Protective effects of fennel essential oil
against oxidative stress and genotoxicity
induced by the insecticide triflumuron in
human colon carcinoma cells
Rim Timoumi, Intidhar Ben Salem, Ines
Amara, Emna Annabi & Salwa AbidEssefi
Environmental Science and Pollution
Research
ISSN 0944-1344
Environ Sci Pollut Res
DOI 10.1007/s11356-019-07395-x
1 23
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07395-x
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Protective effects of fennel essential oil against oxidative
stress and genotoxicity induced by the insecticide triflumuron
in human colon carcinoma cells
Rim Timoumi 1,2 & Intidhar Ben Salem 3 & Ines Amara 1,2 & Emna Annabi 1,2 & Salwa Abid-Essefi 1
Received: 3 May 2019 / Accepted: 11 December 2019
# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract
The increased use of pesticides is the origin of multiple damages to the environment and to humans; thus, the search for new
strategies to reduce or even protect the toxic effects caused by these synthetic products became a necessity. In this context, our
study attempted to evaluate the protective effects of fennel essential oil (FEO), the main essential oil extracted from Faeniculum
vulgare Mill., a plant with aromatic, flavorful, and medicinal uses, against toxicity induced by an insecticide—triflumuron
(TFM)—in human carcinoma cells (HCT116). Our methodological approach consists of the cytotoxicity assay starting with
the cell viability test, the ROS generation, the malondialdehyde (MDA) production, the DNA fragmentation, and the measurement of some antioxidant enzymes activities such as catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Also, we measured the
mitochondrial transmembrane potential. The outcome of the current study showed clearly that after 2 h of HCT 116 cell
pretreatment with FEO, there were increase in cell viability, reduction in ROS generation, and modulation in CAT and SOD
activities induced by TFM. In the same manner, significant decreases in MDA levels were found. Mainly, the results indicated a
perceptible decrease in DNA damages and a significant reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential loss. Our work
demonstrates that FEO can be an important protector against toxic effects induced by TFM in HCT 116 cells.
Keywords Triflumuron . Fennel essential oil . Oxidative stress . Cytotoxicity . DNA damages
Introduction
Excessive use of pesticides in the agricultural sector can cause
chemical contamination leading to the loss of plant and animal
lives (Ralph et al. 1996). Indeed, pesticides can pose problems
for human health since pesticide residues are frequently detected in different compartments of the environment (surface
water, groundwater, soil, etc.) and in products intended for
human and animal food (Cerejeira et al. 2003; Yuan et al.
2014).
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
* Salwa Abid-Essefi
salwaabid@yahoo.fr
1
University of Monastir, Faculty of Dental Medecine, Laboratory for
Research on Biologically Compatible Compounds, LR01SE17,
5019 Monastir, Tunisia
2
Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Monastir, University of
Monastir, Avenue TaherHadded, 5000 Monastir, Tunisia
3
Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia
Numerous epidemiological studies suggest that pesticides may be involved in the induction of cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, fertility, and reproductive disorders
(Akoto et al. 2015; Yoshida et al. 2015; Zhang et al.
2016). That is why it is necessary to look for new products
with higher selectivity for the targets organisms and lower
toxicity for human and for the environment. Insect growth
regulators (IGRs) are among these new compounds, as
they act on the growth and the development of insects. In
fact, IGRs were introduced following the appearance of
insect resistance to pyrethroids and organophosphate insecticides (Belinato et al. 2013).
Among these IGRs, we find the class of benzoylureas
(disrupting molt) which interferes with the insect’s exoskeleton causing eventually its death (Tunaz and Uygun 2004).
Benzoylurea insecticides are widely used for crops protection, especially fruits and vegetables. Technically, they could
be classified such as insecticide of fourth generation having
high selectivity, low acute toxicity for mammals, and high
biological activity (Tomsej and Hajglov 1995). In this context,
our interest in the current study will be focused on triflumuron
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(TFM), a benzoylurea insecticide commonly used in the
world.
Triflumuron ((2-chloro-[[[N-4trifluoromrthoxy)phenyl]amino]carbonyl]; TFM) equally
known as Starycid SC 480 (Batra et al. 2005) is used in order
to protect crops, human, and animal health against diseases
caused by some insects vectors (Van der Oost et al. 2003;
Konradsen 2007; Winkaler et al. 2007; Alavanja 2009;
Lowden et al. 2007).
