Journal of Gerontology: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Cite journal as: J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011 August;66A(8):866–875
doi:10.1093/gerona/glr092
Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America.
All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.
Advance Access published on May 28, 2011
Age-Associated Vascular Oxidative Stress, Nrf2
Dysfunction, and NF-kB Activation in the Nonhuman
Primate Macaca mulatta
1Reynolds
Oklahoma Center on Aging, Department of Geriatric Medicine and 2Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma
Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City.
3Laboratory of Cardiovascular Science, Gerontology Research Center, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health,
Baltimore, Maryland.
4Department of Biochemistry, New York Medical College, Valhalla.
5Laboratory of Experimental Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland.
Address correspondence to Anna Csiszar, MD, PhD, Reynolds Oklahoma Center on Aging, Department of Geriatric Medicine, University of Oklahoma
Health Sciences Center, 975 N. E. 10th Street, BRC 1303, Oklahoma City, OK 73104. Email: anna-csiszar@ouhsc.edu
Aging promotes oxidative stress in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells, which contribute to the development of
cardiovascular diseases. NF-E2–related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor, which is activated by reactive oxygen
species in the vasculature of young animals, leading to adaptive upregulation of numerous reactive oxygen species detoxifying and antioxidant genes. The present study was designed to elucidate age-associated changes in the homeostatic
role of Nrf2-driven free radical detoxification mechanisms in the vasculature of nonhuman primates. We found that carotid arteries of aged rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta, age: ≥20 years) exhibit significant oxidative stress (as indicated
by the increased 8-iso-PGF2a and 4-HNE content and decreased glutathione and ascorbate levels) as compared with
vessels of young macaques (age: ~10 years) that is associated with activation of the redox-sensitive proinflammatory
transcription factor, nuclear factor-kappaB. However, age-related oxidative stress does not activate Nrf2 and does not
induce Nrf2 target genes (NQO1, GCLC, and HMOX1). In cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) derived from
young M mulatta, treatment with H2O2 and high glucose significantly increases transcriptional activity of Nrf2 and upregulates the expression of Nrf2 target genes. In contrast, in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells cells derived from
aged macaques, H2O2– and high glucose–induced Nrf2 activity and Nrf2-driven gene expression are blunted. High
glucose–induced H2O2 production was significantly increased in aged vascular smooth muscle cells compared with that
in vascular smooth muscle cells from young M mulatta. Taken together, aging is associated with Nrf2 dysfunction in
M mulatta arteries, which likely exacerbates age-related cellular oxidative stress, promoting nuclear factor-kappaB
activation and vascular inflammation in aging.
Key Words: Artery—Inflammation—Oxidative stress—Smooth muscle—Vascular aging.
Received February 12, 2011; Accepted April 21, 2011
Decision Editor: Placido Navas, PhD
O
VER three quarters of deaths from cardiovascular diseases occur among patients over 65 years of age (1).
Epidemiological studies show that even in the absence of
risk factors related to lifestyle (eg, obesity, hypercholesterolemia, smoking), advanced age, per se, promotes the development of cardiovascular disease [for a recent review,
see (2)]. In order to develop novel therapeutic interventions
to promote vascular health in older persons, it is essential to
understand the mechanisms through which aging impairs
homeostatic mechanisms in the vasculature.
The oxidative stress hypothesis of aging postulates that increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induces a
variety of macromolecular oxidative modifications and that accumulation of such oxidative damage gradually leads to cellular dysfunction, which is a primary causal factor in the aging
866
process. Although there is currently much debate over the importance of increased cellular ROS levels in regulation of life
span (3–5), there is a consensus that oxidative stress contributes to the development of age-associated diseases. Previous
studies in laboratory rodents provided ample evidence that
oxidative stress develops with age in the arterial system, which
impairs endothelial function and promotes vascular inflammation [for a recent review, see (6)]. Vascular oxidative stress and
inflammation are thought to promote the development of atherosclerotic vascular diseases (including myocardial infarction, stroke, and vascular dementias), increasing cardiovascular
mortality in elderly patients (2).
