International Journal of Geosciences, 2023, 14, 935-954
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ijg
ISSN Online: 2156-8367
ISSN Print: 2156-8359
Post Impact of Hydrocarbon Spillage on
Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy Metals
in the Santa Barbara River, Nembe, Bayelsa
State
Amararu Onyema Isukul1, Godwin Jeremiah Udom2, Richmond Uwanemesor Ideozu2
1
Institute of Natural Resources, Environment & Sustainable Development (INRES), Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
2
How to cite this paper: Isukul, A.O., Udom,
G.J. and Ideozu, R.U. (2023) Post Impact of
Hydrocarbon Spillage on Physicochemical
Parameters and Heavy Metals in the Santa
Barbara River, Nembe, Bayelsa State. International Journal of Geosciences, 14, 935-954.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2023.1410050
Received: June 13, 2023
Accepted: October 21, 2023
Published: October 24, 2023
Copyright © 2023 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access
Abstract
The work of the paper focused on the post impact of oil spill contamination of
groundwater in Bassambiri Nembe Bayelsa State. Groundwater samples were
sampled from hand dug wells from eight stations including the control point
for physico-chemical investigation using sterilized glass bottles. Sampling was
carried out upstream and downstream on the Santa Barbara River across the
stations and the results are as follows surface water pH ranged 6.90 - 7.50,
electrical conductivity 19739.41 µS/cm - 28920.64 µS/cm and Chloride 6019.63
- 9274.82 mg/l. The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) varied from 10472.72 mg/l 16538.19 mg/l dissolved oxygen (DO) 6.21 mg/l - 7.371 mg/l while the mean
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 0.09 ± 0.52 mg/l - 2.4 ± 0.81 mg/l, temperature 28.04˚C - 31.79˚C while total alkalinity is 43.95 mg/L -73.87 mg/L.
Calcium ion ranged 375.68 mg/l - 536.72 mg/l, Magnesium ion 88.35 - 243.24
mg/l and Potassium ion 41.27 - 121.17 mg/l. The results of the study showed
that the pH, salinity, alkalinity, total suspended solids (TSS), Chlorides, Phosphates, and Nitrates are within permissible limits of the WHO, however the
electrical conductivity, TDS, turbidity, DO, BOD, and hardness exceeded WHO
permissible limits for drinking water. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH)
and Heavy metals had low concentrations in the Santa Barbara River across
the study area suggesting that surface water is not polluted. However, the
surfactants used initially to contain the oil pollution were effective based on
this research.
Keywords
Post Impact, Oil Spillage, Physiochemical Parameters, Santa Barbara
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1. Introduction
Oil spillage is believed to be one of the principal environmental problems associated with the petroleum industry in Nigeria, which is carried out in both onshore and offshore of the Niger Delta [1]. According to the [2] over 1500 abandoned oil spills sites are located within the Central, Western and Eastern axis of
the Niger Delta. Oil spill incidents that happened between 1976 and 1996 about
4674 recorded spilling of two million three hundred and sixty-nine thousand
four hundred and seventy (2369, 470) barrels of crude oil with 77% lost to the
environment. Out of the lost crude oil, land spills accounted for 6%, swamps,
25% and 69% in offshore environments [3]. Pollution from oil spills and industrial effluents has the potential to harm both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
[4]. Petroleum hydrocarbons is one of the major pollutants frequently discharged into the coastal waters, though not usually regulated as hazardous
wastes [5]. Crude oil spills may result in heavy metal contamination of the vegetation and their uptake through consumption of crops threatens public health
and ecosystem functions [6]. The ingestion of these heavy metals at unsafe levels
could result in acute and chronic effects such as impaired growth [7]. In the
Niger Delta region, low heavy metal accumulation has been reported in Elechi
Creek and Lower Bonny River [8] and [9]. Anthropogenic activities may significantly increase heavy metal contamination of the environment thus posing risks
to living organisms [10]. Toxic effects of metals occur when the rate of uptake
