2018a).
In this sense, it seems that a similar trend is repeated at the
two levels: horse remains would have been accumulated at
the rock shelter over short periods of time during which the
site would have been used as a hunting camp, while deer
and/or aurochs would have been accumulated over longer
periods of time while the site was being used for residential
purposes (either in different separate short events, as appears
to be the case for level P, or including some longer continuous periods of occupation, as might have occurred at Ob).
As Marín et al. (2019) have already pointed out, this way of
using of the same space for different activities is typical of
groups of collectors with logistical mobility, who generally
move radially within a territory (Mortensen 1972; Binford
1980; Kelly 1992).
In level M, differences in spatial patterns were observed
between the inner and the outer zones of the rock shelter
(Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016). Similar differences between
the inside and outside were indicated from the study of
hearth-related wood (Solé et al. 2013) and faunal remains
(Fernández-Laso 2010; Gabucio et al. 2018b; FernándezLaso et al. 2020) from the same level. However, when comparing the use of the inner and the outer areas between Ob
and the upper levels at Abric Romaní, we must take into
account the change in the morphology of the rock shelter,
which probably altered the boundaries of the interior and
exterior areas of the site. Thus, in Ob the innermost, most
enclosed space is the NW area (cKM1–3), which is undoubtedly why it was occupied in a more recurrent way, generating
a complex palimpsest with a very high density of remains
(especially lithics). In addition, the rest of the N fringe of the
surface area (cKM4) was protected by the cornice and can
also be considered an inner area. Despite the change in the
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Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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rock shelter configuration, the similarity of some parameters
allows a preliminary comparison to be made between the
inner/outer spatial patterns of archaeolevel Ob and level M.
On the one hand, the inner areas are characterised by an
abundance of remains (concentrated in high-density clusters), a high number of interconnections (inter-accumulation refits) and spatial congruence (the same repeated use
over time). In level M, these features were interpreted as
the product of successive occupations of small groups that
would have caused the development of a horizontal palimpsest (Romagnoli and Vaquero 2016). In archaeolevel
Ob, the main clusters (cKM1–4) meet all these criteria. As
already explained, accumulations cKM1–3 and the E half
of cKM4 show a mix of faunal and lithic remains and have
been interpreted as recurrent multifunctional domestic areas,
although other occasional uses are not ruled out (Bargalló
2014; Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al. 2018a, b). The W half
of cKM4 could also have been used as a domestic space at
times, but it was also the scene of more specialised repeated
activities (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014; Gabucio et al.
2018a, b). Finally, the fringe between the denser accumulations in Ob and the wall of the rock shelter have been interpreted as possible sleeping and resting areas (Vallverdú et al.
2012a, b; Gabucio et al. 2018b). Another possible resting
area was proposed for level M, in the NE corner (Gabucio
et al. 2018b), although its identification seems less clear.
This bimodal spatial pattern (a sleeping area close to the
wall and, next to it, a multipurpose area) has also been recognised in units SU13 and SU11 from the Oscurusciuto rock
shelter (Spagnolo et al. 2019, 2020b) and floors I–II of Tor
Faraj (Hayden 2012; Henry 2012).
On the other hand, the outer areas present a low density of remains and a high visibility of specific events. In
level M, the well-preserved isolated technical events and the
recycling of several artefacts have led the researchers to propose short events, which probably occurred during the final
phases of occupation (Vaquero et al. 2015; Romagnoli &
Vaquero 2016). In Ob, several individual episodes (following the nomenclature established by Gabucio et al. 2018a)
were identified in external areas: possible colourant production from limestone; wildcat (towards the W); and red deer
processing (towards the E, possibly related to the first phases
of faunal chaîne opératoire or involving specialised cooking
or food preservation techniques). These episodes have not
been reliably linked to the inner areas of the rock shelter,
so it is not possible to establish whether they occurred at
times when the inner area was occupied or not. However,
the vertical sections do not seem to support the idea that
these accumulations were discarded during the last phases
in which the site was occupied.