Recent studies demonstrate that in vascular endothelial
and smooth muscle cells of young animals in response to
increased production of ROS induced by proatherogenic
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
Zoltan Ungvari,1,2 Lora Bailey-Downs,1,2 Tripti Gautam,1,2 Danuta Sosnowska,1,2 Mingyi Wang,3
Robert E. Monticone,3 Richard Telljohann,3 John T. Pinto,4 Raphael de Cabo,5 William E. Sonntag,1,2
Edward G. Lakatta,3 and Anna Csiszar1,2
VASCULAR Nrf2 DYSFUNCTION IN PRIMATE AGING
Methods
Animal Models
All animal use protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of the participating
institutions. Four young (10.5 ± 0.9 years, mean relative
age: 26% of maximum life span) and four old (22.2 ± 1.7
years; mean relative age: 55% of maximum life span) male
rhesus monkeys (M mulatta) were maintained according to
National Institutes of Health guidelines and humanely sacrificed according to methods previously described (21).
Species longevity record for M mulatta in captivity is 40
years, according to the AnAge database (http://genomics.
senescence.info/species/) compiled by de Magalhaes and
coworkers (22).
Assessment of Markers of Cellular Oxidative Stress:
8-iso-PGF2a and 4-HNE
In order to assess the level of oxidative stress in the arteries of aged monkeys, we measured tissue levels of the isoprostane 8-iso-PGF2a, a biomarker of lipid peroxidation,
using the 8-iso-Prostaglandin F2a Assay (Cell Biolabs,
Inc., San Diego, CA) according to the manufacturer’s
guideline. Sample protein concentration was used for normalization purposes.
We have also assessed tissue content of 4-hydroxy2-nonenal (4-HNE; an oxidized secondary product that
forms a relatively stable adduct with proteins), a useful
biomarker of oxidative stress, by Western blotting using a
primary antibody directed against 4-HNE (Abcam, ab46544).
Determination of Endogenous GSH and Ascorbate Using
HPLC Electrochemical Detection
In aged rodents, vascular oxidative stress is associated
with a significant decline in cellular redox-active GSH and
ascorbate content (23). Thus, as an additional measure of
vascular oxidative stress in the present study, we assessed
concentrations of GSH and ascorbate in homogenates of M
mulatta arteries using a Perkin-Elmer HPLC equipped with
an eight-channel amperometric array detector as described
(24,25). In brief, 10-mg aliquots of tissue samples were
washed with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and
homogenized in 5% (w/v) metaphosphoric acid. Samples
were centrifuged at 10,000g for 10 minutes to sediment protein, and the supernatant fraction was stored for analysis of
redox-sensitive compounds. Precipitated proteins were dissolved in 0.1 N NaOH and stored for protein determination
by a spectrophotometric quantitation method using BCA
reagent (Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, IL). Concentrations of GSH and ascorbic acid in supernatant fractions
were determined by injecting 5-mL aliquots onto an ultrasphere 5 m, 4.6 × 250 mm, C18 column and eluting with
mobile phase of 50 mM NaH2PO4, 0.05 mM octane sulfonic acid, and 1.5% acetonitrile (pH 2.62) at a flow rate of
1 mL/min. The detectors were set at 200, 350, 400, 450,
500, 550, 600, and 700 mV, respectively. Peak areas were
analyzed using ESA, Inc. software and concentrations of
GSH and ascorbate are reported as nanomole per milligrams of protein.
Nuclear NF-kB–Binding Activity Assay
Nuclei were isolated from carotid arteries of young and
aged M mulatta using the Nuclear Extraction kit from Active
Motif (Carlsbad, CA) as reported (15,26). Using the nuclear
extract obtained, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kB)–binding
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
conditions (ie, diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoke exposure)
adaptive mechanisms are invoked that involve induction of
NF-E2–related factor 2 (Nrf2)–driven antioxidant defense
pathways (7–10). Nrf2 is a key redox-sensitive transcription
factor, which regulates the antioxidant response, including
induction of numerous genes for proteins that detoxify ROS
and regulate synthesis of glutathione (GSH), as well as
those with other antioxidant properties. In young organisms, this homeostatic response serves to attenuate vascular
oxidative stress and limits the cellular and macromolecular
damage caused by the increased free radical production induced by diabetic conditions (8,11,12) and other stressors
(13,14). In the arterial system of aged rodents, ROS production both by mitochondria (15) and by plasma membrane–
associated NADPH oxidases (16–18) is significantly
increased. In cells of young animals, a similar level of ROS
would result in an adaptive induction of Nrf2-driven free
radical detoxification mechanisms. Despite the current advances in the understanding role of oxidative stress in vascular aging, the role of Nrf2-dependent antioxidant response
in the aged vasculature has not been elucidated.