Regarding the molecular level, TFM acts by inhibiting the
synthesis of chitin which is a linear polymer composed of Nacetyl-glucosamine (Merzendorfer and Zimoch 2003). Thus,
by blocking the transport of N-acetylglucosamine through the
epithelial membrane, TFM acts as a general stressor, making
the insect more susceptible to malformations and disease, for
example, facilitating the entry of pathogenic fungi into insects
by weakening the insect’s cuticle (Irigaray et al. 2003).
Almost the majority of TFM toxic effects have been realized on insects. Indeed, TFM induced high mortality levels,
delayed the development and inhibited molting in Rhodnius
prolixus (Mello et al. 2008). In addition, TFM reduced larval
density and caused inhibition of the emergence of adult mosquito larvae (Batra et al. 2005).
In addition to this, the treatment of Aedes albopictus with
TFM inhibits the hatching of eggs. Also, abnormal morphology of the eggshell has developed (Suman et al. 2013).
Furthermore, TFM acts on the offspring of insects, especially
at the time of pupal formation. Like most IGRs, TFM causes
malformations of pupae of treated females which die at the
hatching moment or a few days later (Ouédraogo 1998) and
causes embryo death (Itard 1986). It causes as well high rates
of abortion in treated insects (Langley 1995).
However, TFM can cause toxic effects on non-target organisms, especially on aquatic organisms and invertebrates.
For example, in rats, dogs, and rabbits, the administration of
this compound causes spasms and skin and respiratory irritation resulting in sneezing and in several eye damages (Waller
and Lacey 1986; EFSA 2011). Repeated administration of
TFM is also known to cause hemolytic anemia (Tasheva and
Hristeva 1993) and reproductive toxicity (Suman et al. 2013).
Because of TFM toxic effects on humans, animals, and
environment, we focused our interest on antioxidant sources
of molecules, as the fennel essential oil (FEO). Fennel is the
commercial name of Foeniculum vulgare. It is an Apiaceae
plant that is characterized by its medicinal properties. Indeed,
this plant can be used to treat gastrointestinal and respiratory
disorders (Agarwal et al. 2008). The essential oil extracted
from this plan is known as FEO which is used in many sectors
such as cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and perfume industries.
Besides that, it is used as an additive in the preparation of food
(Tinoco et al. 2007). Many studies have shown the important
effects of FEO in the treatment of some human diseases, due
to its medicinal properties such as a diuretic, anti-
inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant (Gross et al. 2002) antiseptic, sedative, and stimulant activities (Tinoco et al. 2007;
He and Huang 2011).
The antioxidant properties of this substance prompt us to
study its protective effects against TFM-induced oxidative
damages in human cell Carcinoma (HCT 116 cells).
Materials and methods
Chemicals
Triflumuron, fennel essential oil, and pyrogallol were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). 3-[4,5Dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide
(MTT), cell culture medium (RPMI 1640), fetal calf serum
(FCS), phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), trypsin-EDTA, penicillin and streptomycin mixture, and L-glutamine (200 mM)
were from GIBCO-BCL (UK). 2,7-Dichlorofluorescein
diacetate (DCFH-DA) was supplied by Molecular Probes
(CergyPontoise, France). Low melting point agarose (LMA)
and normal melting point agarose (NMA) were purchased
from Sigma (St. Louis, MO). All other chemicals used were
of analytical grade.
Cell culture and treatment
RPMI 1640 was used for the culture of human carcinoma cells
(HCT 116). This medium is supplemented with 10% FBS, 1%
L-glutamine (200 mM), 1% of mixture penicillin (100 IU/
mL), and streptomycin (100 g/mL), at 37 °C with 5% CO2.
TFM was dissolved in DMSO and the FEO was dissolved in
absolute ethanol (with a percentage that does not exceed 1% to
avoid possible toxixity of absolute ethanol). The different concentrations of TFM (50 to 600 μM) in the presence or absence
of the preventive substance (FEO) were added to the cell medium. Thus, the HCT 116 cells are pretreated for 2 h by FEO
(1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v)) before their exposure to the TFM.