exceeds the rates of physiological or biochemical detoxification and excretion
[11]. Heavy metals are high priority pollutants because of their relatively high
toxic and persistence in the environment thus, are used as indicators of pollution
in natural settings [12]. The aim of this research is to assess the post impact of
hydrocarbon spillage on the physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in
Santa Barbara River, Bassambiri-Nembe, Bayelsa State. The study area, lies
within South Brass and East Odiama Creeks of Nembe Southeast of Bayelsa
State, Nigeria (6˚24'0"E and 6˚34'30"E, 4˚34'30"N and 4˚28'30"N). The Santa
Barbara River meanders through the thick brackish mangrove forest terrain of
the study area, intersected by interconnected secondary tributaries that empty
into the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 1).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection
Surface water samples were collected from Santa Barbara River using sterilized
glass bottles—upstream and downstream on the Santa Barbara River. Samples
were collected upstream from station 1 to 4 at intervals of 200 meters and then
from station 5 to 9 with varying distances downstream, upstream and control
point. Immediately after the collection of each sample, sample bottles were appropriately labeled and immediately stored in an ice chest. The samples were
thereafter transported to the laboratory within 24 hours for analysis. Sample
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Figure 1. Location of the Study Area Showing Sample Points, Map insert (Nigeria and map indicating Bayelsa State) and Legend
(after [13]).
storage was carried out according to standard laboratory practices as recommended by the American Public Health Association [14]. A total of one hundred
and twenty (120) water samples in four replicates from 10 sample stations and
from a control point were analyzed for the physiochemical parameters that were
geo-referenced using a handheld Global Positioning System (GPS).
2.2. Analysis of Physiochemical Characteristics and Heavy Metals
The physical and chemical parameters analyzed are temperature, (pH), electrical
conductivity, salinity, TDS, DO, and BOD. The methods used are as described
by [14].
Turbdity
Test Method: Nephelometric Method
Standard Reference: APHA 2130B: Apparatus used: HACH 2100P Turbidimeter
Calculation:
Nephelometric turbidity units ( NTU ) =
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A× (B + C)
C
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where A = NTU found in the diluted ample;
B = Volume of dilution water, ml;
C = sample volume taken for dilution, ml.
TDS
Test Method: Total Dissolved Solids; Dried At 180˚C (Gravimetric Method)
Standard Reference: Apha 2540 C
Calculation:
Total Dissolved solids ( mg L ) =
(W1 − W2 ) × 1000
Sample volume ( ml )
where:
W1 = Weight of dried residue + dish;
W2 = Weight of empty dish.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Test Method: Total Suspended Solids Dried at 103˚C - 105˚C (Gravimetric
method)
Standard Reference: APHA 2540 D
Calculation:
Total Suspended solids ( mg L ) =
(W1 − W2 ) × 1000
Sample volume ( ml )
where:
w1 = Weight of dried residue + dish;
w2 = Weight of empty dish.
Alkalinity
Test Method: - Titrimetric method
Standard Reference: - APHA 2320B
Calculation:
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, as mg CaCO3 L =
A × N × 50000
ml sample
where:
A = mL of standard acid used;
N = normality of standard acid.
Total Alkalinity
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, as mg CaCO3 L =
B × N × 50000
ml sample
where:
B = total mL of titrant used to methyl orange or bromcresol green end point;
N = normality of standard acid.
Hardness
Standard Reference: APHA 2340C
Method: EDTA Titrimetric method
Calculation:
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Hardness ( EDTA ) as mg CaCO3 L =
A × B × 1000
mL sample
where:
A = mL titration for sample and;
B = mg CaCO3 equivalent to 1.00 mL EDTA titrant.
Calcium
Standard Reference: APHA 3500-Ca-B
Method: EDTA Titrimetric method.
Calculation:
mg Ca L =
A × B × 400.8
mL sample
Calcium hardness as mg CaCO3 L =
A × B × 1000
mL sample
where:
A = mL titrant for sample and;
B = mg CaCO3 equivalent to 1.00 mL EDTA titrant at the calcium indicator
end Point.