The present study was undertaken to test the hypothesis
that aging is associated with dysregulation of Nrf2, and, as
a result, in aged organisms, oxidative stress fails to activate
Nrf2-regulated ROS detoxification systems in the vasculature. We chose to study aged Macaca mulatta because the
nonhuman primate models have the advantage of being
phylogenetically closest to humans but exhibiting few of the
complicating effects of the cardiovascular diseases (eg, diabetes and hypertension) associated with aging (19,20). To
test our hypotheses, we assessed aging-induced changes in
markers of oxidative stress in carotid arteries of M mulatta
and contrasted them with age-related changes in Nrf2 expression and activity and expression of Nrf2-driven antioxidant enzymes. Using cultured primary smooth muscle cells
derived from young and aged M mulatta, we also determined whether aging impairs the ability of vascular smooth
muscle cells (VSMCs) to mount an effective antioxidant response in response to oxidative stressors (H2O2 treatment
and hyperglycemia) by inducing Nrf2-regulated ROS detoxification systems.
867
868
UNGVARI ET AL.
activity was assayed using the TransAM NF-kB ELISA Kit
(Active Motif), as reported (15).
Nuclear Nrf2–Binding Activity Assay
Using nuclear extracts obtained from carotid arteries of
young and aged M mulatta, Nrf2-binding activity was assayed using the TransAM Nrf2 ELISA Kit (Active Motif)
according to the manufacturer’s guidelines.
Quantitative Real-Time Reverse Transcription–Polymerase
Chain Reaction
A quantitative real-time reverse transcription–polymerase
chain reaction technique was used to analyze messenger
RNA (mRNA) expression of the NF-kB target genes; inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and interleukin-6; and the Nrf2/ARE target
genes, NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (Nqo1), heme
oxygenase-1 (Hmox1), and gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (Gclc) in carotid arteries of M mulatta as well as in
vascular smooth muscle samples, using a Strategen MX3000,
as previously reported (15,16,18,27). In brief, total RNA was
isolated with a Mini RNA Isolation Kit (Zymo Research,
Orange, CA) and was reverse transcribed using Superscript
III RT (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) as described previously
(16,28). Amplification efficiencies were determined using a
dilution series of a standard vascular sample. Quantification
was performed using the efficiency-corrected DDCq method.
The relative quantities of the reference genes Hprt and Actb
were determined, and a normalization factor was calculated
based on the geometric mean for internal normalization.
Western Blotting
To analyze protein expression of Nrf2 and the Nrf2 targets NQO1 and GCLC, Western blotting was performed as
described (29), using the following primary antibodies:
rabbit anti-Nrf2 (Abcam, ab31163; 1:1,000 5% milk), rabbit anti-GCLC (Abcam, ab41463; 1 mg/mL in 5% milk),
and rabbit anti-NQO1 (Abcam, ab34173; 1:2,000 in 5%
milk). All PVDF membranes were incubated in primary
antibodies overnight at 4°C. A donkey anti-rabbit secondary antibody was used (Abcam, ab16284; 1:2,000 in 5%
milk). Mouse anti-b-actin (Abcam, ab6276; 1:10,000 in 5%
milk) and Coomassie staining were used for normalization
purposes.
Cell Cultures, Keap-1 Overexpression
Early passage (Passages 4–5) arterial VSMCs; derived
from young and aged M mulatta were used. VSMCs were
isolated, as previously described (30). VSMCs were cultured in Smooth Muscle Cell Growth Medium (Cell Applications Inc.). In some experiments, VSMCs were treated
with high glucose (30 mmol/L) or H2O2 (from 10−6 to 10−4
mol/L). Mannitol was used as osmotic control for the highglucose experiments. To disrupt Nrf2 signaling, Keap-1
overexpression was achieved in VSMCs by transfection
with a Keap-1 full-length cDNA-encoding plasmid
(Origen) as described (12,31).
Measurement of Mitochondrial O 2 − and H2O2 Production
in Cultured VSMCs
Mitochondrial O2 − production in VSMCs from young
and aged monkeys was measure by flow cytometry
(Guava, Hayward, CA) using MitoSOX Red (Invitrogen), a
mitochondrion-specific hydroethidine-derivative fluorescent dye, as previously reported (32). Cell debris (low forward and side scatter) and dead cells (Sytox Green) were
gated out for analysis (32). As a positive control, mitochondrial ROS production was increased to maximum levels in
VSMCs by coadministration of antimycin A (AA; 10−6
mol/L, which inhibits Complex III by binding to the UQI
site, blocking electron transfer from haem bH to ubiquinone) (33,34) plus succinate (10 mmol/L, a substrate of
Complex II) (15).