Cell toxicity assay (MTT assay)
The MTT assays (a tetrazolium salt reduction assay) measure
if there are metabolic disorders in cell and more precisely in
the mitochondria (Mosman 1983). For this, HCT 116 cells
were seeded in 96-well plates at 2.5 × 104 cells/well and were
treated with the FEO at 1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) and different
concentrations of TFM for 24 h at 37 °C. Wells containing
untreated cells served as a negative control. After treatment,
cells were incubated with the MTT solution for 3 h. At the end
of the incubation, formed formazan crystals were dissolved in
dimethyl sulfoxide and absorbance read at 570 nm using a
microplate reader spectrophotometer (BioTek, Elx800). The
results were expressed as the percentage of MTT reduction
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relative to the absorbance’s measured from negative control
cells. All assays were performed in triplicate.
Reactive oxygen species determination and oxidative
stress status
DCFH-DA is a fluorochrome that enters living cells and will
be deacetylated by cell esterases into a non-fluorescent compound DCFH. The latter will be oxidized, in the presence of
reactive oxygen species, into a fluorescent compound DCF
(Cathcart et al. 1983; Le Bel et al. 1992; Chen and Wong
2009). The determination of free radicals is determined following the seeding of the cells in multi-well plates (96 wells)
at a ratio of 2.104 cells/well. After 24 h, the cells were incubated for 30 min with 20 μM DCFH-DA and were then treated with FEO (1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v)) combined or not with the
TFM (IC50 = 400 μM) and incubated for 24 h. Fluorescence
was measured using a fluorometer (Biotek FLx800) with an
excitation wavelength of 485 nm and an emission wavelength
of 525 nm.
Measurement of catalase (CAT) activity
To determine the activity of this enzyme, 780 μL of phosphate
buffer (100 mM; pH 7.0) is mixed with 20 μL of proteins
extracts and 200 μL of H2O2 (20 mM). Then the absorbance
was measured at 240 nm over a period of 3 min (Aebi 1984) at
37 °C. Using a molar extinction coefficient of 0.04/mM/cm,
the calculus of this activity was effected and results were
expressed as mmol/min/mg protein.
Measurement of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity
SOD is enzyme that catalyzes the disproportionation of the
superoxide anion into oxygen and dihydrogen peroxide. The
assay of this activity is based on the ability of SOD to inhibit
the autooxidation of pyrogallol by SOD. To do this, 970 μL of
Tris HCl (50 mM; pH 8.5), 10 μL of pyrogallol (24 mM), and
20 μL of protein extract are introduced into a curve, and the
measurement of the optical density was effected at 440 nm for
an interval of 3 min at 37 °C. In order to calculate the SOD
activity, the amount of protein that inhibits the pyrogallol oxidation at 50% is determined. Results are expressed as U/mg
protein (Marklund and Marklund 1974).
Protein extraction
Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) assay
HCT 116 cells (106 cells/well) were seeded in 6-well plates
at 37 °C for 24 h. Then, we incubated cells for 24 h with 1,
1.5, and 2% (v/v) of FEO and with TFM at 400 μM. A
wash step with cold PBS was performed, and then cells
were recuperated using a lysis buffer after a 30-min incubation period in ice. Centrifugation allowed obtaining cell
extracts which were dosed using BioRad protein assay in
order to determine protein concentrations in each sample
(Bradford 1976).
Lipid peroxidation evaluation
To measure the level of MDA produced by the cells, 7.5 105
cells were plated on 6-well plates. The treatment of cells with
both TFM (400 μM) and FEO (1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v)) was
carried out for 24 h at 37 °C. Thus, cells were recovered in
PBS and incubated in the lysis buffer for 1 h. Centrifugation
allowed the obtention of cell lysates, which were mixed with
200 μL of KCl (1.15% w/v), 100 μL of SDS (8.1% w/v),
750 μL of acetic acid (20%; pH 3.5 v/v), and 750 μL of
thiobarbituric acid (0.8% w/v). The mixture is then incubated
for 2 h at 90 °C. A cooling step for 10 min is necessary before
adding a volume of 2.5 ml of n-butanol-pyridine (15:1/ v/v).