Magnesium
Standard Reference: APHA 3500-Mg-B
Method: Calculation from total hardness and calcium.
Calculation:
mg mg/L = [total hardness (as mg CaCO3/L) − calcium hardness (as mg CaCO3/L)] × 0.243
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5)
Standard Reference: APHA 5210 B
Test Method: 5-Day BOD Test.
Calculation:
BOD5 (mg/L) = [DO1 − DO0]/B
where:
DO0 = initial dissolved oxygen (immediately after preparation);
DO1 = final dissolved oxygen (after 5 days of incubation);
B = Fraction of sample used.
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Standard Reference: APHA 5220 C
Test Method: Closed Reflux—Titrimetric method.
Calculation
COD ( mg l, as O 2 ) =
( Blank Titer − Sample Titer ) × Molarity of FAS × 8000
Sample Volume
where:
A = mL FAS used for blank;
B = mL FAS used for sample;
M = molarity of FAS, and;
8000 = milli equivalent weight of oxygen × 1000 mL/L.
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Chloride
Test Method: Argentometric Titrimetric Method
Standard Reference: APHA 4500 Cl− - B
Calculation:
( A − B ) × N × 35450
mg Cl− L =
mL sample
where:
A = mL titration for sample;
B = mL titration for blank;
N = normality of AgNO3.
2.3. Determination of Heavy Metals
Standard Reference: APHA 3111B
Test Method: Air-acetylene Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Method.
The Air-acetylene Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Method was used for
heavy metal determination. Calibration analysis was carried out by diluting 1000
ppm stock solution of the individual elements (Pb, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co and Mn)
while three standard working solutions were prepared from the stocks (ranging
from 0.1 mg/L - 10 mg/L).
3. Results and Discussion
The results of the physicochemical characteristics and heavy metal analysis are
presented in Figures 2-7.
3.1. Physicochemical Parameters of Santa Barbara River
The physicochemical parameters comprise pH, Electrical conductivity, TDS, salinity, turbidity, DO, COD, BOD.
pH: The surface water pH of Santa a River ranged between 6.90 and 7.50
across the sampling stations. The results show the water is slightly acidic to alkaline. The pH values observed in the study falls within the acceptable range for
pH which ranges (6.5 - 8.5) in line with WHO Standards [15] (WHO, 2011A).
However, the result shows the presence of pollutants from the hydrocarbon spill
entering surface water and creating an imbalance in the pH of aquatic ecosystem, such that it fluctuates below and above the normal value of 7.
Electrical Conductivity: The mean electrical conductivity values recorded
across the stations varied from 19739.41 ± 273.04 µS/cm to 28920.64 ± 290.83
µS/cm (Figure 2). The obtained electrical conductivity indicates brackish water.
Conductivity varies according to season according to [16]-[21]. The results of
electrical conductivity across the stations exceeded the WHO limit of 2500
µS/cm [22]. High values of electrical conductivity recorded in the Santa Babra
River indicate the presence of dissolved substances, chemicals and minerals released from oil spillage. This shows a strong correlation between TDS and cations which is responsible for the high electrical conductivity observed across all
sampled stations.
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30000
25000
TDS mg/l
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0%
35%
65%
pH
Cond (µs/cm)
TDS (mg/l)
Salinity (ppt)
DO (mgl)
Turbidity (NTU)
TSS(mg/l)
BOD (mg/l)
COD (mg/l)
Figure 2. Physicochemical parameters in santa barbara river.
10%
3%
5%
82%
Hardness
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Alkalinity
Temp
Redox
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1200
1000
mg/l
800
600
400
200
0
Hardness
Alkalinity
Temp
Redox
Figure 3. Hardness, alkalinity, temperature and redox physiochemical parameters in santa barbra river.
9000
8000
7000
mg/l
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
PO43-
Cl-
F-
NO3-
Na+
K+
Ca
Mg
2%
1%4% 0%
22%
0%
71%
PO43-
Cl-
F-
NO3-
Na+
K+
Ca
Mg
Figure 4. Anion and cation concentrations of santa barbara river surface water.
