A cross-genres (ec)static perspective on contemporary
experimental music
Riccardo Wanke
Centre of Musical Sociology and Aesthetic Study – CESEM,
University ‘Nova’ of Lisbon. Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas,
Av. de Berna, 26 C, 1069-061 Lisbon, Portugal.
riccardowanke@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a particular perspective, shared
across various currents of today’s music that focuses on
sound itself as a complex entity. Through the analysis of
certain fundamental musical elements and sonic characteristics, this study explores a new method for comparing
different genres of music characterized by a similar approach to sound. Taking benefit of theoretical and perceptual examinations, this strategy is applied to postspectralist and minimalist compositions (e.g. G. F. Haas,
B. Lang R. Nova, G. Verrando), as well as glitch, electronic and basic-channel style pieces (Pan Sonic, R.
Ikeda, Raime). Nine musical attributes are identified that
help trace a new outlook on various genres of music. The
study's contribution lies in its revealing of a shared musical perspective between different artistic practices, and in
the establishment of new connections between pieces that
belong to unrelated contexts.
Keeping with the topic of the conference, this paper attempts to deal with several questions, such as (i) the
“splendid of isolation” of genres of experimental music,
(ii) the development of new cross-cultural methods of
analysis and (iii) the future of music education and didactic approaches.
1. INTRODUCTION
The field of contemporary experimental music, considered in its broad sense, is enormously diversified [1, 2],
but distant genres of music have in common some characteristics even if they are part of distant cultural and
social environments.
Throughout the 20th century, certain currents within
exploratory music can be seen as moving progressively
towards a more explicit interest in the intrinsic properties
of sound [3]. Within this frame of reference, one can
identify that starting from the mid-twentieth century certain trends (i.e. non-teleological and acousmatic perspectives; the fusion of electronic, acoustic and concrete
sounds; and the extended use of sound spectra) were simultaneously developed and established as the cardinal
principles of artistic practice across distant genres of music [1].
More recently, spectralism and the exploration of
sound using electronic technology have acted as a sort of
springboard for the development of new musical genres,
namely in the electroacoustic field. At the same time,
during the '80s and '90s, there was an on-going process of
constant and discrete refinement within many genres of
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popular and alternative music towards more advanced
and sophisticated forms, e.g. experimental rock, drone
metal, basic channel style, IDM, among others [1, 3, 4].
This process of sophistication within different genres of
popular music, often accompanied by more specialized
though smaller audiences, lead to a shift of perspective:
from music as entertainment and distraction to being
something deserving contemplative home listening focused on the sonic experience.[3, 4].
Currently, these different areas of musical exploration
consider similar sonic materials and arrive sometimes at
equivalent results. Common practices are found across
distant styles: such as a flexible approach to harmony, the
enormous extension of timbric range, the creative use of
new technologies, and, above all, the sculptural approach
to sound as a matter to mould. This paper looks at a
cross-section of contemporary music and examines their
use of fundamental musical elements in order to highlight
this shared perspective across different genres of exploratory music.
2. AREA OF STUDY
This study considers those genres that approach sound as
a sculptural material, considering it as a complex, dense
and tangible entity. This description is admittedly fairly
generic and vague but allows going beyond a specific
instrumentation: as this paper is drawn to identify common approaches to sound irrespective of the medium
used, musical practices are considered whether they are
electroacoustic, purely acoustic or electronic.
On the one hand, contemporary composers such as
Georg Friedrich Haas, Fausto Romitelli and Bernhard
Lang have advanced their artistic practice by exploring
new possibilities within instrumental music, each according to his own aesthetic, considering sound as a complex,
almost tactile substance. Another characteristic common
to these composers is their unconventional vision of time
in music. Through their particular use of repetition and
their exploration of sound spectra, their work induces a
kind of temporal dilation: sound is treated as an almost
atemporal object, periodic, cyclic and static.
On the other hand, post-minimalist composers and
electronic performers such as Alvin Lucier, Eliane Radigue and Alva Noto have made free use of the musical
theories of the “experimental school” of Cage, Feldman
and Schaeffer, absorbing these influences to create more
“instinctive” works. In some cases, their methods combine noise and tonal melodies (C. Fennesz), granular and
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digital processes (R. Ikeda), hypnotic repetitive clusters
(minimal-techno and basic channel styles), immersive
multi-channels soundscapes (B. Labelle), and exploratory
sound resonances (J. Kirkegaard). These approaches
maintain certain common features such as non-narrative
development and a particular focus on the perceptual aspects of music.