The mixture obtained is then vortexed until the organic phase
became up. Finally, a centrifugation allowed isolating the supernatant whose absorbance was read at 546 nm (Ohkawa
et al. 1979).
Rhodamine-123 is a fluorescent agent used to measure
transmembrane mitochondrial potential (Debbasch et al.
2001). For this, cells, already seeded in a 96-well plate,
were incubated with 1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) of FEO in the
presence or the absence of TFM for 24 h. A washing step
with 100 μL of PBS was primordial before putting
100 μL of rhodamine 123 (1 μM). Then, the plate was
incubated for 15 min at 37 °C. Finally, the supernatant
was discarded and was replaced by 150 μL of PBS.
Thus, a fluorimeter is used to determine the uptake of
rhodamine 123. The results were expressed as the percentage of uptaken rhodamine fluorescence relative to the
fluorescence measured from negative control cells.
DNA damage assessed by the comet assay
The DNA damage was quantified by using the comet test,
which is an electrophoretic nuclei technique with a fluorescent agent, which allows the detection of DNA breaks
on isolated cells after their inclusion in an agarose gel. To
perform this test, cells were seeded in 6 well plates at
7.5 × 105 cells/well. After 24 h, cells were treated with
1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) of FEO and TFM at 400 μM. After
recovering the cells in PBS, they were mixed with 60 μL
of low melting agarose (1.2%, w/v) and the solution was
pretreated on coded slides and already covered with normal agarose (1%, w/v). Then slides were held in lysis
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buffer for 1 h at + 4 °C. Then, an electrophoresis step
(30 min, 25 v, and 300 mA) (BioRad) made it possible
to migrate DNA in an electric field. Finally, a neutralization step with Tris buffer was applied for all the slides for
15 min. At the time of DNA damage count, the slides
were stained with ethidium bromide (20 mg/mL) and visualized by a fluorescence microscope. The DNA damage
was classified into four classes according to the length of
the DNA smear (Collins et al. 1996).Thus, a total score
was calculated according to the following equation: (% of
cells in class 0 × 0) + (% of cells in class 1 × 1) + (% of
cells in class 2 × 2) + (% of cells in class 3 × 3) + (% of
cells in class 4 × 4).
Statistical analysis
Data are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). The
analysis parameters were tested for homogeneity of variance
and normality, and they were found to be normally distributed.
The data were therefore analyzed using a one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) with a post hoc Tukey–Kramer test to
identify significance between groups and their respective controls. In all cases, p < 0.05 was considered statistically
significant.
Results
Cell viability determination
The exposure of HCT 116 cells to different concentration of
TFM ranging from 100 μM to 1 mM for 24 h was established
in order to determine the cell viability using MTT assay. Our
results showed that TFM causes a decrease in the cell viability
in a dose-dependent manner and with IC50 around 400 μM
(Fig. 1a). For FEO, no cell toxicity was indicated. The pretreatment of HCT cells with 1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) FEO, 2 h
before the TFM treatment decrease significantly the cytotoxicity induced by TFM (Fig. 1b) (*p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01 vs.
TFM alone).
Inhibition of ROS generation
Figure 2 shows the effect of FEO on ROS generation
induced by TFM on human intestine cells. The level of
the ROS produced by cells in the presence or the absence
of TFM and FEO was measured according to the fluorescence of DCF. Indeed, in the presence of H2O2 in the
intracellular medium, DCFH was oxidated to fluorescent
DCF. Our results indicated that the level of ROS production increased from 5300 ± 500 in the control to 15,600 ±
800 in cells treated with TFM at 400 μM. Using different
concentrations of 1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) of FEO, the
intracellular ROS produced by TFM was completely
abolished. Indeed, with the highest concentration of
FEO, we showed that the level of ROS generation was
around 4500 ± 200 (Fig. 2) (##p < 0.01 vs. control,
**p < 0.01 and ***p < 0.001 vs. TFM alone).
Effect of FEO on TFM-induced lipid peroxidation
To determine lipid peroxidation, we measured the rate of
MDA which is an ultimate fragment of membrane lipid degradation. Our findings indicated that using TFM alone
(400 μM), the level of MDA increased from 0.3 ± 0.03
(μmol/mg of proteins) in the control cells to 0.8 ± 0.03
(μmol/mg of proteins) in cells treated with TFM. The use of
FEO at 1, 1.5, and 2% decreased respectively the level of
MDA to 0.64 ± 0.03, 0.51 ± 0.04, and 0.38 ± 0.04 (μmol/mg
of proteins) compared to the TFM-treated cells (Fig. 3). This
decrease was of concentration-dependent manner
(###p < 0.001 vs. control, *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01 vs. TFM
alone).