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0.12
0.1
mg/l
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Cu
Pb
As
Zn
Cd
1%
30%
0%
1%
68%
Cu
Pb
As
Zn
Cd
Figure 5. Heavy metals concentration in santa barbara river.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
mg/l
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
TPH
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PAH
BTEX
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0%
0%
100%
TPH
PAH
BTEX
Figure 6. TPH, BTEX and PAH concentration in Santa Barbara River.
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
mg/l
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
THB
THF
HUB
HUF
19%
0%
0%
81%
THB
THF
HUB
HUF
Figure 7. Microbial Population in the Santa Barbara River.
TDS: The mean TDS values ranged 10472.72 ± 1034.95 mg/l - 16538.19 ±
1253.63 mg/l across the stations. The maximum permissible value of 1000 mg/l
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for TDS was exceeded in all the stations [23]. The result of TDS was below the
range of 1235 - 19846 mg/l reported for brackish Elechi Creek in Port-Harcourt
Nigeria [8]. All values recorded were above the acceptable limits. The TDS is related to the electrical conductivity and salinity of the water. The high TDS values
in this study is attributed the hydrocarbon spill contamination.
Salinity: The results of salinity recorded across stations was 13.29 ± 0.72 ppt 17.30 ± 1.24a ppt. Salinity was low for all the sampling stations and the maximum permissible limit of 200 g/l was not exceeded. Changes in salinity are the
direct cause of some species disappearing and others occurring [24]. Variations
in salinity can also contribute indirectly to food shortages and, consequently,
they impact zooplankton abundance [25].
Turbidity: Turbidity ranged 7.10 - 37.48 NTU with mean varying significantly from 2.53 ± 0.46 to 35.42 ± 5.63 NTU across the stations (Figure 2). The
WHO limit of 5 NTU for turbidity was exceeded across the stations for surface
water samples analyzed ([23and [15]). At P < 0.05 level of significance, this research observed significant difference in turbidity across the station for surface
water. The high turbidity could be attributed to the discharge of crude oil waste
or bunkering activities within the study area. [26] reported turbidities in natural
waters rarely surpass 20000 mg/l and even muddy waters usually have less than
2000 mg/l. The observed turbidity level in the study area is within 2 NTU - 47
NTU for the turbidity of Nigerian water bodies [27]. High turbidity waters have
been linked to microbial contamination [28].
DO: The DO across the stations ranged 6.21 mg/l - 7.371 mg/l. Elevated oxygen levels in surface water range from 6.3 - 8.3 mg/l [29]. The acceptable value of
5 mg/l was exceeded in all the stations for surface water samples thereby making
the water oxygenated sufficiently to sustain aquatic life. Similarly, the dissolved
oxygen level in the Santa Barbara River exceeded the maximum permissible limit
of 6 mg/l [15] [23]. DO is a useful indicator of water quality, ecological standing,
efficiency, and health of a river [30]. [31] recorded higher values of DO early
rainy season compared to dry season because increased rainfall and river runoffs
result to increase in water current flow and high mixing rate. The concentration
of DO in aquatic environment at any point in time is influenced by the biological activity of flora and fauna, BOD degradation process, sediment oxygen demand and oxidation process [32] and [33]. Temperature and salinity also affect
solubility and availability of oxygen in aquatic environment. [34] [35] argued
that solubility of oxygen decreases as temperature and salinity increase and is
more dependent on temperature variation than on salinity variation.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The COD across the stations ranged
49.72 mg/l - 90.03 mg/l. According to [36] COD is an important index for evaluating of water pollution. COD provides information about the readily oxidized
fraction of the organic load or reduced compounds in waters, indicating the degree of water pollution [37].