In other experiments, the cell-permeant oxidative fluorescent
indicatordye5,6-chloromethyl-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein
diacetate-acetyl ester (CM-H2DCFDA; Invitrogen) was
used to assess H2O2 production in VSMCs from young and
aged monkeys. To assess the contribution of mitochondrial
sources to cellular peroxide production, CM-H2DCFDA
fluorescence was measured in the presence and absence of
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
Immunofluorescent Labeling for Nrf2
To assess nuclear translocation of Nrf2, immunolabeling
for Nrf2 was performed using paraffin-embedded sections
of the carotid arteries isolated from young and aged monkeys. In brief, after deparaffinization, arterial sections were
incubated in ice-cold acetone (10 minutes) followed by
washes in Tween-PBS (10 minutes) and then in PBS (3 × 5
minutes). Triton (0.5%, 10 minutes) was used for permeabilization. The sections were blocked with 10% fetal calf serum in PBS for 1 hour and then immunolabeling was
performed using a rabbit polyclonal antibody directed
against Nrf2 (Abcam, ab31163; 1:50, overnight, at 4°C, in
PBS containing 1% bovine serum albumin). Thereafter,
slides were washed with PBS (3 × 10 minutes) before adding the secondary antibody (Alexa Fluor 688 goat anti-rabbit
IgG; for 1 hour, at room temperature). After washing with
PBS (3 × 5 minutes), Hoechst 33342 (5 mg/mL) was added
for 5 minutes. The sections were visualized by confocal
laser scanning microscopy (Leica SP2 MP). Cells treated
with the canonical Nrf2 activator sulforaphane (2 mmol/L)
were also immunolabelled using the aforementioned protocol and were used as positive controls (data not shown).
Fidelity of the polymerase chain reactions was determined
by melting temperature analysis and visualization of the
product on a 2% agarose gel.
VASCULAR Nrf2 DYSFUNCTION IN PRIMATE AGING
the mitochondrial uncoupler carbonylcyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (FCCP; 1 mmol/L), which effectively inhibits mitochondrial ROS generation (15).
Furthermore, cellular H2O2 production was also assessed
in VSMCs from young and aged monkeys cultured in the
presence and absence of high glucose (30 mmol/L, for 24
hours). For these experiments, mannitol was used as osmolarity control.
Data Analysis
Data were normalized to the respective control mean values and are expressed as means ± SEM. Statistical analyses
of data were performed by Student’s t test or by two-way
analysis of variance followed by the Tukey’s post hoc test,
as appropriate. The p < .05 was considered statistically
significant.
Results
Age-Associated Vascular Oxidative Stress and
Inflammation in Macaca mulatta
8-Isoprostane content in the arterial wall was increased in
aged M mulatta as compared with young vessels (Figure 1A).
4-HNE content was significantly increased compared with
that of young animals (Figure 1B and C). Consistent with
the presence of aging-induced oxidative stress, vascular
GSH content, and ascorbate concentrations were significantly reduced in aged M mulatta (Figure 1D and E).
In VSMCs derived from aged M mulatta, H2DCFDA
(Figure 1F) and MitoSox (Figure 1G) fluorescence, indicating cellular peroxide production and mitochondrial O2 −
generation, respectively, were significantly increased compared with those in cells from young animals. Treatment
with FCCP significantly decreased H2DCFDA fluorescence
in aged VSMCs (Figure 1F), suggesting that mitochondrial
sources contribute significantly to age-related oxidative
stress in these cells.
Previous studies demonstrated that age-associated oxidative stress in laboratory rodents promotes vascular inflammation by activating the redox-sensitive transcription factor
NF-kB (15). We found that in carotid arteries of M mulatta,
aging-induced oxidative stress is also associated with an increased nuclear NF-kB–binding activity (Figure 2A) and
upregulation of the NF-kB target genes iNOS (Figure 2B)
and iCAM-1 (Figure 2C).
In VSMCs derived from aged M mulatta, transcriptional
activity of NF-kB was also significantly increased (Figure
2D), and this was partially inhibited by treatment with PEGcatalase. In VSMCs from young M mulatta, treatment with
H2O2 upregulated expression of interleukin-6 (Figure 2E).
