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Revised Building Energy Code of Thailand: Potential Energy and Power Demand Savings
S. Chirarattananon1 P. Chaiwiwatworakul1 V. D. Hien1 P. Rugkwamsuk2 and K. Kubaha2
1. Energy Field of Study, Asian Institute of Technology, Tel: (66) 02 5245420, Fax: (66) 02 5256589, email: surapong@ait.ac.th
2. School of Energy and Materials, King Mongkut University of Technology Thonburi, Tel: (66) 02 4708695, Fax: (66) 02 4708635
, email: pattana.rug@kmutt.ac.th.
The government of Thailand legislated a law called Energy
Conservation Promotion Act (ECP Act) in 1992. A set of bye-laws
identifying designated buildings (DBs) and detailing mandatory
requirements for energy conservation for DBs were enacted in 1995. An
Energy Conservation Promotion Fund (ENCON Fund) was created by
the ECP Act to facilitate implementation of activities sanctioned by the
act. The ENCON Fund has been used to fund energy audits carried out
by consultants on all DBs that number around 1,800. Presently the
requirements and procedures for energy conservation in buildings,
embodied in a building energy code, are under revision. The revised
code continues to adopt system performance requirements for building
envelope, lighting, and air-conditioning. Moreover, the new code
accounts for different patterns of use of DBs, provides credit for use of
solar energy, and introduces a new option of whole building energy
compliance. The formulation of overall thermal transfer value enables
the OTTV of a building to be used, together with performance indexes
of lighting and air-conditioning systems, to estimate the annual energy
consumption of the building. The new code is intended to apply in full
extent to very large new commercial buildings only, while smaller new
buildings will be subjected only to envelope performance requirements.
As a part of the effort to convince building developers, the public, and
the relevant authorities on the potential benefits of the code, the authors
develop building models from data obtained from energy audit reports to
calculate energy and power demand savings of different categories of
commercial buildings. The results are then used to estimate savings on
energy and electric power demand from future new buildings, whose
expected energy and power demand figures are taken from the report of
the Load Forecast Working Group, a panel tasked to forecast future
electric load for Thailand power system development.
building envelope in the Singaporean Building Energy Code
(BEC) that had been implemented on a mandatory basis as a part
of the Bye-Law of Building Control Act. The Singaporean BEC
was modeled after Standard 90-1980, [4], of the American
Society for Heating Refrigerating and Air-conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE).
The use of building energy code on a mandatory basis in an
effort to achieve efficiency of energy consumption in buildings
is common, as reported by Janda and Busch, [5]. After the date
of publication by Janda and Busch, many more countries have
adopted BECs that include OTTV or other requirements on
energy performance of building envelope. Close to ASEAN,
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR)
promulgated a mandatory BEC in 1998. Regulation on OTTV
and building envelope performance requirement was made since
1995. [6] and [7]. Wong, etal, [8], reported enacting a law of
the People’s Republic of China on Conserving Energy in 1998.
Mandatory regulations on heating, ventilating and airconditioning, building energy performance, managements and
testing related to thermal performance are now applied in China.
Further away geographically, Ivory Coast had developed and
applied “the Ivorian Energy Efficiency Building Code” to all
new buildings, except residential buildings of three stories or
less, since 1993, [9]. The initiative was taken from the
examples of the ASEAN countries and Jamaica. The Ivorian
code utilized economic criterion in determining levels of energy
efficiency requirements based on whole building targets.
Although energy efficiency for air-conditioning was made
mandatory earlier, the Mexican government passed a law
requiring energy efficiency on building envelope in 2001, [10].
A new building is considered to meet the Mexican requirements
on building envelope if the calculated heat flow through its
building envelope is less than that of a hypothetical reference
building of the same dimensions and orientation.
As has been reported in [11], the Energy Conservation
Promotion Act of Thailand was promulgated in 1992.
Requirements on energy conservation for large commercial
buildings became mandatory in 1995 after a set of bye-laws on
BEC was announced. The ENCON Fund created by the ECP
Act, was also operational by the same date. However, energy
conservation effort for commercial buildings has been
considered to have achieved limited success. As a part of the
effort to improve the situation, a project was launched in 2002
initially with the assistance of Danish International
Development Agency (DANIDA) and later through funding
from the ENCON Fund to revise the BEC. The new code is
now scheduled to apply in full to very large new commercial
buildings only. A new building with floor area exceeding
10,000 m2 (ten thousand square meter), designated as very large
buildings (NVLB) under Building Control Act, must comply
with requirements on building envelope, lighting, and airconditioning before its design is approved for construction. For
1. INTRODUCTION
The soaring price of oil at present time attests to the
finiteness of natural resources. It has been remarked that energy
conservation can reduce energy use with no adverse impact on
the environment and can lead to sustainability.
Thailand was a net energy importing country ever since it
began its first Economic and Social Development Plan to
embark on a new phase of coordinated economic development
in 1964. From 1990, the economy expanded at a fast pace with
the corresponding rise in energy consumption, giving rise to an
elasticity of energy consumption growth over GDP growth of
1.12. From 1985 to the present, per capita consumption of oil
and natural gas has increased six folds, while per capita
consumption of electricity has increased five folds, [1] and [2].
The interest in energy conservation for commercial buildings
arose from the situation of oil price hike and shortage. When
ASEAN countries (in Southeast Asia) initiated joint activities
with dialog countries in the early and mid 1980s, research and
development in energy conservation in commercial buildings
was a subject designated for cooperation.
A US-ASEAN cooperation program led to development of
building energy codes for Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and
Thailand, and a review of the formulation of the Overall
Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) of Singapore, [3]. The OTTV
has been adopted as the measure of thermal performance of
1
a new building with an area between 2,000 and 10,000 m2,
designated as large building (NLB), its building envelope must
comply with the requirements on building envelope. These are
consistent with the present bye-law of the Building Control Act
that requires that building design and electrical and mechanical
designs of a very large building be submitted for construction
permission. For a large building, the bye-law requires only
building design to be submitted. The existing bye-law of the
ECP Act heavily focuses on existing building and no mechanism
for enforcement of energy conservation requirements for new
buildings has been developed It is suspected that most buildings
constructed during 1995 to present do not comply with the code.