Effect of FEO on antioxidant enzymes activities
The change in the level of antioxidant enzymes can be considered as a marker of oxidative stress. Indeed, SOD catalyzes
the dismutation of the highly reactive superoxide anion from
oxidative stress to H2O2, which can further be decomposed to
water and oxygen by CAT or Gpx. Figure 4a, b shows the
measurement of the activities of two antioxidant enzymes that
are SOD and CAT.
Using TFM at 400 μM in HCT116 cells, we found a
significant increase in the activities of these two enzymes.
Indeed, in the untreated cells, CAT activity passed from 6
± 0.08 to 47 ± 1 mmol/min/mg of proteins (Fig. 4a) in the
TFM-treated cells group. Similarly, for the SOD activity,
we noted an increase in this activity which passed from
48 ± 5 U SOD/min/mg of proteins in the control group to
127 ± 1 U SOD/min/mg of proteins (Fig. 4b). The pretreatment of cells with 1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) of FEO reduced these increases in a dose-dependent manner
( ###p < 0.001 vs. control, *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01 vs.
TFM alone).
Effect of FEO on TFM mitochondrial alterations
To assess the effect of FEO on the mitochondrial alterations induced by TFM, we incubated cells with rhodamine 123. We noted a significant decrease in the Rh123 in
cells treated with TFM (400 μM) alone with a percent of
53% ± 0.5. These findings evidenced that in this case,
cells lost their mitochondrial potential. Using FEO, a remarkable restoration in the percentage of Rh123 uptake
was evidenced: 59% ± 1%, 78 ± 4%, and 88% ± 0.4%
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Fig. 1 a Cytotoxic effect of TFM
and FEO on HCT116 cells. Cells
were treated with TFM alone or
combined with FEO for 24 h. Cell
viability was determined using
the MTT assay and expressed as
percentages of viability. Values
are significantly different
(p < 0.05) from control. FEO
reduces TFM-induced cytotoxicity in HCT116. Cells were
pretreated for 2 h with FEO (1,
1.5, and 2%) before TFM treatment for 24 h (400 μM). b Cell
viability was determined using
MTT assay. Data are expressed as
the mean ± S.D. of three independent experiments. *p < 0.05
and **p < 0.01 vs. TFM alone
using 1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) of FEO respectively. Our results demonstrated the protective effect of FEO against
mitochondrial alterations caused by TFM (Fig. 5)
(##p < 0.01 vs. control, **p < 0.01 vs. TFM alone).
Effect of FEO on TFM-induced DNA fragmentation
Fig. 2 Effects of FEO on TFM-induced ROS generation. HCT116 cells
were pretreated with FEO (1, 1.5, and 2%) for 2 h before TFM treatment
for 24 h (400 μM). The relative intracellular ROS production was evaluated by recording the fluorescence of DCF, the product of DCFH
oxidation mainly by H2O2. Data are expressed as the mean ± SD of three
separate experiments. ##p < 0.01 vs. control, **p < 0.01 and ***p < 0.001
vs. TFM alone
The DNA fragmentation results are illustrated in Fig. 6. We
showed that, compared to the control group, the total score
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Fig. 3 Effects of FEO on TFMinduced lipid peroxidation.
HCT116 cells were pretreated
with FEO (1, 1.5, and 2%) for 2 h
before TFM treatment for 24 h
(400 μM). The peroxidation of
lipids was recorded by measuring
the accumulation of MDA. Data
are expressed as the mean ± SD of
three separate experiments.