Interestingly, in VSMCs of aged M mulatta, H2O2 elicited
significantly greater increases in interleukin-6 expression
than in those of young M mulatta (Figure 2E).
Age-Associated Oxidative Stress Is Not Associated With
Adaptive Increases in Nrf2 Activation in Arteries of
Macaca mulatta
Upon ROS-induced activation in young animals, Nrf2
translocates to the nucleus, where it binds to the ARE to
activate transcription of Phase II and antioxidant defense
enzymes. Thus, to determine whether age-related oxidative stress is associated with Nrf2 activation, we tested
nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and expression of known
Nrf2 target genes. As shown in Figure 3A and B, predominantly cytoplasmic labeling of Nrf2 with no significant
nuclear staining was observed in arteries of aged M mulatta, and this staining pattern did not differ from Nrf2
staining in arteries of young macaques. Nuclear Nrf2–
binding activity (Figure 3C) and protein expression of
Nrf2 (Figure 3D) tended to decrease in arteries of aged M
mulatta; however, the differences did not reach statistical
significance.
A quantitative real-time reverse transcription–
polymerase chain reaction technique and Western blotting
was used to analyze mRNA and protein expression of
known Nrf2 targets in M mulatta arteries. We found that
expression of GCLC (Figure 4A and D), NQO1 (Figure 4B
and E), and heme oxygenase-1 (Figure 4C) are not upregulated in arteries of aged M mulatta, despite the presence of
significant oxidative stress in these vessels (Figure 1).
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
Transient Transfection, NF-kB, and Nrf2 Reporter Gene
Assays
Transcriptional activity of NF-kB was tested in VSMCs
derived from young and old M mulatta by a reporter gene
assay as described (28). We used a NF-kB reporter comprised an NF-kB response element upstream of firefly luciferase (NF-kB-Luc; Stratagene) and a renilla luciferase
plasmid under the control of the CMV promoter. The role
of oxidative stress in NF-kB activation was tested by
treating VSMCs with PEG-catalase (200 U/mL, for 24
hours).
The effect of treatment with H2O2 (from 10−6 to 10−4
mol/L) on transcriptional activity of Nrf2 was tested in
VSMCs derived from young and old M mulatta by a reporter gene assay, as described (10,12). We used an antioxidant response element (ARE) reporter composed of
tandem repeats of the ARE transcriptional response
element upstream of firefly luciferase (SA Biosciences,
Frederick, MD) and a renilla luciferase plasmid under the
control of the CMV promoter (as an internal control). All
transfections in VSMCs were performed using the Amaxa
Nucleofector technology (Amaxa, Gaithersburg, MD), as
we have previously reported (26,35,36). Firefly and renilla
luciferase activities were assessed after 24 hours using the
Dual Luciferase Reporter Assay Kit (Promega) and a Tecan Infinite M200 plate reader.
869
870
UNGVARI ET AL.
Oxidative Stress Elicits a Blunted Nrf2-Driven Antioxidant
Response in VSMCs From Aged Macaca mulatta
To determine whether age-associated Nrf2 dysregulation
impairs the ability of vascular cells to mount an effective
antioxidant response to oxidative stressors, we treated
VSMCs from young and aged M mulatta with H2O2 (10−7 to
10−5 mol/L) and high glucose. We found that H2O2 significantly increased transcriptional activity of Nrf2 in VSMCs
of young M mulatta, whereas H2O2–induced Nrf2 activation was significantly attenuated in VSMCs derived from
aged monkeys (Figure 5A). H2O2 and high glucose elicited
substantial upregulation of the Nrf2 target genes NQO1,
GCLC, and HMOX1 in young VSMCs (Figures 5B–D
and 6B–D, respectively). In contrast, H2O2– and hyperglycemia-induced changes in mRNA expression of GCLC,
NQO1, and HMOX1 were blunted in VSMCs derived from
aged monkeys (Figures 4B–D and 5B–D, respectively).
In young VSMCs, overexpression of Keap-1 significantly
downregulated basal expression levels of NQO1, GCLC,
and HMOX1 and prevented H2O2– and hyperglycemiainduced changes in Nrf2 target genes, mimicking the aging
phenotype (Figures 5B–D and 6B–D, respectively). In
aged VSMCs, overexpression of Keap-1 did not elicit
marked changes in the expression of Nrf2-driven genes.