Indeed, both of these two broad musical currents have
the shared desire ‘[to] create works that seek to engage
the listener in a stimulating listening experience’ [5]. This
listening experience is characterized by a new vision of
time in music, space (i.e. multi-channels diffusion and
sculptural musical design), musical evolution (nonnarrative and extended) and repetition (generation of
hypnotic effects and a listening “in accumulation”). These characteristics form an (ec)static listening environment, where the musical material is static (atemporal,
non-narrative) and the listening attitude is ecstatic (free to
explore and move through the dimensions of sound) [6,
7].
The variety of the cross-genres area makes a useful
comparison difficult: how is it possible to examine the
complex composition for 24 instruments in vain by Haas
together with the indefinite drone of Kesto#4 by the electronic duo Pan Sonic? In my recent paper [6], I try to
approach at this musical material focusing the attention
on the primal musical elements and the current study
seeks to approach different genres from the side of perceived musical components rather than through comparison of any writing method or theory. Current methods
approaching analysis from perceptual aspects are mostly
applied to electroacoustic music [8] and focus attention
on the nature of sound within a specific genre [9]. However, an effort to extend these approaches to a more general level capable of comparative studies across different
styles is currently a subject of great interest among scholars [10], and is the aim of the study proposed here.
3. ANALYTIC PROCEDURE
3.1 Method
The first step of this study is the definition of general
categories to classify those musical events that seem typical of our area of study. This framework should consist of
fundamental guidelines that can be adapted to different
styles (e.g. acoustic, electroacoustic, electronic…) and
have the potential to describe the characteristics of sound
itself.
Thus, each piece is divided up according to either a
narrative partitioning or a separation based on musical
textures or events [8]. Each episode is analyzed and described using a combination of four categories: time, dynamics, spectrum and mode. The second step looks at the
sonic effects of each musical episode, and how these define a particular musical environment (Figure 1, steps 1
and 2).
The framework put forward in this paper is designed
to be flexible and comprehensive, taking the characteristic of sound itself to stimulate the listening experience as
its starting point. The analytic procedure presented here is
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best regarded more as a comparative method than simply
a taxonomic description. Therefore, this study aims to
provide a qualitative classification method with which to
identify comparable musical events in a list of compositions. This analytical process was applied to a set of
compositions and revealed a large number of similarities
that then led to the definition of nine musical attributes.
3.2 Selection Of Pieces
For the purposes of this study, compositions characterized by an absence of overt sociocultural references and
containing only a small number of real-world sounds
were opted for. Musical works containing narrative voices or representational musical elements would have been
ill-suited to the premise of starting with sound itself: extra-musical traits are more often related to social and cultural themes than to the sonic characteristics of a piece.
However, the background and context for each piece
should be examined [10], allowing the influence of a
composer’s poietic intention to be acknowledged. Thus,
this approach should be able to decode and interpret diverse musical works and be able to identify similarities
among them.
The following pieces were analysed: • G. F. Haas
String Quartet nº2 and In vain; • B. Lang Differenz/Wiederholung (selection); • R. Nova Eleven; • G.
Verrando Dulle Griet, Triptych #2; • Pan Sonic Kesto; •
Ryoji Ikeda +/- ; • Raime If Anywhere Was Here He
Would Know Where We Are, Quarter Turns Over A Living Line, and Hennail.
This selection reflects a great variety of styles but all
pieces display a common focus on the precise use of various spectral characteristics of sound. The range of styles
represented allows this study to demonstrate that the
common perspective that emerges goes beyond any specific instrumentation or genre as the pieces cover acoustic
(i.e. Haas and Lang), electronic (i.e. Ikeda, Raime, Pan
Sonic), electroacoustic, mixed and real-world sounds (i.e.
Nova, Verrando, Lang and Pan Sonic), and span from
contemporary classical music to experimental alternative
music genres.
Haas's pieces represent prime examples of contemporary instrumental music that explore various sonic characteristics through a minute exploration of instrumental
spectra and a large use of microtonality. Highlighting this
approach, in vain (2000) includes lighting instructions for
live performance, denoting shifts from darkness to fully
illuminated, driving the audience’s attention towards the
perceptual aspects of sound.