The differences between the inner and outer areas might
be explained merely by a variability in intensity (related, for
instance, to the number of occupations in each area, or to
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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variations in the time span of the different events), or possibly
by a differential use of space. Individual episodes are easily
identifiable in the outer areas, where the intensity is low,
because the preserved accumulations of materials are more
isolated from each other. In contrast, the palimpsest nature of
the inner areas, which were more intensely occupied, makes
it difficult to identify specific events, which overlap with
other associations accumulated at different times. In the case
of Ob, this is especially evident in the NW zone, which, in
addition to being the most intensely occupied area, suffered
local horizontal and vertical postdepositional movements.
This leads us to wonder if the mixed accumulations (with
lithic and faunal remains), previously interpreted as domestic
areas, were actually the result of several repeated mixed uses
or, in contrast, of the overlapping of several accumulations
of one or other material that, due to superimposition and/or
postdepositional processes, we are now unable to delimit.
Nevertheless, in the NE zone (E of the cKM4 cluster), which
presents a lower density of remains and better preservation,
a mixed accumulation was indeed identified, suggesting
that the formation of this type of mixed accumulation could
also have occurred in the NW zone. Similarly, in other levels at Abric Romaní with a higher temporal resolution, such
as H, I, K, and L, the hearth-related clusters almost always
include both lithic and faunal remains (Vaquero and Pastó
2001; Vaquero et al. 2001; Vallverdú et al. 2005). In addition, despite the postdepositional movement, three high-density accumulations were observed in cKM1–3, all showing
mixed lithic and faunal materials, seemingly reinforcing this
same line of reasoning. Finally, the content of these clusters
(small knapping products, bone percussion products, small
burned bones, etc.) fits with the repeated use of these zones
as domestic areas (Bargalló 2014; Gabucio 2014; Gabucio
et al. 2018a, b). Undoubtedly, superimposition processes and
postdepositional movements have interfered to some extent
in the composition of the clusters, especially in cKM1–3, but
they do not appear to be the underlying cause of the mixed
accumulations of archaeological material.
In contrast, no mixed accumulations have been identified in the outer area of the rock shelter. In general terms,
faunal remains are proportionally more abundant than lithics, contrary to that seen inside the rock shelter (especially
in cKM1–3). Here, several accumulations of either one or
the other material have been related to specific activities that
are both spatially and temporally well-delimited, such as the
processing and consumption of a wildcat, the production of
a colouring material, and the separate processing of half a
deer. Although it is evident that the lower density of remains
in the outer area facilitates the identification of these events,
we believe that their uniqueness (the only remains of Felis silvestris in the assemblage, the refitting between several burned
limestone fragments, the refitting between deer remains, and
the use of the only cuvette and à event hearths identified in the
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24
level) would have made them recognisable, to some degree,
if they had also been present in the inner area of the rock
shelter (as was the case with the accumulation of calcined
bones, for example). In addition, it must be taken into account
that the external area, despite the advantage of less intense
occupation, presents other conservation problems, including
the fact that it is less protected by the cornice of the rock shelter and, therefore, more at the mercy of inclement weather.
Finally, the separation into different areas of domestic activities (preferential zones) from specific ones (marginal zones)
has been ethnoarchaeologically documented (Yellen 1977b;
O’Connell 1987). For all these reasons, we consider that, at
least in the case of archaeolevel Ob, the data supports the idea
that Neanderthals differentiated the use of space in the rock
shelter between the inner (bimodal use, containing domestic
and sleeping areas) and outer areas (more occasional and specialised used, particularly linked to faunal resources).
Conclusions
This work presents the first application of GIS and geostatistical methods to the study of the intra-site spatial distribution of lithic and faunal remains in archaeolevel Ob at the
Abric Romaní site. As such, it fits into a proxy recently initiated by the Abric Romaní team, which, developing research
lines such as palimpsest dissection and spatial taphonomy,
is committed to a more quantitative and objective approach
to the study of spatial patterns. This study is also novel in
the fact that it is the first work of this type, in the context
of Abric Romaní, to include both faunal and lithic remains.