The present effort includes the development of a computer code
for evaluation of the compliance of a building design and
provision of a handbook to assist building designers The
responsibility that a building design complies with the
requirements of the code rests with the building designer and no
other person will certify a design, consonant with the present
practice on building safety compliance. A building control
subcommittee has been appointed to prepare the draft of a byelaw of the Building Control act that requires the design of very
large building and that of large building to also comply with the
requirements of the ECP Act An item on energy conservation
requirement will be added to the check list of requirements for a
new building to comply so that authorizing officials could use it
to check if a BEC qualified professional has signed to
authenticate its compliance with BEC. These steps would
ensure that the BEC requirements are fully implemented.
This paper first briefly reviews implementation of building
energy code in Thailand. Then it examines features of the new
code. The methodology used and the results of assessment of
potential electrical energy and power demand savings from
implementation of the new code are then presented. It is
concluded by emphasizing that energy savings benefits could be
obtained only if the code is implemented successfully.
Experiences Gained. Implementation of the Ministerial
Regulations during the last nine years on over 1,800 buildings
have taught that too much emphasis has been placed on
retrofitting existing buildings. While economic and financial
justification for replacement of existing equipment in existing
building are unclear because the value of each equipment whose
life has not expired could not be properly evaluated, the
requirements of the Ministerial Regulations have been difficult
to fulfilled. Disproportionate emphasis has been placed on
standard items of equipment replacement or maintenance
management by the authority [13]. While the cost of equipment
replacement would be born by the proprietor of each building,
the authority develops its own set of targets for replacement.
This leads to divergence on energy efficiency improvement in a
given building between the building proprietor and the
consultant who conducts energy audit and whose energy audit
report must be approved by the authority. However, the code
requirements are mainly performance based.
The code
introduces and familiarizes building professionals to OTTV as a
measure of thermal performance of building envelope and as a
system performance requirement. This has helped create a
knowledge base among the pool of building professionals.
Weaknesses in the Present Building Energy Code. The
code does not provide direct linkage between energy
performance of different systems in a building to energy
consumption and energy cost of the building. Moreover, the
code tends to mislead industry participants to taking the code
requirements as ultimate targets, while the performance
requirements were meant to be minimum requirements at the
onset. In most cases, performance levels higher than those
required by the code should offer higher benefit over cost. The
detailed requirements in the existing code are also subject to
review since its requirements were made based on technologies
prevailing close to one decade ago.
3. FEATURES OF THE NEW BEC OF THAILAND
The new code continues to adopt system performance
requirements and includes whole building energy compliance.
Economic principle is used in setting minimum performance
requirements.
2. DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF BUILDING
ENERGY CODE IN THAILAND
2.1 Components of existing Thai code.
Studies conducted during 1980s found that air-conditioning (for
cooling) and electric lighting typically accounted for 60% and
20% respectively of the electricity consumption of a commercial
building in Thailand, [12]. Furthermore, heat gain across
building envelope due to external driving forces contributes
60% of the load of the cooling coils of the air-conditioning
system. Such studies led to the inclusion of requirements on
performance of building envelope, air-conditioning system and
lighting system in the building energy code. The code uses
OTTV as the measure of the performance of the envelope of a
building. The code defines measures of and set requirements for
minimum performance of building envelope system, lighting
system and air-conditioning system. The Thai code does not
include auxiliary equipment such as lifts or escalators, nor does
it include office equipment in its scope. There are separate
promotional activities for improving efficiencies of household
appliances and office equipment undertaken by various
agencies. During the time of the initial development of Thai
BEC, professional ilumination and air-conditioning societies
were not in existence. Developments on the requirements on
lighting and on air-conditioning were contributed by individuals.
3.1 Components of the New Code
The new code still utilizes OTTV as the measure of thermal
performance of building envelope and power density of lighting
as the measure of performance of lighting. But it distinguishes
three different time and duration of use of commercial buildings
and provides three separate OTTV formulations. It also
recognizes different lighting requirements and specifies three
levels of performance requirements, each for a category of
commercial buildings. It now uses coefficient of performance
of air-conditioning and plant system as measure of performance
of air-conditioning where the existing code uses only rated
performance of chiller of a central air-conditioning system as the
performance measure. It also introduces whole building energy
compliance as another path for compliance. The new code also
utilizes an OTTV-based energy equation as the basis for whole
building energy calculation. Another significant feature is the
accreditation for use of solar energy.
New OTTV and Energy Relationship.
The OTTV
formulation of the existing code was meant for it to represent
average heat gain through a given building envelope for a whole
year. That is
old OTTV = heat gain through building envelope of a given
building for the whole year/(number of hours of
use of the building x total external area of the
building).
2.2 Implementation of Building Energy Code in Thailand.
In implementing the Ministerial Regulations that embody the
building energy code, limited success has been observed. This
unfortunate situation stems from the way the law was applied
and the deficiency in the code itself.
2
Such formulation is described in [14] and is conceptually
identical to the formulation employed in the Singapore code,
[15] and Hong Kong code, [16]. In the development of the new
code, a slight variation was employed. The OTTV would be
used as a measure of annual average heat gain through building
envelope as sensed by the cooling coil of the air-conditioning
system of a building. It is meant to be used in the equation
Annual average cooling coil load (of an airconditioning system)
= (OTTV) (wall area) as external factor of load
+ lighting, equipment, occupants and ventilation as
internal factor of load.
Computer code was used to simulate annual cooling coil load of
a generic building model under different sets of conditions. The
results were used to regress for OTTV formulation. With such
postulate, it can then be used to calculate annual energy use in a
given building through the relationship
Annual energy use of a space
= annual cooling coil load of the space /COP
+ annual direct use of energy of lighting and other
equipment,
where COP is the coefficient of performance of the airconditioning system. The first term in the last equation accounts
for air-conditioning energy.
Reference [17] provides
background justification to the concept used here. With the
OTTV formulation developed this way, the formulation could be
used to calculate reference annual energy use of a building
design and that of a reference building. In this way the equation
can be used in the whole building energy compliance procedure.
The OTTV formulation would become an accurate measure of
thermal performance of the envelope of a building. The energy
equation relates performance of wall, lighting and airconditioning to reference annual energy consumption of the
whole building.
In order to utilize the energy relationship on different
categories of commercial buildings, three patterns of use of a
building are identified, daytime only, late daytime to nighttime,
and day and night. Table 1 list commercial buildings identified
to fall into each category of usage. The number of hours of use
of each category is also shown.
Lighting The indicator of performance of lighting system
used in the present code is lighting power density (LPD, Wm-2).