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): The BOD varies from 1.11 mg/l - 2.71
mg/l across the stations. The maximum permissible value of 1.9 mg/l for BOD
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was exceeded in the study area [23]. High values of BOD signify high concentrations of organic contaminants and relatively high biological activities (microbial
and faunal activities) resulting in the reduction of oxygen content in the water
body. Unpolluted waters typically have BOD values of 2 mg·L−1 or less, whereas
water bodies receiving wastewater may have BOD values up to 10 mg·L−1 or
more at proximities to discharge points [38]. According to [39] BOD values 2
mg/l - 4 mg/l indicate unpolluted whereas those above 5 mg/L are indicative of
severe pollution. This result suggests the surfactants used after the hydrocarbon
pollution was effective.
Temperature: Temperature ranged 28.04˚C - 31.79˚C across stations. The
observed temperature values in the area are in agreement with that of the Niger
Delta. [39] reported temperature ranges of 25˚C - 35˚C. The temperature of this
current research agrees with previous works carried out in the Niger Delta [40]
[41] and [42]. Temperature fluctuations occur seasonally often higher in the dry
season months compared to wet season months, typical of tropical African inland water systems [43]. Seasonal variations in water temperature suggest surface water temperatures closely follow ambient air temperature [44] also temperature is inversely proportional to DO [45].
Alkalinity: The total alkalinity across the stations was 43.95 mg/L - 73.87
mg/L and the measured values were below the WHO limit of 120 mg/L. Alkalinity is the water’s ability to resist changes in pH and is a measure of the total concentration of bases including carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, phosphates,
and borates [46]. Reactions between bases and neutralize acids, buffers changes
in pH of aquatic media [46]. Higher alkalinity levels in surface water cushions
acid rain effects and other acidic wastes thereby preventing pH changes that are
harmful to aquatic life.
Total Hardness: The values of total hardness concentrations recorded in the
water samples across the stations in the study area ranged between 794.80 mg/L
and 1129.32 mg/L (Figure 3). Total hardness concentrations observed in the
study were above the maximum allowable limit of 300 mg/L by WHO for fresh
and portable water [47]. The total hardness also exceeded WHO revised maximum permissible limit of 500 mg/l [15]. Hardness of water may be caused by the
occurrence of dissolved polyvalent metallic ions, mostly calcium ions (Ca2+) and
magnesium ions (Mg2+).
TSS: The TSS concentrations ranged 1.33 mh/l - 5.13 mg/l. It was observed
that the levels of TSS in the sample points were below 50 mg/L WHO limit for
the protection of fisheries and aquatic life [48]. TSS in water is detrimental since
they decrease water transparency, inhibit photosynthesis, increase sediments,
smoothen breeding bed of aquatic organisms and eventually lead to an increase
in sediments which contributes to the decrease in water depth [49].
Anions: The concentration of phosphates ranged 0.06 - 0.07 mg/l. The sources
of phosphates in surface and groundwater vary and may include atmospheric
deposition, natural decomposition of rocks and minerals, weathering of soluble
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inorganic materials, decaying biomass, runoff, and sedimentation [50]. Excess
phosphorus in water is considered a pollutant [51] and may be due to enrichment from allochthonous phosphorus-containing substances rather than oil exploration and production activities [52]. Chloride concentrations ranged 6019
mg/l - 9274.82 mg/l. Brackish waters often have chloride concentrations ranging
from 500 - 5000 mg/l [53]. According to the [54] the use of road salt (sodium
chloride) for deicing in road construction is a major man-made source for surface and groundwater. Run off during rains and storms aids in cycling road salt
to rivers streams and groundwater reservoirs. The high chloride levels in the
Santa Barbara River Nembe may be due to its unique estuarine environment
where it mixes with salt water from the Atlantic Ocean. The WHO limit for
chloride is 250 mg/l and chloride in the study area exceeds 250 mg/l however
high chloride content is not known to cause any health risk or hazard. Fluoride
levels in the Santa Barbara River Nembe ranged from 0.03 mg/l - 0.10 mg/l and
were below the WHO limit of 1.5 mg/l for domestic purposes [55]. Fluoride
concentrations in fresh water may be less than 1.0 mg/l and in natural waters its
concentrations may exceed 50.0 mg/l [56]. The concentration of nitrates ranged
from 1.7 mg/l - 1.6 mg/l. Nitrates are available in the aquatic system because of
run off, dissolution of nitrogen rich geological deposits, N2 fixation of cyanobacteria and biodegradation of organic matter [57] and [58].