The analysis of the data, first combining the lithic and faunal
remains and then separating them into two distinct assemblages has allowed us to characterise the Ob archaeolevel
more accurately and facilitate the integration of the two
materials in the interpretation. In addition, by including the
results on the archaeolevel from previous work (technological, zooarchaeological, taphonomic, refitting, and combustion structure analyses), we have been able to employ a more
comprehensive approach.
After confirming that the spatial structure of the assemblages
is clustered, we explored the intensity of the accumulations
using KDE and k-means analyses. In this case, despite its limitations, k-means analysis has been very useful as, in addition to
determining the main accumulations (cKM1–4), it has allowed
us to classify all the remains in different sectors (KM1––4).
Thus, by using a parallel classification of the remains in sectors
KM1–4 (including all the remains) and the accumulations in
cKM1–4 (only the remains grouped into the main concentrations), we have been able to make a quantitative and in-depth
study of the features of each subset, obtaining valuable information on the distribution of different variables, including dimensions, orientations, and materials in the rock shelter.
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Page 32 of 37
All these contributions expand the volume of information that we have for Ob, providing quantitative and objective data and favouring a more precise understanding of the
deposit, allowing us to reach relevant conclusions about the
formation and postdepositional processes. The predominance of remains < 3 cm in length and the absence of preferential orientations in all sectors and clusters (both lithics
and bones) make it possible to rule out generalised postdepositional movement, leading to the conclusion that the
observed spatial pattern mainly reflects the behaviour of the
Neanderthal groups. However, some local postdepositional
movement did take place. This work provides data that allow
us to locate and interpret this with greater precision. For
instance, the edge of the ledge has been located and associated with drip zones and scour surfaces. In addition, the
area that would have been affected by the formation of an
intermittent pond has also been more precisely delimited
(cKM2 and the neighbouring areas of cKM1 and cKM3).
The horizontal and especially the vertical analyses have
allowed us to identify similarities and differences between the
distribution of the two types of archaeological materials. The
densest accumulations of both materials occur in the inner
area, especially in the NW (cKM1–3) and N (cKM4) zones.
In cKM1, cKM2, and the E area of cKM4, the accumulations
present a fairly homogeneous mixture of lithic and faunal
remains. In contrast, in cKM3 and the W area of cKM4, there
is vertical differentiation in the distribution of materials: in
the upper microlevel (Ob1), lithic remains predominate over
faunal ones while in the lower one (Ob2), faunal remains predominate over lithics. In the outer zone, which contains fewer
remains, clusters mainly of lithic or faunal remains have been
identified, although, in general, there is a higher proportion of
faunal remains (especially in the SE area of KM4).
The combination of this data with the results of previous studies (technological, zooarchaeological, refit, and
combustion structure analyses) has made it possible to
interpret the accumulations with an anthropogenic slant,
evaluating and uniting previous interpretations suggested
by different approaches. In this case, it was necessary to
go beyond the limitations of density and k-means analyses, differentiating discrete areas within the largest sectors
(KM1 and KM4) and using other hierarchical elements of
space, such as hearths, as a guide. Thus, the mixed accumulations identified in cKM1–3 and the NW corner of
KM4, rich in small knapping products, bone percussion
products, and small burned bones, have been interpreted
as the result of repeated domestic activity, both in Ob1 and
Ob2. Likewise, it is proposed that the fringe between these
mixed accumulations and the wall, presenting few remains
and small hearths, could have been used as sleeping and
resting areas. The medial central area (W of cKM4) had
different uses during the formation of the two microlevels, with a fauna-related specialised use in Ob2, inside the
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Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
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AR06-07–10-11/1 combustion structure (a possible posthoc area). In the outer half of the rock shelter, it is possible
to identify different individual episodes: the processing of a
block of limestone probably to produce a colouring product
(central area of KM1), the processing and consumption of a
wildcat (S area of KM1), and the processing of a deer (SE
corner of KM4). Finally, a natural accumulation of rabbit
bones was identified at the central E end of KM4.