###
p < 0.001 vs. control, *p < 0.05
and **p < 0.01 vs. TFM alone
increased from 44 ± 1 to 129 ± 6 in cells treated with TFM
alone. Using different concentrations of FEO, a significant
decrease in the DNA damages was noted: 117 ± 4, 73 ± 2,
and 56 ± 4 respectively for 1, 1.5, and 2% (v/v) of FEO
(###p < 0.001 vs. control, **p < 0.01 vs. TFM alone).
Discussion
Pesticides, also called plant protection products, are molecules
used to protect humans and their environment against attacks
caused by harmful vectors and predators (Marutescu and
Fig. 4 Effects of FEO on catalase
(a) and superoxide dismutase
activities (b). HCT116 cells were
pretreated with FEO (1, 1.5, and
2%) for 2 h before TFM treatment
for 24 h (400 μM). Data are
expressed as the mean ± SD of
three separate experiments.
###
p < 0.001 vs. control, *p < 0.05
and **p < 0.01 vs. TFM alone
Chifiriuc 2007). Due to their increased use in many areas such
as agriculture, industry, and traditional medicine, pesticides
cause adverse effects on human health and threaten ecosystems (Farnesi et al. 2012). In this context, several studies have
revealed the role of pesticides in the occurrence of numerous
pathologies, namely, cancer and neurodegenerative and cardiac disorders (Kland 1988; Juricek and Coumoul 2014; Akoto
et al. 2015).
Among those pesticides, we focused our interest on the
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) which are a class of pesticide
commonly used in agriculture and human and animal health in
order to control damages caused by insects (Smith and Wall
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Fig. 5 Effects of FEO on TFM-induced loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential. HCT116 cells were pretreated with FEO (1, 1.5, and 2%)
for 2 h before TFM treatment for 24 h (400 μM). The mitochondrial
potential was assessed by measuring the uptake of rhodamine 123. Data
are expressed as the mean ± SD of three separate experiments. ##p < 0.01
vs. control, **p < 0.01 vs. TFM alone
1998; and Parween et al. 2001; Zaim and Guillet 2002; WHO
2006).
TFM is one of the most known IGRs which is used to
protect human, animal, and crops against insects (Kamsh
et al. 1998; Parween et al. 2001). It acts by blocking the synthesis of chitin, the major constituent of the insect cuticle
causing consequently its death (Vasuki and Rajavel 1992;
Wilson and Cryan, 1997; Amir and Peveling 2004). It is characterized by its several toxic effects in most ecosystems. Also,
it can affect the reproductive system of adult females of
Rhodnius prolixus causing a high level of mortality in those
insects (Henriques et al. 2016). Our previous study showed
that TFM was an inductor of oxidative stress in male mice
after short-term exposure (Timoumi et al. 2018).
Because of the toxic effects of TFM on the fauna and the
flora, we tried to find in our work a natural substance that can
reduce and prevent the toxicity induced by TFM. Thus, we
worked with fennel essential oil (FEO) that is characterized by
its antioxidant, antifungal, and antibacterial proprieties (AlAmoudi 2017).
Our work aimed to study the protective effects of FEO
against toxic effects induced by the insecticide, triflumuron
(TFM), using human intestinal cell lines.
Treatment of HCT 116 cells with TFM (400 μM) decreased
significantly cell viability by using the MTT assay. However,
using FEO, cell death caused by TFM was significantly
reduced.
In order to explain the decrease in cell viability induced by
TFM, we performed some oxidative stress tests. Indeed, oxidative stress occurs when oxygen-reactive species (ROS) accumulate in cells, leading them to apoptosis (Battisti et al.
2008). ROS are essential intermediates in oxidative metabolism. Nevertheless, when oxidative stress occurs, ROS are
generated in excess and consequently may damage cells by
oxidizing lipids, disrupting DNA and proteins. Accordingly,
we demonstrated that TFM-induced ROS generation and increased MDA levels and DNA damages. As a matter of fact,
MDA is an ultimate fragment resulting from degradation of
membrane lipids, which is frequently used as a marker of an
oxidative state (Cini et al. 1994). The results of this state are
the structural destruction in the cell membranes, DNA damages, and apoptotic death (Surapaneni and Venkataramana
2007).
Enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants are cellular defenses having the role of protecting cells against environmental contaminants. These defense systems include catalase
(CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Indeed, in case of
stress, the SOD is the first enzyme that manifests. It catalyzes
the dismutation of superoxide radicals into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. The latter in the presence of CAT will be neutralized (Salvi et al. 2007). In our case, SOD, CAT activities,
and mitochondrial potential were altered.
Any oxidative stress may be the cause of genotoxicity.
Assuredly, in case of a reaction between pesticides and the
Fig. 6 Effects of FEO on TFMinduced DNA damage. HCT116
cells were pretreated with FEO (1,
1.5, and 2%) for 2 h before TFM
treatment for 24 h (400 μM). Data
are expressed as the mean ± SD of
three separate experiments.
###
p < 0.001 vs. control,
**p < 0.01 vs. TFM alone
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nuclear DNA, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects may arise.
This is why we tried to quantify DNA damage caused by the
TFM using the comet assay. Our results indicated the oxidative damages in the DNA level in the studied cells that were
exposed to this compound.
These results confirm the share of oxidative stress in the
toxicity induced by benzoylurea insecticides and in particular
TFM. Moreover, our results showed that TFM is an oxidizing
agent in HCT 116 cells, by its ability to increase the production of ROS and to alter the normal functioning of antioxidant
enzymes such as CAT and SOD.
However, the use of FEO a natural antioxidant molecule
protects against the oxidative stress and the genotoxicity induced by TFM. Indeed, we demonstrated that the use of FEO
decreased the generation of ROS and reduced the level of
MDA in comparison with the TFM-treated cells.
A modulation in CAT and SOD activities was observed
when cells were exposed to FEO, 2 h before their intoxication
with the TFM.
By combining the FEO with the TFM, we found an increase in the mitochondrial transmembrane potential accompanied by a decrease in DNA damage when comparing to
cells treated with TFM only.
The toxicity study of TFM on cellular and animal models is
very limited. However, recently, TFM has been shown to promote metastasis of liver cancer cells (Hep G2) by interfering
with hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (Ning et al. 2018).
Moreover, diflubenzuron (DFM), a benzoylurized insecticide as well as TFM, was found to be cytotoxic which decreases cell viability in CHOK1 cells (Bayoumi et al. 2003)
and Hep G2 cells (Delescluse et al. 1998) using the MTT assay
and the neutral red test. Similarly, the cytotoxicity of DFM has
been demonstrated in BALBC/3T3 cells by inducing cellular
transformations. Indeed, it increased the lipoperoxydation and
activities of CAT, SOD, and Gpx enzymes (Ilboudo et al.
2014).
The investigation of the protective effects of the FEO
in vivo has been over-clarified. Indeed, Tripathi et al. (2013)
showed that FEO has anticytotoxic and anti-genotoxic effects
in mice treated with cyclophosphamide. Thus, they founded
that FEO reduced the cytotoxic and the genotoxic effects in
mice bone marrow cells. Also, the activities of catalase, SOD,
GSH, and the level of MDA measured at the livers of these
mice were modulated.
In the same context, FEO was able to prevent hepatorenal
damages caused by sodium valproate, a medicine used as an
anticonvulsant and mood stabilizer, in albino rats (Al-Amoudi
2017).
It was previously known that fennel extracts are full of
many types of polyphenolic compounds (Faudale et al.
2008; Chang et al. 2013) which are characterized by their
antioxidant proprieties (Choi and Hwang 2004; Chatterjee
et al. 2012). These antioxidant activities are involved in
absorbing and neutralizing free radicals, quenching singlet
and triplet oxygen, or decomposing peroxides (Sofowora
1993; Singh et al. 2006).
A study in human hepatoma cell line (HepG2) showed that
estragole, a very common compound found in EFO, is neither
cytotoxic nor genotoxic, nor even able to cause apoptosis
(Villarini et al. 2014). Mizuno et al. (2015) showed that the
FEO can protect neuronal cells (GT 1–7) against the oxidative
stress caused by hydrogen peroxide.
In conclusion, our study clearly demonstrates the protective
role of fennel essential oil, extracted from fennel, an aromatic
plant frequently used in food. In no uncertain terms, FEO is
able to protect cultured intestinal cells from toxicity and
genotoxicity induced by TFM.
Funding information This study was supported by “Le Ministère
Tunisien de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique.”
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of
interest.
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