This continues to be used.
Air-conditioning Performance indicator for an airconditioning system used is the coefficient of performance of
the whole system except when absorption chillers are used.
Hot Water System Performance requirement is made on
production of hot water generation. No requirement is made on
its use.
Renewable Energy Accreditation is given to use of
daylighting and photovoltaic power production
3.2 Energy Performance Requirements
Energy performance requirement of each system was
determined from economic principle.
Application of Life-cycle Costing to New Buildings. For a
building at the design stage, the choice of building construction,
systems and equipment to be used is relatively free of constraint.
It is logical that mandatory energy performance requirements or
a mandatory building energy code applies to building not yet
constructed. Total cost throughout the life of a building should
be used as basis for choice of building systems. Life-cycle
costing accounts for initial cost, energy cost, other operating and
maintenance cost (including labor), life of each component
forming the system; discount rate, inflation and escalation of
some cost items such as energy cost, and salvage value of each
component when its life is expired. . The first two items
dominate in our case.
In the application of life cycle costing principle to
determine minimum performance requirements of each building
system, extensive examples of alternative systems of different
performance were developed and their life cycle costs evaluated.
The results were used in consultation with expert groups to
decide on minimum performance requirements of each system.
Building Envelope Thermal properties and life cycle costs
of typical opaque walls, with and without insulation, in
combination with coated and uncoated glazing, single and
double layer, were compiled and presented to a panel of experts
and stakeholders comprising building designers and developers.
Annual costs of energy associated with the use of a combination
of opaque wall and glazing were derived from energy
simulations. A series of consultations led to the results shown in
Table 2 for the value of minimum performance requirement for
the envelope of each building category. At a value of window
area to overall wall area close to 0.35, it was demonstrated that a
certain combination of opaque wall and glazing offers lower life
cycle cost and the resultant OTTVs when applied to each
building category fall within the values in Table 2.
Table 1 Usage duration and total hours per year of three
categories of buildings.
Building Category
Office and education
Department store, hypermarket,
and miscellaneous
Hotel, hospital, condominium, and
hostel
Number of
hours per year
8.00-17.00
2,340
10.00-22.00
4,380
Usage time
24 hours
8,760
Table 2 Minimum allowable energy performance for building
envelope.
The new OTTV formulation takes the form
OTTV = (1-WWR) (TDeq) (Uw)
+ (WWR) ( ) (Uf)
+ (WWR) (SHGC) (SC) (ESR),
where WWR = window area to overall wall area,
TDeg = equivalent temperature difference of opaque
wall,
Uw = thermal conductance of opaque wall,
= temperature difference for glazed window,
Uf = thermal conductance of glazing,
SHGC = solar heat gain coefficient of glazing,
SC = shading coefficient of shading device, and
ESR = effective solar radiation.
A set of values of TDeq and ESR is given for each category of
buildings.
Building type
Wall
Office or school,
Department store, hypermarket, and restaurant
Hotel, hospital, and hostels
Roof
Office and school,
Department store or hypermarket, and restaurant
Hotel, hospital, and hostel
Requirement
O-OTTV < 50 Wm-2
S-OTTV < 40 Wm-2
H-OTTV < 30 Wm-2
O-RTTV < 15 Wm-2
S-RTTV < 12 Wm-2
H-RTTV < 10 Wm-2
Lighting System A building model was created for each
type of building under consideration. Typical functional areas
were identified for each building type. The level of illuminance
or light flux per area was chosen in accordance with typical
design for each functional area. Life cycle costing was applied
to show that higher performance level for lighting lead to lower
power density requirement and lower life cycle cost. Table 3
3
shows the recommended allowable value for each building
category.
to comply with international standard, but adjusted to suit higher
thermal environment in Thailand.
Hot Water System No requirement was made on hot water
use. Minimum efficiency of hot water generation required for
each type appears in Table 5. Heat pumps are increasingly used
for hot water generation where ventilation air as heat source is
pre-cooled by the operation.
Table 3. Allowable rated power density for lighting.
Allowable rated power(W/m2 of
utilized area)
Category of building
Office and education
Department store, hypermarket, and
miscellaneous
Hotels, hospitals, condominium, and
hostel
18
Table 5 Required minimum efficiency of hot water generation.
12
Minimum
performance
Efficiency, %
Boiler
Oil-fired steam
Higher heating value of fuel
85
Oil-fired hot water
80
Gas-fired steam
80
Gas-fired hot water
80
Inlet water temperature 30 C, Coefficient of
Heat Pump
ambient air 30 C
performance
Outlet water temperature 50 C
3.5
Outlet water temperature 60 C
3.0
Note Gas refers to both natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas.
Type
Air-conditioning System The same concept was applied to
air-conditioning system. For a large air-conditioning system,
the main equipment that consumes 65% of power is the chiller.
The recommended values for coefficient of performance for
large electric chillers are shown in Table 4. For unitary airconditioners, requirement on coefficient of performance is made
for each set.
Table 4. Recommended performance requirements for chillers.
Renewable Energy Accreditation is given for use of solar
energy through application of daylighting and photovoltaic
power generation.
Daylighting It has been reported that daylight illuminance
from sky on any vertical façade exceeds 5 klux and 10 klux at
frequencies of 90% and 75% respectively. Daylight illuminance
is expected to be sufficient on a work plane extending from the
window to a distance of up to 1.5 times the height of window, as
measured from the height of work plane. The row(s) of
luminaries designed to serve this space along the row(s) of
window(s) and up to 1.5 times such height is discounted from
calculation of power density of lighting for the building if
1) the row(s) of luminaries is separately switched from the
rest of the space, and
2) the product of visible transmittance of glazing and shading
coefficient of external shading device exceeds 0.3, and
3) the value of visible transmittance of the glazing exceeds
the value of its solar heat gain coefficient.
Opaque wall sections are allowed to intersperse glazed
windows. Width of wall section(s) of up to the window width is
allowed. Figure 2 illustrates the configuration of windows with
interspersing wall section(s), height of window above work
plane, and accredited luminaries.
Minimum
performance,
COP (kW/TR)
Air-cooled water chiller
kWth (100 TR)
Over 351.7 kWth (100 TR)
Water-cooled water chiller
Less than 527.5 kWth (200 TR)
From 527.5 kWth and less than 703.3 kWth (250 TR)
From 703.3 kWth and less than 879.2 kWth (300 TR)
From 879.2 kWth and less than 1,758.3 kWth (500 TR)
Over 1,758.3 kWth
Note TR = ton of refrigeration, 1 TR = 3.517 kWth.
