JORAS, 12 (2023) pp. 151-161
The Taqiyya Controversy
and its Implication for
Christian-Muslim
Dialogue
Richard Gokum
Abstract
Lying in the service of altruism is considered despicable by all
religions, but to think that Muslims are allowed to dissimulate in
furtherance of Islam is worrisome. While the Qur'an is against
Muslims deceiving Muslims— “for surely, Allah guides not him
who is prodigal and a liar.” To lie to non-Muslims generally known
in Arabic as Taqiyya, does not only have qur'anic backing, but also
fall within the legal category of things that are permissible to
Muslim. This paper will analyse the social purpose of the term
taqiyya in social interaction between Muslims and non-Muslims,
especially on the table of dialogue in polemical societies.
Key words: Taqiyya, simulation, interreligious dialogue,
polemical societies
INTRODUCTION
Taqiyya “is the practice of concealing one's belief and foregoing ordinary
religious duties when under threat of death or injury.” It is derived from the
Arabic waqa ('to shield oneself'), but generally, it dees easy translation. The
English rendering of taqiyya such as 'precautionary dissimulation' or 'prudent
fear' partly conveys the term's meaning of self-preservation in the face of
danger to oneself or, by extension and depending upon circumstances, to one's
fellow Muslims. Taqiyya may be employed for the protection of an individual or
for the protection of a community. The principle is more common with Shia
Muslims because of their history of persecution and political defeat not only by
non-Muslims but also by Sunni Muslims who are the majority sect of Islam.
(Stefon, accessed online).
Scriptural reference to the principle is attributed to the following sūras: 'Let not
the believer take disbelievers as allies, rather than the believers—whoever does
that, has nothing from God—unless you guard yourself against them as
precaution' (Cf. Q. 3:28) or better put it says that out of fear of Allah, believers
should not show preference in friendship to unbelievers, 'unless to safeguard
yourself against them.' According to Islamic tradition Q. 16: 106 was revealed to
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RICHARD GOKUM
ease the conscience of Ammār b. Yāsir, a devout follower of the Prophet
Muhammad, who renounced his faith under torture and threat of death.
'Whoever disbelieves in [Allah] after having believed, except for someone who
is compelled, yet his heart is (still) secure in belief, and whoever expands his
heart in disbelief, on them is anger from God, and for them (there is) a great
punishment.' (Cf. Q. 16: 106). Better put, the verse reads 'if a Muslim who is
forced to deny his faith is nevertheless a true believer who feels 'the peace of
faith' in his heart, he will not suffer great punishment.' The meaning of this
verse is not clear even in the context of the sūra in which it appeared. It is
therefore a subject of debate among Islamic scholars that the verse sanctions the
practice of taqiyya. The hadith has also been cited as providing theological
warrant for taqiyya. One hadith mentioned that Muhammad waited 13 years
until he could 'gain enough supporters' before combating his powerful
polytheistic enemies in Mecca. A similar story relates how 'Alī Muhammad's
son-in-law followed the advice of the Prophet to refrain from ghting until he
had 'the support of 40 men.' Some scholars have interpreted these legends as
examples of taqiyya. By avoiding combat against enemies of Islam until they
could muster sufcient military force and moral support, Muhammad and 'Alī
preserved not only their own lives but their divine appointed mission to spread
the faith. Consideration of community rather than private welfare is stressed in
most cases. (Stefon, accessed online). Critics and especially non-Muslims
basically see taqiyya as the Islamic concept of the obligation to lie to any non-
Muslim if that lie furthers the interest of Islam, informs the decision to discuss
whether this teaching does not encumber or creates a feeling of distrust in the
minds of Christians when they dialogue with Muslims.
Taqiyya allows the Shia to dissemble their religious afliation in front of the
Sunni, not merely by being clandestine about their beliefs but also by actively
praying and behaving as if they are Sunnis (Gokum, p. 152).
Who is a Muslim?
This scrutiny becomes necessary when we look at what Islam means and who is
a Muslim. Islam means submission or surrendering to [Allah] expressed rstly
by faith (īmān), which implies gratitude (shukr). This is opposed to kufr, which
primarily means ingratitude, but came to mean misbelief/disbelief/unbelief in
[Allah]'s sign or his revelation. (Lane, p. 2398).