Cations: The concentration of calcium ion level 375.68 mg/l - 536.72 mg/l.
Calcium ion is a metallic cation often present in fresh surface water bodies [59].
Cation concentration for sodium and potassium in Osioma River ranged from
1.35 mg/l - 1.43 mg/l and mean 0.25 mg/l respectively [60]. Magnesium ion levels ranged 88.35 mg/l - 243.24 mg/l. The values of calcium and magnesium ions
recorded in the study indicated that all the samples were above the acceptable
limits (50 mg/l) for human consumption [61]. Sodium ion concentration in the
sampled river system was relatively high but varied from 1833 - 2755 mg/l across
the stations. Increase in sodium ion concentration has been linked to crude oil
leakage [62]. The potassium ion level across the stations ranged between; 41.27 121.17 mg/l across stations. Potassium ion was above the WHO limit.
3.2. Heavy Metal in Santa Barbara River
Average arsenic concentration across all sampled stations was 0.001 mg/l
(Figure 4). Arsenic concentration in the study area is below the WHO limit of
0.01 mg/l [22] for drinking water. High levels of arsenic in environmental media
are of great concern as it is linked to adverse health issues. Several studies suggest a strong association between arsenic exposure and increased risks of both
carcinogenic and systemic health risks [63]. The average concentration of cadmium was 0.001 mg/l across all the sampled stations and below the WHO acceptable limit of 0.01 mg/l [15]. The cadmium levels in the surface water in Santa Barbara River presents no danger or health concern as the background levels
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centrations and increased levels linked to anthropogenic activities [64]. High
cadmium levels in the environment are of global concern because of adverse effects resulting from human exposure, flora, and fauna. Major anthropogenic
sources of cadmium are mining and smelting as well as refining of non-ferrous
metal [65] other sources include fossil combustion and incineration of cadmium
batteries in addition to plastics ([66] [67]). Studies suggest cadmium exerts toxic
effects on the kidney, the skeletal system and the respiratory system and is classified as a human carcinogen ([68] [69] [70] [71]). Lead concentration across all
stations was 0.001 mg/l. The lead levels in the surface water samples analyzed
were lower than the WHO acceptable limit of 0.01 mg/l. Lead levels in the Santa
Babra River Nembe are low and present no health effect or impact. The impact
of lead in the environment is well known. Anthropogenic activities accounts for
extensive environmental contamination from lead globally particularly mining,
smelting, manufacturing, and recycling activities and use in a wide range of
products [72]. Lead exposure accounts for 21.7 million persons having disability
and death globally due to long-term effects on their health, with 30% idiopathic
intellectual disability, 4.6% cardiovascular disease and 3% chronic kidney diseases [70]. The concentration of copper ranged from 0.03 mg/l - 0.07 mg/l while
the mean concentration of copper was below 2 mg/l [73]. The concentration of
zinc ranged from 0.08 - 0.16 mg/l while the average zinc levels were below 3 mg/l
[71]. The low levels of heavy metal observed suggest the surface water in not
polluted and the initial clean-up was effective. In the Niger Delta low heavy metal accumulation has been reported in Elechi Creek and Lower Bonny River, Benin River ([8] [9]). When anthropogenic activities increase significantly heavy
metal contamination in the environment it causes harm to living organisms [10].
Toxicity of heavy metals occur when the rate of uptake exceeds the rates of physiological or biochemical detoxification and excretion [11]. Heavy metals are
high priority pollutants because of their relatively high toxic and persistent nature in the environment [12]. Thus, heavy metals may be used as indicators of
pollution in the study area.