0
(0.75)
(0.67)
(0.65)
(0.62)
The air-handling system, condenser water cooling system, and
chilled water transport system taken together had been
recommended a rated minimum coefficient of performance of
7.03 (0.5 kW/TR). Figure 1 illustrates the requirements.
0.5 kW/TR
Air-handling unit
Supply air duct
Cooling coil
Filter
Outside air
Condition
There are many of these
units in a building
Row(s) of luminaries
serving designated space
Return air duct
Wg
Ww
Work plane
Condenser
Ww Wg
Cooling tower
Evaporator
Water chiller
Figure 1.
Row(s) of luminaires
Requirements on other part of the air-conditioning
system.
h
Absorption chillers It was envisaged that only waste heat
was and would be used to run absorption chillers in Thailand.
There was no need to account for the energy use in the whole
building energy compliance procedure. Minimum coefficients
of performance were set at 0.65 for single effect and 1.1 for
double effect chillers respectively. Rating condition was chosen
1.5 h
Work plane level
Figure 2 Configuration of an accredited daylighted space.
4
Photovoltaic (PV) power generation Accreditation is given
to expected electricity to be generated from photovoltaic power
system. This can be used to discount whole building energy use
calculated from a relationship to be presented in the next
section. For a given PV system with system efficiency s,
expected annual electricity generated is calculated from
Epv =
9*365*
Rated Energy Requirement of the Reference Building. A
reference building model of the same shape, same floor area,
same envelope area and same orientation is set up when the
whole building energy compliance option is required. The
model possesses air-conditioned zones and unconditioned
spaces identical to those of the proposed building design. Each
zone and each space comprises equipment power density
(EQD), density of occupancy (OCCU), and ventilation rate
(VENT) identical to those in the zones and spaces of the
proposed building design. However, the OTTVs of the walls
and RTTVs of the roofs in all facades of the reference building
uniformly comply with required values of OTTV and required
values of RTTV of building of that category. Lighting power
density in each zone and space takes on a common lighting
power density value LPDc that complies with the relevant
minimum performance requirements of the relevant category of
building.
The coefficient of performance of each airconditioning system serving a space i, COPci, complies with the
required standard performance of the given type and size. The
rated energy requirement of the reference building model is to
be calculated from the following formulation
s*ESR,
where ESR is effective solar radiation. Its value for a given
inclined plane in any direction is obtainable from Table 6.
Table 6 Values of effective solar radiation for calculation of
electricity from PV generation.
Inclination
angle
" #
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i 1
i j
3.3 Whole Building Energy Compliance
If one or more of the three systems of a proposed building
design cannot comply with the corresponding system
performance requirement, then the developer can submit the
proposed building design to be assessed under the whole
building energy compliance procedure.
Rated Energy Requirement of a Proposed Building
Design. The rated energy requirement of the proposed building
design is calculated from the following relationship
n
E pa
i 1
i j
Ai
Awi OTTVi
Ari RTTVi
COPi
COPi
Cl LPDi
Ce EQDi
Ai
Cl ( LPDc ) Ce ( EQDi ) 130Co (OCCU i )
COPci
24Cv (VENTi )
nh
n
Ai ( LPDc
EQDi )nh
i 1
The proposed building design is considered to comply under
whole building energy requirement when Epa is less than or
equal to Epc.
130Co OCCUi
24Cv VENTi
nh
n
EQDi nh
i 1
The first summation in the expression above accounts for rated
air-conditioning energy for a year, and the second summation
accounts for the energy consumed directly by lighting and other
equipment. The summation includes all air-conditioned zones
and unconditioned spaces, and accounts for the corresponding
area of each space. No air-conditioning energy is contributed
from unconditioned spaces. The values of coefficients of
thermal power contribution to the load of the air-conditioning
systems by lighting, equipment, occupants and ventilation: Cl,
Ce, Co, and Cv are given in Table 7. The rated energy
requirements of a building accounts for energy use during the
nominal operating hour, nh, of the given building category only.
The number of operating hours of each building category is also
given in Table 1.
Table 7 Values of coefficients of thermal power contribution of
each type of building.
Building Category
Office and School
Department store, hypermarket, and
miscellaneous
Hotel, hospital, condominium, and
hostel
Ari ( RTTVc )
COPci
4. ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY AND
POWER DEMAND SAVINGS
COPi
Ai LCDi
Awi (OTTVc )
COPci
Cl
0.84
Ce
0.85
Co
0.90
Cv
0.90
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
5
The new code is scheduled to apply in full to new very
large buildings (NVLB). For a new large building (NLB), only
its envelope is subject to the requirements of the new BEC. For
both types of buildings, it is required that the purpose of the use
of a new building must be declared. For an NVLB or NLB,
submitted information for construction permission is complete
for assessment of compliance with the new BEC.
The methodology we will use is as follows. Relevant data
from an energy audit database for each type of and each of the
two sizes commercial building is extracted. The data are then
used to find values of parameters relevant to energy use for
lighting, air-conditioning, and other end-uses of each building
type and each size. These parameters are used to either form a
building model of each building type and size, or are used to
adjust other parameters so that each building model possesses
features that are consistent with the values of these parameters.
The resulting models are called base case models. The OTTV,
RTTV, lighting power-density and performance parameters of
the air-conditioning system of each base case model are then
changed to comply with those required by BEC. The annual
energy (kWh) and peak power demand (kW) of each model
using code complying parameter values are now obtained as if
these are energy values of a code complying building. This is
called the ‘code’ case. We also use our prior experience to
change OTTV, RTTV, and other parameters to higher
performance levels that offer even lower life cycle costs than
those of the code complying models. This case is called the
“economic” case. We also calculate energy and power demand
savings of the code complying case and of the economic case for
each type and size of building. We identify the number and size
of very large buildings (VLBs) from the energy audit database.
From data obtained from the power distribution utilities, we
identify energy consumption of very large buildings (VLBs) and
large buildings (LBs) of each building type. Subtracting
consumption of very large buildings we then obtain energy
consumption of each type of LBs. We assume the year 2007 as
the year that NVLBs and NLBs must comply with BEC. Load
growths from VLBs and LBs beyond the year 2007 are
identified as loads due to NVLBs and NLBs. We consider two
scenarios of energy savings, the code or standard case and the
promotion case. We calculate annual savings and cumulative
savings for both scenarios for the year 2016, which is the last
year of the present power development planning period.