Islam is expressed by obedience (ta'a), which is solely or directly to [Allah], but
also to Muhammad and those in authority. 'Obey Allah and obey the Messenger
and those of you who are in authority' (Cf. Q. 4: 59, 83). Islam implies belonging
to the Muslim umma, 'The believers are naught else than brothers [and sisters].
Therefore, make peace between your brethren' (Cf. Q. 49: 10), and 'Ye are the
best community that hath been raised up for [humankind]. Ye enjoin right
conduct and forbid indecency: and ye believe in Allah.' (Q. 3:110). The Muslim
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The Taqiyya Controversy and its Implication for Christian-Muslim Dialogue
community is seen as replacing communities before them that did not, please
[Allah] and caused 'corruption on the earth' (fasād al-ard), (Q. 3:32).
Who then is a Muslim according to the Qur'an and who is not? The Qur'an
divides humanity into two types of people and has several general terms to
describe each type. Opposed to a believer (mu'min) is the unbeliever (kār), who
denies (mukaddib) what [Allah] has revealed (Cf. Q. 56:51). Such a person who
denies what Allah has revealed is fāsiq (pl. fussāq, fasaqa), from the verb fasaqa-
yafsuqu or yafsiqu and fasuqa-yafsuqu, meaning 'to stray from the right course,
deviate, to act unlawfully, sinfully, immorally, to lead a dissolute life.' The
primary meaning is 'to go forth from another thing in a bad or corrupt manner'
(Lane, p. 2398). Etymologically, the root has the sense of a ripe date bursting out
of its skin. Fisq or fusūq ('sinfulness, moral depravity, dissolute life, a going forth
or departure from the right course or way, from the way of truth, from that
which is right and true, a relinquishment or neglect of the command of [Allah],
an inclination to disobedience, transgression, unrighteous, sinful, wicked
living') is dened by al-Rāzī as a 'man's action of going outside that which is
ordered and xed for him' (Lane, p. 2398).
The point of this long discuss on what Islam means and by default how Muslims
should treat those who are not members of this group, is that anyone who does
not practice Islam is not qualied to be treated as a Muslim. He or she is a target
for conversion or persecution by extremists, if he or she refuses to convert, or at
best, a dhimmi who should pay the jizya. It should be clear from the proceeding
who taqiyya can be employed upon, depending on what side of the divide one
falls.
Uses of Taqiyya
Taqiyya offers two basic uses. The better known revolves around dissembling
one's religious identity when in fear of persecution. This has been the historical
use of taqiyya among Shia Muslims whenever and wherever their Sunni rivals
outnumber and threaten them. Sunni Muslims, far from suffering persecution
have whenever capability allowed, waged jihad against the realm of unbelief; it
is here that they deployed taqiyya—not as dissimulation but active deceit. If
Muslims are enjoined to be truthful, how could deceit be prevalent, or have
divine sanction? How does it t into the broader concept of Islamic code of
ethics, especially in relation to non-Muslim? But more precisely, what
implication does taqiyya have for interaction between Muslims and non-
Muslims, and especially the issue of religious tolerance? (Ibrahim, p. 1).
Interreligious Dialogue and the Taqiyya Question
According to Raymond Ibrahim, Taqiyya is not an entirely a Shia Muslims'
thing, even though as a minority group interspersed among their Sunni
adversaries, they have historically had more reason to dissemble. Now Sunni
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Muslims living in the West nd themselves in the position of the Shia Muslims;
are minorities surrounded by their 'traditional enemies', the Christian 'indels',
a circumstance that made taqiyya integral to the Shia Muslims, although bereft
of the threats that Shia Muslims had to face. The fear about Muslims
dissimulating in their commitment to interreligious dialogue or interreligious
coexistence is heightened by Islam's dichotomized worldview that pits the
realm of Islam against the realm of war—dar al-Islam versus dar al-Harb, the rst,
dar al-Islam, is the 'realm of submission', the world where Sharia governs; the
second, dar al-Harb, 'the realm of war', which is the non-Islamic world. The
struggle must continue until the realm of Islam conquers the non-Islamic world.
Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) clearly articulates this separation:
In the Muslim community, jihad is a religious duty because of the
universalism of the Muslim mission and the obligation to convert
everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. The other religious
groups did not have a universal mission, and the jihad was not a
religious duty for them, save only for purpose of defence. But Islam is
under obligation to gain power over other nations. (Ibn Khaldun, p.
473).
For a religious tradition with over a billion followers to oblige unprovoked
warfare in its name should be a source of concern for non-Muslims, and to
realize that to expand to the ends of the world is the aim, the world, whether
under democracy, socialism, communism or any other system of governance
will inevitably be in bondage—a great sin, since the good of all humanity can
only be found in a state that is governed according to Allah's law—the
Sharia—which is seen as good for both Muslims and non-Muslims. A view
supported by an ancient pedigree: in the early stages of Islam after the death of
the Muhammad in 632, in 634, as the jihad ghters burst out of the Arabian
Peninsula, a soon to be conquered Persian commander asked the jihadists what
they wanted. The memorable answer was:
[Allāh has sent us and has brought us here so that we may free those
who desire from servitude to earthly rulers and make them servants of
Allāh, that we may change their poverty into wealth and free them from
the tyranny and chaos of [false] religions and bring them to the justice of
Islam. He has sent us to bring his religion to all his creatures and call
them to Islam. Whoever accepts it from us will be safe, and we shall
leave him alone; but whoever refuses, we shall ght until we full the
promise of Allāh. (Kennedy. P. 112).
This view was echoed again fourteen hundred years later in March 2009
publicly by Basem Alem, a Saudi legal expert, who said:
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The Taqiyya Controversy and its Implication for Christian-Muslim Dialogue
As member of the true religion, I have a greater right to invade [others]
to impose a certain way of life [in accordance with Sharia], which
history has proven to be the best and most just of all civilizations. This is
the true meaning of offensive jihad. When we wage jihad, it is not to
convert people to Islam but to liberate them from the dark slavery in
which they live. (Ibrahim, p. 7)
And it goes without contestation that taqiyya in the service of this objective to
bring all people under Sharia law is permissible. This was demonstrated
recently when a Muslim cleric recounted how he tricked a Jew into converting
to Islam—warning him that he will be killed by Muslims if he apostatized. The
Muslim cleric Mahmoud al-Masri called it a 'beautiful trick'. According to
Raymond Ibrahim, from the point of view of Islam, it was the Jew who was the
better for it, because he beneted from the deceit, which brought him to Islam.
“Egyptian Cleric Mahmoud Al-Masri recommends Tricking Jews into
becoming Muslims”, (Cf. TV Monitor, clip 2268, Middle East Media Research
Institute, transl; August 10, 2009), (Ibrahim, p. 7).
Hostility or Grievance?
Terrorists in their scathing attacks against Europeans, Americans and non-
Muslims in Africa and Asia have maintained that the terrorisms are targeted in
response to decades of ill treatment of Muslims by Westerners, and Christians
in other parts of the world outside of Europe and America, who are linked by
creed (guilty by association). Yet, in writing to their fellow Muslims, the story is
not one of reaction to military and political provocation but as sacred religious
obligation. The altruism accompanying the slaughter of Christians in Middle
Belt Nigeria can be situated within this ambience. For example, the late Osama
bin Laden when addressing Western audiences about the grievances
motivating his war on the West, listed the oppression of the Palestinians, the
Western exploitation of women, and the refusal or the failure of the U.S to sign
the Kyoto protocol—things that make sense to the Western mind, but never
once did he justify the attacks on Western targets, simply because non-Muslim
countries are indels that must be subjugated. According to Raymond Ibrahim,
he always initiated his message with the statement “'reciprocal treatment is part
of justice' or 'peace to whoever follows guidance', but he means something
different from what his Western audience understand as 'peace', 'justice' or
guidance” (Ibrahim, p. 8). In response to a group of Muslims who wrote to the
American people after the 9/11 attack that Islam seeks to peacefully coexist
with other religious traditions, his message assumed a castigating clarity that
reads as follows:
As to the relationship between Muslims and indels, this is
summarized [by the word of the Most High]: 'We [Muslims] renounce
you [non-Muslims]. Enmity and hate shall forever reign between
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us—till you believe in [Allāh] alone. (Q.60:4). So, there is an enmity,
evidenced by erce hostility from the heart. And this erce
hostility—that is, battle—ceases only if the indels submit to the
authority of Islam, or if his [or her] blood is forbidden from being shed
[i.e; a dhimmi, or protected minority], or if Muslims are at that point
weak and incapable. But if the hate at any time extinguishes from the
heart, this is great apostasy!... Such then is the basis and the foundation
of the relationship between the indels and the Muslims. Battle,
animosity, and hatred—directed from the Muslims to the indel—is the
foundation of our religion. And we consider this a justice and kindness
to them (Ibrahim, p. 9).