The B. Lang project, Differenz / Wiederholung, is
characterized by the exploration of repetitive musical
elements such as looping and the idea of erratic reiteration, suggesting connections with DJ and glitch aesthetics
[11]. Verrando’s and Nova’s pieces combine acoustic
instruments, electronic sounds, and noise to explore new
limits in electroacoustic composition, embracing, for instance, enharmonic exploration and digital manipulation.
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The Finnish duo Pan Sonic (Mika Vainio and Ilpo
Väisänen) and the Japanese sound artist Ryoji Ikeda are
representative figures of glitch music. The former are
closer to an experimental industrial aesthetic and mostly
work with analogue electronic devices, while Ikeda usually creates his sound digitally using a computer. Their
music is often focused on “raw” elements of sound, such
as sine tones and noise, and uses an extreme spectral
range pushing at the edges of human hearing. The London-based duo Raime (Joe Andrews and Tom Halstead)
are typical of the recent underground scene in that they
move freely between noise, techno and dub styles. Their
music usually combines the asymmetrical rhythms of
dubstep with minimal musical textures.
The audio, spectral and score examinations previously
described reveal nine musical attributes that are to a large
extent common to all these pieces (Figure 1, step 3). These attributes depict a frame of musical practices that
comprises an extended spectral vocabulary, a clear use of
repetitive musical units for specific purposes and a peculiar idea of time and space within the sound.
3.3 Nine Common Attributes
These attributes are (Figure 1, step 3):
• (A) An Expanded Spectrum, i.e. the use of an extended frequency range. This trait is especially prominent
in electronic or electroacoustic pieces. However, this feature is also apparent in contemporary acoustic compositions using traditional instruments: Haas, for instance,
makes frequent use of sforzato and sul ponticello techniques to generate multiple overtones in his string quartet.
• (B) Microtonal Variations, i.e. the use of microtonality or more generally interactions between neighbouring
frequencies. Specifically, this attribute concerns, (i) the
exploration of binaural beats (e.g. Ikeda, Haas), and (ii)
the creation of static blocks with minimal fluctuation (e.g.
Pan Sonic, Lang), and is found to a similar degree across
the entire selection of pieces.
• (C) Systematic Glissandi, i.e. the use of glissandi
embedded within repetitive units. This feature is present
in most pieces: in the case of contemporary instrumental
compositions, it often arises as a core structure used to
create larger patterns (Haas, Lang), while in electronic
pieces it is used more as a systemic contour to shape continuous evolutions.
• (D) Rhythmic Developments are integral to glitch or
techno genres, but occasionally appear as minimal evolution in other contemporary pieces. They are frequently
used by Lang within repetitive clusters (F) (see below),
but also by Haas who creates synchronous progressions
(e.g. the final part of in vain) that generate a kind of
rhythm. In case of styles that are based on pulsations, the
rhythmic development should be considered and understood within the specific socio-cultural context of these
genres (e.g. IDM). Nevertheless, these styles do develop
sophisticated rhythmic textures that are associated with
timbric, spatial and dynamic attributes identified by this
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analytical method. In the interests of variety, the pieces
selected for this study by these authors also include ones
not primarily built on pulsation or rhythmic development.
• (E) Static Masses are constituted by layering sounds,
but can also be created through continuous stationary
textures, e.g. Lang’s pieces. As mentioned above, this
static attribute embodies an atypical vision of time. The
creation of non-teleological musical sections is a common tendency among post-spectralist and minimalist
pieces using an immobilized temporal flow to explore
sonic nuances. This attitude is also typical of those genres
that use drones (i.e. the use of sustained, repeated sounds,
or tone-clusters) to originate hypnotic effects, such as in
the work of Pan Sonic and Raime.
• (F) Repetitive Clusters, i.e. unvaried musical motifs
that could generate rhythmic patterns (D), hypnotic effects (H), or mechanical and automated profiles. This
attribute is strikingly prevalent in the pieces by Haas and
Lang, where it is often the building block for more complex musical organizations. Each cluster, as a musical
unit, can be composed differently: in the case of in vain,
for example, the cluster consists of sequential (during the
first part) and layered (during the final part) groups of
tones. The use of repetitive clusters is also representative
of glitch and electronic genres.