Lack of induction of Nrf2 target genes in response to
model hyperglycemia was associated with significantly
greater increases in cellular H2DCFDA fluorescence in
VSMCs-derived aged M mulatta as compared with young
VSMCs (Figure 6A).
Discussion
Results from the present study demonstrate for the first
time an age-dependent increase in carotid arteries of M
mulatta in oxidative stress, as indicated by the increased
levels of several independent markers of cellular oxidative
stress (Figure 1A–E). These results extend those of previous
studies in rodents (16,18,37). Our findings that increased peroxide production in VSMCs derived from aged M mulatta
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
Figure 1. (A) 8-iso-PGF2a content in carotid arteries of young and aged Macaca mulatta. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4 for each group), *p < .05. (B) Representative Western blot showing immunolabeling for 4-HNE in samples of carotid arteries of young and aged M mulatta (m.w., molecular weight markers). Equal protein
loading was confirmed using Coomassie staining. Bar graphs (C) are summary densitometric data, *p <.05. (D–E) GSH (D) and ascorbate (E) content, determined
using HPLC electrochemical detection, in carotid arteries of young and aged M mulatta, *p < .05. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4 for each group). (E) H2DCFDA (F)
−
and MitoSox (G) fluorescence intensities, representing cellular peroxide and mitochondrial O 2 production, in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells derived from
young and aged M mulatta (flow cytometry data). The effect of treatment with the mitochondrial uncoupler FCCP on H2DCFDA fluorescence is also shown, *p < .05
versus young, #p < .05 versus untreated. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4–5).
VASCULAR Nrf2 DYSFUNCTION IN PRIMATE AGING
871
was attenuated by a mitochondrial uncoupler (Figure 1F), and
the demonstration of increased mitochondrial O2− in aged
VSMCs (Figure 1G) suggest that mitochondria importantly
contribute to the age-related increase in oxidative stress in
carotid arteries of M mulatta. This conclusion is in accord
with the results of previous studies showing increased mitochondrial oxidative stress in arteries of aged rodents (15,27).
Additional mechanisms of increased ROS production with
advancing age also include activation of NADPH oxidases
(16,18,38). From a pathophysiological standpoint, an increasing vascular oxidative stress with increasing age is expected to promote vascular inflammation and endothelial
dysfunction contributing to the development of vascular
diseases. Accordingly, age-associated oxidative stress is
linked to increased activity of the redox-sensitive transcription factor NF-kB and upregulation of NF-kB–driven proinflammatory gene expression both in arteries and in
VSMCs derived from aged M mulatta (Figure 2), extending
previous findings in vessels of aged rats (15) and mice
(17,39). Aging is also associated with generalized endothelial dysfunction in primate models (19) and elderly humans
(38), similar to the findings in laboratory rodents (16,18,40).
There is increasing evidence to suggests that stress-activated “cap’n’collar” transcription factors, including Nrf2,
play an important role in regulating the aging process by orchestrating the transcriptional response of cells to oxidative
stress (41–44). Regulation of the expression of antioxidant
enzymes by homologues of Nrf2 is evolutionarily highly conserved, and studies on Caenorhabditis elegans demonstrate
that knockdown of SKN-1, the worm homolog of Nrf2,
shortens life span (45). Previous studies also suggest that
Nrf2 mediates the antiaging effects of caloric restriction (42).
Recent studies have demonstrated that activation of Nrf2 and
upregulation of its downstream target enzymes provide vascular protection in oxidative stress by conferring important
antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects (8,12,46–49).
Here, we demonstrate, for the first time, that development of
vascular oxidative stress in aged nonhuman primates is associated with a homeostatic failure due to dysregulation of
Nrf2-mediated antioxidant responses (Figures 3 and 4). Our
findings extend the results of recent studies showing that in
the liver (50,51) and in the vasculature (52) of rodents, Nrf2depedent cytoprotection against oxidative stress diminishes
with aging. The available data also suggest an age-related decline in antioxidant enzymes in humans (53), although a detailed analysis of age-related changes in Nrf2 target gene
expression in human vessels is yet to be conducted. We postulate that aging-induced Nrf2 dysfunction contributes to the
age-related dysregulation of GSH synthesis in various tissues
(54–56), which likely contributes to the observed age-related
decline in vascular GSH content as well. The mechanisms
underlying dysregulation of Nrf2-mediated antioxidant response in aging are likely multifaceted. Although our recent
findings in F344×BN rats demonstrate that aging is associated with a downregulation of basal vascular Nrf2 expression both at the mRNA and protein levels (Ungvari and
Csiszar, unpublished data, 2010), age-associated changes in
Nrf2 expression in arteries of M mulatta are less pronounced
(Figure 3D). In addition, aging may also impair the pathways
that regulate Nrf2 activation and nuclear translocation.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
Figure 2. NF-kB–binding activity in nuclear extracts from carotid arteries of young and aged Macaca mulatta. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4 in each group), *p <
.05 vs young. (B–C) Expression of iNOS (B) and ICAM-1 (C) mRNA in carotid arteries of young and aged M mulatta. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4 in each group;
*p < .05). (D) Reporter gene assay showing that in VSMCs derived from aged M mulatta transcriptional activity of NF-kB is significantly increased (*p < .05 vs young
VSMCs). Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4–5). (E) Expression of interleukin-6 mRNA in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells derived from young and aged M mulatta.