For Raymond Ibrahim this hostile Weltanschauung is supported by all Islam's
mainstream schools of jurisprudence; they see the indel (non-Muslims) in
similar terms. Bin Laden's address to the Western world about justice and peace
are clear examples of taqiyya (Gokum, p. 153).
This style of employing taqiyya as a strategy of war assumes an importance in
the Nigerian context, for example, where Governor El-Rufai of Kaduna state
and the presidency of Buhari have referred to the killings of Christians by
Fulani militias in southern part of Kaduna state as 'revenge killing' or 'reprisal
attack'. Bin Laden and the Fulani militias are not just waging a jihad but also a
propaganda war, that is, a war of deceit. The intention is to create an impression
that the attack on the Christians is borne out of the need to correct a wrong done
against the Muslims, which justies the attacks on Christians. This has garnered
sympathy among Muslims for the heinous attacks, and it has also created an
impression of a temporality to the attacks, because if the Christians realize that
nothing short of their submission or total annihilation will bring peace, the
propaganda will be quickly compromised, hence the need to cite grievances as
the reason for the attacks.
Taqiyya: its Implications for Christian- Muslim Dialogue
Taqiyya presents a range of trust dilemmas to Christians who want to dialogue
with Muslims and to coexist peacefully with them; because to know that
Muslims believe that deceit is encouraged, if it advances the cause of Islam,
creates the impression that Muslims will not experience any ethical qualms
over lying about their commitment to interreligious dialogue and peaceful
coexistence with people of other religious traditions. Indeed, this sentence sums
it all up: “a zealous believer in the tenets of Islam which legitimize deception
(taqiyya), in order to make Allah's word supreme, will have no qualms when
lying” (Gokum, p. 153).
The Taqiyya issue strikes at the core of Judeo-Christian belief and disposition
which demands that Christian should stick to the truth and even die for it, if
need be (Cf. 2 Maccabees 7: 1ff, and Matt. 5: 37).
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The Taqiyya Controversy and its Implication for Christian-Muslim Dialogue
It is within these connes proven from both qur'anic source and the lived
experience of Muslims with people of other faith traditions that we must accept
that contrary to the long-held academic presumptions, that the doctrine of
taqiyya goes far beyond Muslims engaging in religious dissimulation in the
interest of self-preservation and encompasses deception of the indel enemy in
general. The fact that Islamic law splits the world into perpetually waring
halves—the Islamic world against the non-Islamic world of the indels, and
teaches that Allah's will is for the Islamic world to subsume the world of the
indels; and if war between the dar al-Islam (Islamic world) versus dar al-Harb
(world or house of war) is a perpetual affair, if war is deceit, and if deeds are
justied by intensions, Muslims will naturally conclude that they have
divinely sanctioned right to deceive, so long as this deception is in the service of,
or aid the cause of Islam, 'until chaos ceases, and all religion belong to [Allah].'(
Cf. Q. 8:39). As James Lorimer practically noted over a century ago, “so long as
Islam endures, the reconciliation of its followers with Jews and Christians, and
the rest of humankind will continue to be an insoluble problem.” (Lorimer, p.