• (G) Dynamic Contrasts, i.e. the opposition of different elements according to certain sonic dimensions, are
usually related to the sculptural use of sound (I) that is
the combination and succession of events creating repetition or difference. This attribute is carefully evaluated,
more through a qualitative and aesthetic assessment than
a quantitative analysis using absolute values. A hasty
comparison of the use of dynamic contrast in Ikeda and
Haas pieces, for example, could lead to antithetical conclusions. The former makes use of extreme spectral ranges, whereas the latter creates contrasts only within a traditional acoustic palette. However, taking the possible dynamic range of instrumental composition into account,
Haas’ designs can be seen as equally radical and contrasting.
• (H) Hypnotic Reiterations, i.e. repetitive musical elements used both for static (E) and rhythmic development
(D) purposes. This dual purpose in creating hypnotic effects using sustained sounds or streams of short tones (E)
and continuous pulsations (D) is common to all the pieces
selected and helps reinforce the idea that a shared perspective arises from the use of similar practices.
• (I) A Plastic and Sculptural Arrangement of Sound,
i.e. the use of a particular organization of sounds based
on their various characters, be it according to their sonic
and spectral characteristics. This attribute, typical of electroacoustic and mixed music, is predominant in those
genres that encompass the use of multichannel sound
diffusion. In our selection, the sculptural arrangement of
sonic elements is focused on the organization of musical
events within the inner sonic space in order to create virtual planes and dimensions of perception (i.e. Smalley’s
spectral space and spatiomorphology [10]). In some cases
(i.e. Pan Sonic and Raime pieces), it is also accompanied
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by the use of real-world sounds that serve to clearly characterize specific spectral regions.
with a solid and fertile set of musical works in order to
create a clear template to be developed in the future.
Considering the overall results of this analysis, each
work displays at least eight out of the nine attributes identified above. Therefore, even though these nine attributes
are fairly general, their presence across all pieces represents a starting point for the definition of a common
cross-genre perspective.
Now, in order to confirm if these evidences are essential, it is necessary to move from analytical approach to
empirical studies. These attributes (Section 3.3) represent, in fact, the framework for the extension of the study
toward perceptual examinations.
4. PERCEPTUAL STUDIES
Figure 1. The analysis led to the identification of nine
musical attributes (step 3), these were translated into
corresponding semantic descriptors (step 4) to be used
in Perceptual Studies.
3.4 Some Considerations
In some pieces, these attributes are frequently combined,
e.g. glitch-electronic music usually exhibits repetitive
clusters (F) within rhythmic frameworks (D), while the
repetition of musical units (F) in Lang and Haas’ pieces
can at times be associated with non-rhythmic hypnotic
reiterations (H) or more complex structures.
More generally, it can be seen that contemporary instrumental compositions make elaborate use of simple
musical elements to create new effects: the reiteration of
descending notes at the beginning of in vain evokes a sort
of a cyclic falling whirl that constantly ascends. Similarly, electronic pieces apply drastic timbric techniques to
arrive at analogous results, such as the application of periodically fluctuating frequency filters in the music of Pan
Sonic (Rafter). When more static musical episodes are
considered or even when, in the case of Lang’s or Nova’s
pieces, electronic devices are used in notated compositions there is an explicit intention to take inspiration from
wider cultural aesthetics, such as turntablism, glitch or
noise for Lang, Nova and Verrando, respectively.
One might argue that this selection of pieces includes
strategically chosen examples to facilitate the method of
analysis and that this analysis occurs only at a relatively
general sonic level. However, as this cross-genre examination is innovative and untested, it was important to start
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The question of the perceptual aspect of sound spans an
immense area of studies from psychology [12] to neurosciences [13] and concerns human reactions that extend
over stimuli, feelings and emotions [14]. The majority of
works in music perception makes use of several strategies
(e.g. semantic differential, multidimensional scaling, verbal attribute magnitude estimation…) moving between
two approaches: on the one hand, some analytical assessments aim to explore sound’s qualities and timbre,
using adjectives of different semantic classes to define
simple sounds that are often uniform (i.e. single tones or
noises) in order to have a consistent response in their examinations. On the other hand, some studies have to do
more with philosophy, semiology and psychology and
focuses on formalist, cognitivist and emotivist positions
and refer to western classical repertoire and 20th century
popular music. Within the large production of studies in
music perception there is still a reduced number of works
that deals with contemporary experimental music.