Theses are office, hotel, hospital, department store, school or
educational institute, miscellaneous (This. includes restaurants
and other entertainment places.), condominium and hostel, and
hypermarket. Energy audits have been conducted since early
1996. It is expected that the database includes information from
reports conducted up to 2003. The date of report submission
and ages of buildings are unavailable. We assume that the
information in Table 8 is applicable to recent buildings.
Number of Very Large Buildings The database also
contains information on the area of each building audited. From
such information, the number and other information of existing
VLBs are obtained as shown in Table 9. Most VLBs are
situated in the Metropolitan area (Bangkok and three
surrounding provinces) served by the Metropolitan Electricity
Authority (MEA), while few are situated in remaining part of
Thailand served by the Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA).
4.1 Energy Audit Base 5
This is the database of information extracted from energy audit
reports of designated buildings (DBs). The present byelaws of
ECP Act define DBs as those commercial customers of the
electric utilities that require 1,000 kW or more of electric power
or are connected to the distribution supply with transformers of
capacity 1,250 kVA or higher. A customer in this category may
own one large or many small buildings and is connected to the
utility with one meter.
The existing bye-laws also required that each DB
conducted an energy audit, to be assisted by a registered
consultant. The costs all energy audits have been born by the
ENCON Fund. Up to 1,800 DBs have been audited. Each audit
report must be approved by the Department for Alternative
Energy Development and Energy Efficiency. The Department
compiles information from the audit reports into databases. One
of the more detailed database is coded Audit Base 5. There are
over 1,500 entries pertaining to over 1,500 individual DBs in
this database. Data from Audit Base 5 is sorted for eight types
of commercial buildings.
Summary Information from Audit Base 5 Table 8 exhibits
summary information on the eight types of DBs.
Table 9 Number of very large buildings (VLBs) of each type of
buildings.
Building type
Office
Hotel
Hospital
Department store
School
Miscellaneous
Condominium
Hypermarket
Item
AC energy/AC area,
Light energy/used area ,
Other energy/used area,
Total energy/used area,
AC area/total area
AC energy/total energy
Lighting energy/total energy
OTTV
RTTV
AC performance -split type
-window type
-package type
-chillers
Unit
-1
kWhm-2.Y-1
kWhm-2.Y
-1
kWhm-2.Y
-1
kWhm-2.Y
Wm
Wm-2
kW/RFT
kW/RFT
kW/RFT
kW/RFT
Office
115.20
12.87
58.71
102.93
0.28
0.41
0.22
55.54
33.86
1.51
1.83
1.38
1.02
Misc.
216.54
26.02
43.16
117.53
0.32
0.43
0.20
60.58
27.53
NA
NA
NA
NA
Condo
168.06
12.23
16.65
66.05
0.26
0.58
0.22
49.97
17.37
0.20
NA
NA
NA
-2
Dept
184.93
56.20
76.74
268.66
0.68
0.52
0.22
45.25
20.86
1.48
NA
1.06
0.71
School
76.22
11.05
6.29
37.28
0.27
0.53
0.32
55.61
29.09
1.51
2.03
NA
1.07
&
MEA
183
65
37
52
3
11
40
50
Region
PEA
2
65
42
30
6
15
4
20
Total
185
130
79
82
9
26
44
70
4.2 Building Models
Creating models of commercial buildings is the second step in
the assessment process. The energy relationship described in
Section 3.1 and the equation shown in Section 3.3 are used as
bases for forming the models. Diversity factors that account for
diversity of lighting use, equipment use and space use are
utilized for adjusting the energy outputs from the models to
match with those from Table 8. Table 10 list values of some
physical parameters for a model of department store of usable
area of 29,530 m2. This model represents a very large
department store building.
Hotel
143.18
27.02
27.95
148.44
0.65
0.64
0.19
51.40
23.35
1.64
1.76
NA
1.09
Table 10 Values of physical parameters for the model of
department store.
Item
5-storey, height 6m/floor, dimension
80mx50m
Total area of roof, Ar (m2)
Total wall area, Aw (m2)
Total usable area, At (m2)
Total area of air-conditioned space, Afac
Un-conditioned area, Au (m2)
Ratio of wall area to A/C floor area,
Ratio of roof area to A/C floor area,
Table 8 (continued)
Item Hospital
1
162.14
2
24.07
3
25.83
4
115.98
5
0.41
6
0.56
7
0.22
8
57.21
9
31.01
10
1.59
11
NA
12
1.30
13
0.75
&&
Area
m2
'
'
' &
'
'&
'
'
'
From the identified VLBs, summary information similar to
those in Table 8 were also extracted and used to form a model
for each of the eight types of VLBs.
Table 8 Summary information related to energy indexes of each
type of DBs.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Energy
kWhm-2
Hyper
165.43
84.77
136.17
359.63
0.72
0.39
0.24
36.26
22.91
0.20
1.45
NA
2.08
Values
5,906
7,685
29,530
25,369
4,161
0.30
0.23
Table 11 lists values of relevant energy parameters of the
building model for three cases. For the base case, values of
OTTV, RTTV, lighting power density, air-conditioning
performance parameters, and others are extracted from Energy
Audit Base 5 for the case of VLBs. These values from summary
audit information are used to adjust input parameters of the
model such as lighting power density, equipment power density,
so that the resultant values of output parameters from the model
match with those from the database.
6
Table 11 Values of input parameters for a model of department
store, for three cases: base, code compliance, and economic.
Envelope
OTTV (W.m-2)
RTTV (W.m-2)
Air-conditioning
Chiller, COP
Other part, COP
System, COP
Lighting
Lighting power density in A/C area, LPDa (W.m-2)
Diversity factor lighting in A/C area, Dfla
Lighting in un-conditioned space, LPDu (Wm-2)
Equipment
Equipment power density in A/C area, EQDa
(W.m-2)
Diversity factor for equipment in A/C space, Dfeu
Equipment power density for un-cond space, EQDu
(W.m-2)
Occupancy
Occupancy in A/C space (Wm-2)
Diversity of occupants in A/C area, Dfoa
Ventilation (l.m-2.s-1)
Night (off-time) light & security power, Pn (W/m-2)
Lighting (Wm-2)
Equipment (Wm-2)
Work hours, Noh
Night (off-time) hours, Nnh
43.6 40.00 20.60
17.6 12.00 12.00
4.95 5.41
5.02 7.03
2.49 3.06
6.39
8.79
3.70
27.30 18.00 14.00
0.80 0.80 0.80
6.26 6.26 5.00
19.50 19.50 18.00
20.00
0.80
1.00
2.95
2.25
0.70
4380
4380
0.90
5.00
Code
2987.5
394.3
152.0
63.2
254.1
Code
Econ
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
Time (hour)
Figure 3 Resultant load shapes for the department store model
for three cases: base, code compliance, and economic.