124). According to Raymond Ibrahim, “whereas it may be more appropriate to
talk of 'war and peace' as natural corollaries in Western context, when
discussing Islam, it is more accurate to talk of 'war and deceit. From an Islamic
point of view, times of peace is whenever Islam is signicantly weaker than its
indel rivals, feigned peace, and pretence, in a nutshell, is taqiyya” (Ibrahim,
p.10).
Muslims' Refutation to the Claim
Muslims however claim that few Islamic teachings are widely misunderstood
but non as taqiyya, and likewise few other teachings are frequently invoked to
impugn the motives of Muslims. Imran Saddiqi, executive director of the
Arizona chapter of the council on American-Islamic Relations, said he
constantly encounters false claims about taqiyya. He said 99.99% of Muslims do
not even understand what taqiyya is about, but “every alt-right Twitter troll is an
expert on Islamic theology”, which is completely absurd. His co-traveller
Muhammad Fadel, an expert on Islamic law at the University of Toronto,
describes taqiyya as a 'doctrine of prudential dissimulation' that arose from time
to time when Muslims were minorities in hostile societies. He said Muslims are
instructed that hiding their faith could be permissible to escape persecution. A
doctrine that more closely associated with Shia Muslims whose adherents are
themselves often minorities within Muslim societies. According to Fadel,
“unfortunately, the idea of taqiyya has become a dogma among the right wing in
North America, and the entire anti-Muslim coalition in the West”, but the truth
is that it is a false claim to say that Muslims are permitted, or even commanded
to lie to non-Muslims as part of a larger project to take over Western countries
and impose Sharia or Islamic law. He buttresses that Sharia does not allow for
broad deceptions and taqiyya has no connection to Sharia. According to Omar
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Suleiman, the founder and president of the Yaqeen Muslim, League, given that
taqiyya has only been used in Islam to refer to Muslims saving themselves from
mortal danger by concealing their faith, it should readily quell the
Islamophobic claim that Muslims are generally taught to lie to non-Muslims.
For both Suleiman and Khan, “when Islamophobics are confronted with the fact
that their use of the term taqiyya is a grotesque misinterpretation, they run to
another concept in an attempt to buttress their caricature of Muslims as
dishonest criminals, by citing a saying of the Prophet: 'warfare is deceit' (Ar.
Khida'ah).” This claim lacks support because in military strategy from time
immemorial, has involved subterfuge. This fact is backed by the Chinese
philosopher Sun Tzu as stated in The Art of War that 'all warfare is based on
deception. Hence, when we can attack, we must seem unable; when using our
forces, we must appear inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy
believe we are far away; when far away, we must make him believe we are near.'
He nalises that “behind the seemingly scary use of Arabic jargon, there is
nothing more than run-of-the mill common sense notion that every civilisation
has expressed and employed”; (Suleiman& Khan, accessed online), an
argument that neither denies nor concede that Muslims employ taqiyya in their
relations with non-Muslim. If anything, it conrms it.
CONCLUSION
One of the few books devoted to the subject, At-Taqiyya 'l-Islam (Dissimulation
in Islam) makes it clear that taqiyya is not limited to Shia Muslims who fear
persecution. Written by Sami Mukaram, a former Islamic studies professor at
the American University of Beirut, the book clearly shows the ubiquity and
broad application of taqiyya: 'Taqiyya is of fundamental importance in Islam.
Practically every Islamic sect agrees to its practice. “We can go so far as to say
that the practice of taqiyya is mainstream in Islam, and those few sects not
practicing it diverge from the mainstream; and it is very prevalent in Islamic
politics, especially in the modern era” (Mukaram, p. 7).
It is on this note that the commitment of Muslims to the interreligious dialogue
question requires scrutiny.
The challenges confronting the modern religious person can be daunting and
overwhelming. There are basically two assumptions: that the fundamental
truths of religion are of value to humanity and that the relevance of religion
must at all costs be demonstrated. The obstacle for many seems to be the
structure of inuence that traditional religious authorities have on text of
scripture be it in Judaism, Christianity, or Islam. The challenge across all three
monotheistic religions is how are the deeply felt moral principles of the 21st
century to be reconciled with the text of scripture that has always been grasped
in fashion that challenge emerging modern positions? (Saeed, p, ix). A
challenge that all religions must respond to.
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