The lack of perceptual studies in experimental music
is a sort of paradox, because many genres of exploratory
music, today, deal with perceptual aspects more than ever. The interest in perception of new music seems to have
moved from scholars towards composers themselves.
When these two figures coincide we find interesting debates: for instance, the intense literary production within
the electroacoustic communities [10] is an example of
how profound is the interest in listening, perception and
cognition of music within some communities.
Coming to this study, how should be treated, then, a
selection of pieces with no tonal construction, no traditional narrative and time perception but containing noises, real-world elements, acoustic, electronic and manipulated sounds? This task aims to (i) evaluate the similarities, previously identified in theoretical analysis; (ii) investigate the capacity of listener to express about his perception of sound; (iii) verify if one or more styles of music are actually considered in a different manner; (iv)
correlate the answer with the typology of listener: his
musical training, preferences and background.
The listener’s response to abstract and experimental
works of music relates to rational and conceptual issues
involving listener’s background, but also with phenomenal qualities and pure sonic stimuli
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On the one hand, the musical works selected for this
study contain elaborated constructions, and consequently
I could not use simple descriptors, such as “the sound is
sharp or dull”, to describe, for instance, a composition for
24 instruments. These pieces include complex sounds and
structured textures thus being at the same time sharp and
dull. On the other hand, a more detailed comparison of
the emotional effect of music would not furnish useful
results; the emotional side is differently conveyed in case
of a contemporary composition or an electronic clubbased session: there are different purposes, enjoyments,
stimuli and interests. Therefore, the emotive responses to
these pieces could be greatly different and are not the
central part of this investigation. Rather, I would examine
the ability of different typologies of listeners to express
and distinguish sonic characteristics.
For this reason, I arranged an array of descriptors
starting from the nine musical attributes identified in the
analytic step. This verbal translation (Figure 1, steps 3
and 4) into more comprehensible adjectives would favour
the extension of the study to untrained listeners that may
be unfamiliar with the meaning of specific words or idiomatic expression. However, this linguistic conversion is
strictly related with the musical characteristics of the
pieces and is not a universal transformation adaptable for
every type of music. For instance, exclusively for this
study, it has been possible to adapt the expression “microtonal variation” into the couple of adjectives “compact
/ fluctuating”. Within the selection of pieces, in fact, the
use of microtonality is encountered in sustained musical
episodes and concerns with the creation of static blocks
of sound (e.g. compact) with aural fluctuations (e.g. fluctuating) generated by acoustic binaural beats.
To summarize, considering a double approach, where,
on the one hand, there are practices typical of a timbre
assessment, through the use of pure tones and noises, and
on the other hand we find surveys that explore the emotional response towards a traditional repertoire; I may
virtually place this study midway between these two approaches.
4.1 Method
The examination consisted on a listening session (nine
excerpts –approx. 1 min. each– from the selection of
pieces, see Section 3.2) combined with an evaluation
questionnaire and it has been carried out both through a
web-based platform and some direct experimental surveys. The participants (N=55) were mainly students and
young musicians in the age of 20 to 40 years.
The first section includes four questions to define the
typology of participants (i.e. age, professional link to
music, time of listening music in everyday life, music
preferences). After that, participants could listen at the
selection of the audio samples and they should answer
about familiarity with the types of music samples. In the
next section (Perceptual Evaluation #1), participants are
invited to sort the audio samples into groups and to indicate which criteria they apply (it is specified that any criteria is acceptable and it is not compulsory to separate the
samples). Subsequently (Perceptual Evaluation #2), the
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list of semantic descriptors (Figure 1, step 4) is provided
to the participants, who are asked to associate these descriptors to audio excerpts.
4.2 General remarks on the perceptual survey
There is a prevalence of trained listeners (N=38,
68%): several personal contacts with potential participants confirmed that when untrained listeners approach
the questionnaire they often left it when started to listen
at the selection of pieces. They stated to feel “incompetent and unsuitable for the type of music” and become
reluctant to participate.
Nevertheless the variety of typologies and musical
preferences allows to traces some preliminary notations:
• there is mutual correspondence among musical preferences, familiarity with the audio samples and the questionnaire evaluation, thus indicating that besides this
work extend across various genres of contemporary music is still contemplated as a “niche”, limited and isolated
branch of today’s music.