The long-term objective of this approach is to optimise the
diachronic study of the site and facilitate its comparison with
other sites. In this regard, it has been possible to identify some
similarities between archaeolevel Ob and other levels, especially
levels M and P. The data obtained during the study of these
three levels enabled us to rule out massive postdepositional displacement of the archaeological remains, the spatial patterns
being mainly related to anthropogenic activities. Based on this
premise, different uses of the rock shelter have been identified:
as a hunting camp (horse exploitation) in level P and possibly
Ob; as a short-term campsite in M and P (deer exploitation); and
possibly as a long-term campsite in Ob (auroch exploitation,
perhaps also deer). Likewise, in the M and Ob levels, different occupational patterns have been observed between the inner
zones and the exterior areas. In the case of Ob, the presence
of mixed accumulations only in the inner area (both in dense
clusters and in other less dense and better preserved ones, in all
cases containing large quantities of small knapping products,
bone percussion products, and small burned bones) and other
criteria (for instance, an increase in the proportion of faunal
remains with respect to lithics and the identification of specific
and temporally well-delimited activities in the outer zone) allows
us to propose, for archaeolevel Ob, a differential use of the inner
(more domestic) and outer (more marginal) areas.
Finally, we want to emphasise the convenience, as far
as is possible, of approaching the study of archaeological
assemblages from a high-resolution spatiotemporal perspective. This approach must be transdisciplinary, with a
special focus on taphonomy. It should also be multiscalar
and include the use of a wide range of tools (GIS, archaeostratigraphy, different geostatistical methods, refits, etc.),
especially those that can provide objective and quantitative
data to optimise the interpretation of the studied assemblages and facilitate their later comparison.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01715-6.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank B2B Translation for the
English revision of the manuscript. We also thank the editor and the
anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions on
the manuscript. Last but not least, we would like to thank all the Abric
Romaní work team.
Author contribution M.J.G.: conceptualization, methodology, faunal
analysis, spatial analysis, application of GIS methods, geostatistics,
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
(2023) 15:24
writing. A.B.: conceptualization, lithic analysis, spatial analysis, investigation and data curation, revision of the manuscript. P.S.: geostatistics,
investigation and data curation, revision of the manuscript. F.R.: investigation and data curation, revision of the manuscript. M.G.C.: investigation and data curation, revision of the manuscript. J.V. combustion
structures analysis, investigation and data curation, revision of the manuscript. M.V. investigation and data curation, revision of the manuscript.
Funding Open access funding provided by Universitat Rovira i Virgili.
Funding for fieldwork at Abric Romaní site is provided by the Ajuntament de Capellades and Romanyà-Valls. The Catalan Government
(Generalitat de Catalunya) supported this research with the Quadrennial Project CLT009/18/00054, the project “Territoris prehistòrics de la
Conca de l’Anoia (2022–2025)” (exp. ARQ001SOL-201–2022) and the
research groups 2017SGR-1040, 2017SGR-859, and 2017SGR-836. This
research is also funded by the Spanish Government projects PID2019103987 GB-C31 and EIN2020-112374. M.J.G. (IJC2020-044412-I) and
A.B. (IJC-2019–041546-I) research is founded by the program Juan de la
Cierva Incoporación of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.
P.S., M.G.C., M.V. and J.V. research is funded by CERCA Programme/
Generalitat de Catalunya. F.R. research is supported by the Comunidad
de Madrid and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid through the project
SI1-PJI-2019–00488 and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation
through the project PID-2019-103987 GB-C33. M.G.C., J.V. and M.V.
research is funded by the project PID2019-103987 GB-C31 of the Spanish Government. Finally, the Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i
Evolució Social (IPHES-CERCA) has received financial support from
the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the “María de
Maeztu” excellence accreditation (CEX2019-000945-M).
Data availability All data generated or analysed during this study are
included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).
Code availability Not applicable.
Declarations
Ethics approval Not applicable.
Consent to participate All authors consent to the participation.
Consent for publication All authors consent to the publication.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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