20.00 20.00
Summary Energy Consumption from Models Sixteen
0.80 0.80
1.00 1.00 models, each similar to that of the foregoing example, were
2.56 2.56 formed. Eight models for eight types of VLBs and eight models
2.00 2.00 for eight types of LBs were used to produce results shown in
0.56 0.56 Table 13. The results will be used for assessment of macro4380 4380
level savings. Power demand for each building type, for each
4380 4380
case, and for both VLBs and VBs are also obtained from the
models but not shown here.
Table 13 Values of energy consumption index from building
models.
Large buildings,
Medium buildings,
kWh/m2
kWh/m2
Base Code Econ Base Env Econ
Office
146.4 98.7 82.3 102.9 98.4 69.3
Hotel
173.2 117.0 101.7 148.4 138.1 102.9
Hospital 148.8 123.9 112.0 116.0 108.3 89.7
Dept store 556.0 394.3 368.0 268.7 256.9 168.3
School
94.0 79.3 67.2 37.3 35.0 25.0
Misc
139.7 117.2 100.0 117.5 97.9 67.5
Condo
118.4 105.3 92.7 66.0 62.4 52.0
Hyper
394.7 300.9 248.7 359.6 322.3 221.3
Note Env refers to the case where building envelope only complies with
requirements.
Building
type
4.3 Energy and Power Demand of Existing Buildings
The database, Audit Base 5, contains information on
buildings audited from 1996 to around 2004. We assume the
database contains energy information pertaining to year 2001,
that we take as our reference year. From the number of VLBs
and base case energy consumption identified and as shown in
Table 9, we calculate total base case energy consumption of
each type of these VLBs. The database of MEA and PEA
contains information on aggregate energy consumption of each
type of VLBs and LBs for year 2001. The total consumption of
each type of VLBs obtained is used to subtract from the
aggregate consumption from MEA and PEA database to obtain
energy consumption of each type of LBs for year 2001. These
base case results are shown in Table 14.
The value of power demand obtained from the department
store model such as that given in Table 12 is taken as
proportionate to energy consumption from the building model.
This proportion is used with value of energy consumption of the
department store group to obtain power demand for this group
of VLBs. The same procedure is used to obtain power demand
of other types of VLBs and LBs.
Table 12 Values of energy output parameters from the model
for the three cases.
Base
4036.0
555.9
200.3
129.6
254.1
Reference
1400
0
0.90 0.90
5.00 5.00
For the ‘code’ case, values of OTTV, RTTV, lighting power
density, and others correspond to those required by the BEC. In
the ‘economic’ case, insulation is applied economically to
opaque wall to reduce the OTTV to 20.6 Wm-2. Efficient
fluorescent lamps and electronic ballasts are assumed used in
this case to give a lighting power density of 14 Wm-2. High
performance chillers with well-planned air and water delivery
systems are also assumed used so as to render coefficient of
performance of air-conditioning system of 3.7.
Table 12 presents summary results from the model. For the
department store model, the ‘code case’ shows significant
savings due mainly to substantial improvement in lighting. Airconditioning system also improves and contributes to the overall
savings. The ‘economic’ case improves over the ‘code’ case to
some extent. For department store, the OTTV is generally small.
As shown in the case here, implementation of BEC will not lead
to significant improvement of its OTTV.
Item
Power demand, kW
Total kWh/used area
AC kWh/AC area
Light kWh/used area
Others kWh/used area
Power demand profiles
Base Code Econ
Power demand (kW)
Item
Economic
2813.9
367.9
121.0
44.7
254.1
Information from a load shape study published by the National
Energy Policy Office, [18], was used to construct load shape of
the load for our department store model. The result is shown in
Figure 3.
The load shape for the ‘code’ case shows substantial
reduction in electric power demand when compared to that of
the base case. This result clearly illustrates that energy
efficiency due to implementation of BEC, and promotion
program to pull it beyond code level accrue benefits both in
terms of electric energy savings and electric power demand
savings. The latter savings will reduce requirements for
additional power generating plant. For a developing economy
where electric load grows at substantial level annually, this can
lead to significant national savings.
7
Table 14 Energy consumption and power demand of base case
VLBs and LBs in 2001, with energy and power demand of
MEA, PEA and EGAT.
Item
EGAT Energy Generation, GWh
EGAT Power Demand, MW
MEA
Energy Demand, GWh
Power Demand, MW
Building type
Office
Hotel
Hospital
Department store
Education
Misc
Condominium
Hypermart
Total, GWh
Total, MW
PEA
Energy Demand, GWh
Power Demand, MW
Building type
Office
Hotel
Hospital
Department store
Education
Misc
Condominium
Hypermart
Total, GWh
Total, MW
power and energy generation figures of EGAT already account
for transmission losses.
For the year 2007, we assume that the energy and power
demand of VLBs and LBs will grow proportionately to the load
growth of MEA, PEA, and EGAT. We assume that the new
BEC is implemented in 2007. All NVLBs and NLBs from the
year 2008 onwards comply with the new BEC. The forecasted
total loads and those of VLBs and LBs for the year 2007 are
shown in Table 15.
Energy consumption from the VLBs and LBs grow
substantially from those in the year 2001. These consumption
and demand are all at the frozen efficiency levels of 2001. In
MEA region, electricity consumption by VLBs and LBs
accounts for 23% of the total. In PEA region, the proportion is
10%. For the whole system, the proportion is 13%.