• Trained participants tend to group sample based on
instrumentation and recognized genres, while untrained
participants also use personal sensations and feeling as
parameters to classify. The results seem to suggest the
most logic outcome: most of the participants (62%) is
inclined to categorize pieces based on their past experience than based on their transitory sensations.
• There is a gap between trained and untrained participants. Even if I have attempted to modulate the questions
in order to be understandable to all listeners, those with
experiences in abstract and experimental music show a
greater ability (i) to distinguish styles and genres; (ii) to
identify the nature and the source of different sounds; (iii)
to deal with semantic descriptors of different spheres of
sense other than hearing (e.g. visual or tactile). In particular, when the music shows several attributes, trained participants are able to better identify them than untrained
ones; whereas the piece exhibit few specific attributes,
the experienced listeners succeed to improve his answer
indicating additional minor attributes that the inexperienced listeners are not capable to recognize.
• Looking at the Perceptual Evaluation #1 (sorting
task), there is a positive and interesting response: there is
a significant number of participant (80%) able to group
all the samples, accomplish multiple connections and
classifications and provide detailed descriptions of the
criteria they used. This evaluation (PE1) tells us that the
major sorting criterion appears to be the recognized instrumentation and style. At the second stage, participants
consider the atmosphere and character of a piece. The
results confirm essentially that a common platform
among distant genres could exist if this second criterion
that concerns more with musical atmosphere and sonic
character and effect, is not just a secondary aspect but
holds a important role. A future study should (i) investigate longer audio samples, (ii) focuses on the aural effect
of the music and (iii) account for a more profound depiction of piece’s sonic nature.
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• The Perceptual Evaluation #2 has been accomplished more successfully than PE1: it seems to be more
demanding to define own musical decisions and express
them with own words (PE1) than combine and associate
given expressions to what one had listened before (PE2).
In general, untrained listeners handle better generic descriptors and those that relate more with effect of music
(e.g. “hypnotic”, Figure 1, step 4) than with intrinsic
qualities. On the contrary, trained listeners prefer functional and structural descriptors (e.g. “sculptural”, “fluctuating”). In the future, it could be important to differentiate these classes and explicitly declare when it is aimed
to inspect inner quality of sounds and their effect.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This study focus on a specific facet of today’s experimental music, selecting works that favour the exploration
of sound itself over more structured writing techniques or
systems. On the one hand, this study looked at styles of
music that deal with a limited set of characteristics (e.g.
hypnotic effects, repetition, rhythm) but which make use
of innovative sonic contrasts and complex elaborations of
sound. On the other hand, compositions belonging to the
so-called contemporary instrumental music genre were
seen to hold similar qualities within more elaborate structures.
This paper does not intend to over- or underestimate
any particular genre of music, but aims rather to highlight
interesting correspondences between distant genres according to specific uses of sonic material and so originate
constructive debates. It strives to compare (other than
analyse) different styles based on a more aesthetic approach, trying to express it through descriptive attributes
able to define more clearly this cross-genres perspective.
The latter, in fact, even if it could be likely well know
among scholars and trained listeners, continues to be indistinct and not fully recognized.
Perceptual studies reveal that there is still a virtual
barrier that separates the world of exploratory music (academic and independent) and the study highlight the difficulties that inexperienced listeners encounter approaching a diverse material of experimental music. However,
this work suggest that it would be possible to set a series
of informative tools for young students and listeners to
approach this type of music. Moreover, the study helps to
define the potential of a semantic descriptor when connected to the field of contemporary exploratory music
(e.g. how an adjective works, where and how it should be
applied…).
Finally, the paper (i) shows an advanced strategy that
combines perceptual studies with theoretical analyses to
define a more profound cross-genres perspective over
experimental fields of today’s music; (ii) it displays correlations among these audio extracts and open the way to
reflect in how distant pieces could be treated; (iii) it permits a better understanding of various fields of music and
would facilitate artistic convergences and (iv) it would
help in the creation of didactic and academic platforms
for the study of diverse musical contexts within a unified
framework.
Acknowledgments
The author would thank Fundação para a Ciência e a
Tecnologia (FCT) of Portugal for a doctoral fellowship
(SFRH/BD/102506/2014) and all participants from Lisbon, Paris and Huddersfield who collaborated in this research.
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Copyright: © 2016 Riccardo Wanke. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 Unported, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
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