3.3. TPH, PAH and BTEX in the Santa Barbara River
Results of the TPH, PAH and BTEX concentration s in the study area shows that
the TPH concentration ranged 0.37 - 1.41 g/L (Figure 6) while the average level
of TPH in surface water from this study is 1.41 µg/L (Figure 5). The highest
concentration was observed at station 9 BA/SW9 which had 1.41, followed by
SUN/SW4 with 1.23 and the least was recorded at the control station. The result
shows a significant difference (P < 0.05) across the sample stations. Higher concentrations of TPH were observed in areas that were more severely impacted
that others within the study area. There was a decrease in trend in TPH a distance further downstream from the hydrocarbon spill site. There was spatial
variation in the distribution of TPH across sampled stations. The spatial variation in the distribution of TPH across sampled stations suggests introduction of
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petroleum hydrocarbons to the study was because of the Santa Barbara hydrocarbon spill incident resulting in high level of petroleum hydrocarbons. The total
mean concentration of TPH from all sample stations were lower than the [74]
acceptable standard limit for petroleum hydrocarbons (300 μg/L) in river and
basin water. Although clean-up activities were carried out remedial levels of hydrocarbons were detected in the analyzed sample. Inappropriate clean-up of hydrocarbon spill sites accounts for the higher concentration of TPH in sampling
stations in the study area. According to [75] TPH of 168.33 µg/L was recorded in
the Qua Iboe River Ibeno Akwa Ibom when hydrocarbon was spilled. Polluted
sites with higher TPH levels of 73500 µg/l have recorded in surface water of
Ubeji Riverin Warri, Niger Delta [76]. The total mean concentration of TPH
from all sampled stations were lower than the [72] acceptable standard limit for
petroleum hydrocarbons (300 μg/L) in rivers and basin water. The average level
of TPH in surface water from this research is 1.41 µg/L which is significantly
lower (P < 0.05) compared to values reported in other Niger Delta regions. The
results for the PAH and BTEX show both values are <0.001 which is below the
maximum contaminant level of 5 ppb for drinking water set by the [72] [77] and
PAH was not observed in the surface water. The results suggest that the clean-up
activities carried out on remedial levels of hydrocarbons were successful.
Microbial Population: The Total Heterotrophic Bacteria (THB) ranged from
2.58 CFU/ml to 6.17 CFU/ml (Figure 6). Total Heterotrophic Fungi population
(THF) ranged from 2.59 CFU/ml to 4.17 CFU/ml. Hydrocarbon Utilizing Bacteria (HUB) population ranged between 0.24 CFU/ml and 1.27 CFU/ml. Hydrocarbon Utilizing Fungi (HUF) ranged between 0.16 CFU/ml to 1.01 CFU/ml.
The result shows that the quality of surface water deteriorated because of bacterial population. The maximum permissible value of total coliforms in drinking
water is 1 per 100 ml [78] and 10 per 100 ml [79]. The surface water is highly
contaminated and portends potential public health hazards. The bacterial contamination in the surface water may be due to hydrocarbon spillage and sewage
disposal as well as indiscriminate defecation into the water way [80] (see Figure
7).
4. Conclusion
The post assessment of oil spill in the Santa Barbara River revealed that oil spills
in the area impacted the ecological integrity of the area as evidenced in the variability of the physiochemical parameters of surface water. The presence of oil
in the surface water influenced the buildup of specific bacterial population that
depleted the oxygen content of the water thereby inducing the release of toxin
into the water as well as utilize the oxygen content which increased the biological
oxygen demand of the water system. The presence of trace metals such as lead in
the Santa Barbara River indicates the introduction of heavy metals into surface
water due to hydrocarbon spills. Pollutant load in surface water may increase if
not identified, checked, and closely monitored. There is need for periodic surDOI: 10.4236/ijg.2023.1410050
949
International Journal of Geosciences
A. O. Isukul et al.
veillance to ascertain the quality of water resources for human and animal consumption as well as recreation purposes. Bioaccumulation and magnification
along the trophic level are eminent if contamination and pollution persist.
Acknowledgements
This work is an extract of the PhD thesis of Mr. Isukul supervised by Professor
G. J. Udom and Dr. R. U. Ideozu and titled Post impact assessment of oil spill
contamination of soils and water resources in Nembe Bayelsa state.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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