Year 2001
103869
16126
VLBs
1099.0
425.2
175.8
82.1
5.6
58.6
126.4
513.4
2486.0
594.9
35323
6229
LBs
2349.4
536.9
522.0
522.0
451.9
376.0
396.6
0.0
5154.8
972.3
Total
3448.4
962.0
561.9
1082.6
457.5
434.6
522.9
513.4
7983.4
1567.2
VLBs
12.0
425.2
199.5
16.4
11.2
158.3
12.6
205.4
1040.6
164.8
60963.2
9456.3
LBs
1492.3
837.2
500.8
775.7
699.1
398.7
223.4
0.0
4927.3
1002.8
Total
1504.3
1262.4
700.3
792.2
710.2
557.1
236.1
205.4
5967.9
1167.6
4.4 Energy and Power Demand Savings
We consider two scenarios of energy and power demand savings
as a result implementation of the new BEC. These are the Code
Scenario and the Promotion Scenario.
Code Scenario In this scenario, NVLBs must comply fully
with requirements of new BEC, while NLBs comply only with
the envelope requirements. All existing VLBs and LBs
consume energy at the base level. Table 16 shows these
requirements on all commercial buildings.
Table 16 Requirements on NVLBs and NLBs for the Code
Scenario.
Buildings
Sums of power demand values of all groups are reported at the
last row where total energy consumptions appear one row
above, both for MEA and PEA areas, in Table 14. Energy and
power demand of the whole service areas of MEA and PEA are
shown in the table for comparison.
New
Existing
Year 2007
158212
24344
VLBs
1539.2
595.4
246.2
115.0
7.8
82.0
177.0
719.0
3481.6
833.1
49469
8752
LBs
3290.3
751.9
731.0
731.0
632.9
526.6
555.4
0.0
7219.2
1361.7
Total
4829.4
1347.3
786.9
1516.1
640.7
608.7
732.4
719.0
11180.6
2194.8
VLBs
19.4
686.6
322.2
26.5
18.0
255.7
20.4
331.7
1680.6
266.2
98455
14853
LBs
2410.0
1352.1
808.8
1252.8
1129.0
643.9
360.9
0.0
7957.5
1619.5
Total
2429.4
2038.8
1131.0
1279.3
1147.0
899.7
381.3
331.7
9638.1
1885.7
Large
Envelope
only
Base
Table 18 shows the results of energy and power demand savings
for this case in the year 2016. In the table, the values in the
columns under ‘Old base’ represent energy and power demand
of existing or old VLBs and LBs, frozen since 2008, The values
in the column under “New code’ correspond to those from
NVLBs that comply with the full requirements of the code,
while those under ‘New env case’ correspond to those from LBs
that comply with the envelope requirements. The values under
‘Code savings’ for NVLBs and those under ‘Env savings’ for
NLBs are energy and power demand savings from NVLBs and
NLBs that comply with the new BEC.
Total system savings of energy and power demand appear
in the upper right hand corner of Table 18, under ‘Savings for
year 2016’ The savings on EGAT’s system are obtained from
adjusted savings from MEA and PEA loads using a factor that
accounts for transmission losses. Resulting energy saving is
2753.5 GWh and power demand saving is 292.9 MW. The
cumulative energy savings from the year 2008 to the year 2016
is also shown to be 8274.2 GWh. Such savings would results
from mandatory implementation of new BEC that requires
minimal investment from the state.
This scenario would result from strict adherence to
implementation of mandatory BEC by the state while building
developers try to minimize initial investment costs. This is not
very realistic.
Promotion Scenario In this scenario it is assumed that
there are promotional programs by the state so that some
developers of new buildings are convinced of life cycle benefits
and costs and choose economic or lower life cycle costs options
for the envelope, lighting, and air-conditioning systems. Most
developers still comply only with the minimum requirements of
BEC. Also, proprietors of some existing buildings decide to
retrofit their buildings to achieve economic level when the lives
Table 15 Energy consumption and power demand of base case
VLBs and LBs in 2007.
Item
EGAT Energy Generation, GWh
EGAT Power Demand, MW
MEA
Energy Demand, GWh
Power Demand, MW
Building type
Office
Hotel
Hospital
Department store
Education
Misc
Condominium
Hypermart
Total, GWh
Total, MW
PEA
Energy Demand, GWh
Power Demand, MW
Building type
Office
Hotel
Hospital
Department store
Education
Misc
Condominium
Hypermart
Total, GWh
Total, MW
Very Large
Envelope, lighting, airconditioning, and hot water
Base
The energy and power generation required on the
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT), the
generation utility, are also shown at the top of Table 14. The
8
of some building systems end.
assumptions used in this case.
Table 17 summarizes the
Total energy and power demand savings for the year are
5724.7 GWh and 1121.5 MW respectively.
These are
equivalent to 2% of energy or power demand in that year.
Cumulative energy savings from 2008 amounts to 21,208.7
GWh, which is about 7.5% of energy demand in 2016.
Table 17 Assumptions used in the ‘Promotion’ scenario.
Buildings
Year
2010
New
2016
Existing
2010
2016
Very Large
Buildings
85% Code
15% Economic
60% Code
40% Economic
10% Economic
25% Economic
Large buildings
80% Envelope
20% Economic
55% Envelope
45% Economic
15% Economic
40% Economic
5 CONCLUSION
We have presented the components of the revised BEC of
Thailand. We also have described steps in the assessment and
presented results from assessment of energy efficiency benefits
from implementation of the code. Two scenarios are used in the
assessment. The first scenario is very basic and conservative.
The second scenario is more optimistic. However, information
from Audit Base 5 shows that there are still fewer very large
buildings outside of Metropolitan Bangkok. The percentages of
air-conditioned areas in buildings outside Bangkok are also
relatively low for most types of buildings. Unfortunately, airconditioning will increasingly penetrate into buildings and
dwellings. Without serious energy conservation effort, the
increasing level of energy consumption due in part to
consumption by commercial buildings can threaten our energy
sustainability.
The promulgation of the ECP Act and the corresponding
bye-law together with the establishment of the ENCON Fund
gave rise to considerable expectation of systematic and
progressive execution energy conservation activities.
Unfortunately we have not witnessed efforts that match our
expectations. Ten years have passed but we might be heading
back towards the situation in the formative years in 1980s. This
paper is intended to convince readers that the potential for
savings is there, but it needs earnest implementation to achieve
these savings.
Table 19 shows the results for the year 2016. It is assumed that
more economic options are chosen for large buildings than for
very large buildings and that promotional programs are
successful so that economic options are increasingly chosen,
both for new buildings and for retrofitted buildings.
There are five columns of values under ‘Very Large
Buildings’. The values in the first column among these five
represent energy and power demand of buildings existing from
2007 at frozen energy efficiency. The values in the second
column represent those from new buildings (completed during
2008 and 2016) at base (or present) energy efficiency levels.
The values in the third column represent savings in 2016 from
25% (as assumed in Tabl1 17) of existing buildings that have
been retrofitted at economic level. The values in column four
represent savings form 60% of new buildings that comply with
the code. The values in the last column represent savings from
40% of new buildings that are constructed with systems rated at
economic efficiency levels.
Those values in the five columns under ‘Large Buildings’
are similar to those in the previous five columns except that new
large buildings either comply with the envelope requirements of
the code or their systems are at economic efficiency levels.
Table 18 Energy and power demand of very large and large buildings in 2016 under ‘Code’ scenario.
Item
EGAT Energy Generation, GWh
EGAT Power Demand, MW
Energy Demand, GWh
Power Demand, MW
Building type
Office
Hotel
Hospital
Department store
Education
Misc
Condominium
Hypermart
Total, GWh
Total, MW
Energy Demand, GWh
Power Demand, MW
Building type
Office
Hotel
Hospital
Department store
Education
Misc
Condominium
Hypermart
Total, GWh
Total, MW
Value
282488Savings in year 2016
2753.5
43558
292.9
Cumulative savings from 2008
8274.2
MEA
84882
15029
Very Large Buildings
Large Buildings
Old
New
Code
Old
New
Env
Base
Code Savings
Base Env case Savings
1539.2
742.6
359.2 3290.3 2250.6
104.7
595.4
287.9
138.3
751.9
500.7
37.5
246.2
146.7
29.5
731.0
488.6
34.8
115.0
58.4
23.9
731.0
500.5
22.8
7.8
4.7
0.9
632.9
424.9
28.2
82.0
49.3
9.4
526.6
313.9
63.1
177.0
112.8
13.9
555.4
375.4
22.2
719.0
392.4
122.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
3481.6 1794.9
697.5 7219.2 4854.7
313.3
833.1
429.5
166.9
816.0
548.7
35.4
PEA
184024
27608
Old
New
Code
Old
New
Env
Base
Code Savings
Base
Env
Savings
19.4
11.4
5.5 2410.0 6263.7
291.5
686.6
403.1
193.6 1352.1 3421.5
256.3
322.2
233.2
46.9
808.8 2053.8
146.1
26.5
16.3
6.7 1252.8 3258.9
148.7
18.0
13.2
2.4 1129.0 2879.7
191.0
255.7
186.6
35.7
643.9 1458.4
293.1
20.4
15.8
2.0
360.9
926.8
54.7
331.7
219.8
68.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
1680.6 1099.3
361.3 7957.5 20262.9 1381.4
266.2
174.1
57.2
816.0 2077.8
141.7
9
GWh
MW
GWh
Total
Savings
463.9
175.8
64.3
46.8
29.1
72.5
36.1
122.3
1010.8
114.2
Total
Savings
297.0
450.0
193.0
155.4
193.5
328.8
56.7
68.5
1742.7
178.7
Table 19 Energy and power demand of very large and large buildings in 2016 under the ‘Promotion’ scenario.
Item
EGAT Energy Generation, GWh
EGAT Power Demand, MW
282488
43558
Value
Savings in year 2016
Cumulative savings from 2008
MEA
5724.7 GWh
1121.5 MW
21208.73 GWh
Energy Demand, GWh
Power Demand, MW
84882
15029
Very Large Buildings
Large Buildings
Total
Building type Old
New
Old Econ New Code New Econ Old
New
Old Econ New Env New Econ Savings
Base
Base
Savings Savings Savings Base
Base Savings Savings Savings
Office
1539.2 1101.8
168.4
215.5
192.9 3290.3 2359.8
430.0
57.7
347.0 1411.5
Hotel
595.4 426.3
61.4
83.0
70.4 751.9 539.2
92.2
20.7
74.4 402.1
Hospital
246.2 176.2
15.2
17.7
17.4 731.0 524.3
66.3
19.1
53.5 189.4
Department store
115.0
82.3
9.7
14.4
11.1 731.0 524.3
109.2
12.6
88.1 245.1
Education
7.8
5.6
0.6
0.5
0.6 632.9 453.9
83.5
15.5
67.4 168.2
Misc
82.0
58.7
5.8
5.7
6.7 526.6 377.7
89.7
34.8
72.3 214.9
Condominium
177.0 126.7
9.6
8.4
11.0 555.4 398.3
47.3
12.2
38.1 126.6
Hypermart
719.0 514.7
42.7
73.4
48.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 165.0
Total, GWh
3481.6 2492.4
313.5
418.5
359.1 7219.2 5177.7
918.2
172.6
740.9 2922.8
Total, MW
833.1 596.4
75.0
100.1
85.9 1361.7 976.6
219.7
32.6
139.7 551.3
PEA
Energy Demand, GWh
184024
Power Demand, MW
27608
Old
New
Old Econ New Code New Econ Old
New
Old Econ New Env New Econ Total
Base
Base
Savings Savings Savings Base Base Savings Savings Savings
Building type
Savings
Office
19.4
16.7
2.1
3.3
2.9 2410.0 2069.6
315.0
50.6
304.3 678.2
Hotel
686.6 589.7
70.9
114.8
97.3 1352.1 1161.1
165.8
44.5
160.2 653.5
Hospital
322.2 276.7
19.9
27.8
27.4 808.8 694.5
73.4
25.4
70.9 244.7
Department store
26.5
22.8
2.2
4.0
3.1 1252.8 1075.8
187.1
25.8
180.8 403.1
Education
18.0
15.5
1.3
1.5
1.8 1129.0 969.5
149.0
33.2
143.9 330.6
Misc
255.7 219.6
18.1
21.2
24.9 643.9 553.0
109.6
50.9
105.9 330.7
Condominium
20.4
17.5
1.1
1.2
1.5 360.9 309.9
30.7
9.5
29.7
73.7
Hypermart
331.7 284.8
19.7
40.6
27.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
87.4
Total, GWh
1680.6 1443.2
135.4
214.2
186.0 7957.5 6833.5
1030.7
239.9
995.7 2801.9
Total, MW
266.2 228.6
32.4
51.3
44.5 1619.5 1390.8
246.6
48.8
202.7 570.2
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10