The effects of treatment with H2O2 (10 mmol/L, for 24 hours) are also shown (*p < .05 vs young VSMCs and &p < .05 vs untreated).
872
UNGVARI ET AL.
Accordingly, results from the present study demonstrate that
exogenous administration of H2O2 elicits significant Nrf2
activation (Figure 5A) and upregulates Nrf2-depedenent
genes (Figure 5B–D) in VSMCs of young M mulatta. In contrast, in cells of aged monkeys, H2O2 fails to increase transcriptional activity of Nrf2 and upregulates Nrf2-dependent
free radical detoxification pathways.
There are multiple mechanisms through which dysregulation of Nrf2 may promote the development of cardiovascular diseases in aging. Adaptive activation of the Nrf2/
ARE pathway in young animals plays a key role in vasoprotection in a diabetic context (10,12). Importantly, genetic
lack of a functional Nrf2/ARE pathway results in significant increases in vascular ROS levels and a more severe
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
Figure 3. Representative confocal images showing immunofluorescent labeling for Nrf2 (red) in sections of carotid arteries of young (A, left) and aged (B, left)
Macaca mulatta. Green autofluorescence of elastic laminae is shown for orientation purposes, Hoechst 33342 (blue) was used for nuclear staining (original magnification: 20×, SMC, smooth muscle cells; EC, endothelial cells; Lu, lumen). Insets: arrows and double arrows point to the nuclei of endothelial cells and smooth
muscle cells, respectively (middle panels: overlay images and right panels: respective monochrome images showing immunolabeling for Nrf2. Note cytoplasmic localization of Nrf2 in each image.). (C) Nuclear Nrf2–binding activity in carotid arteries of young and aged M mulatta. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4 in each group).
(D) Protein expression of Nrf2 in carotid arteries of young and aged M mulatta (Western blotting, b-actin was used for normalization purposes). Bar graphs are summary densitometric values. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4 in each group).
VASCULAR Nrf2 DYSFUNCTION IN PRIMATE AGING
endothelial functional impairment in arteries of young type
2 diabetic Nrf2−/− mice compared with vessels of young
wild-type controls (10). Also, in isolated blood vessels and
endothelial cells from young animals, high glucose elicits
Figure 5. (A) Reporter gene assay showing that in VSMCs derived from
aged Macaca mulatta H2O2–induced transcriptional activity of Nrf2 is significantly attenuated as compared with VSMCs derived from young monkeys. Data
are mean ± SEM (n = 4–5 for each data point), *p < .05 versus young VSMCs.
(B) Expression of NQO1, GCLC (C), and heme oxygenase-1 (D) mRNA
in VSMCs derived from young and aged M mulatta. The effects of H2O2
(10 mmol/L, for 24 hours) and overexpression of Keap-1 are also shown. Data
are mean ± SEM (n = 4–5 in each group; *p < .05).
Figure 6. (A) In VSMCs from aged Macaca mulatta, high-glucose treatment (30 mmol/L, for 24 hours) results in significantly higher peroxide levels as
compared with VSMCs derived from young monkeys. Cellular peroxide levels
were measured by flow cytometry using the redox-sensitive fluorescent dye
CM-H2DCFDA. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4–5 in each group; *p < .05 vs untreated and &p < .05 vs young VSMCs). (B) Expression of NQO1, GCLC (C),
and heme oxygenase-1 (D) mRNA in VSMCs derived from young and aged M
mulatta. The effects of high glucose (30 mmol/L, for 24 hours) and overexpression of Keap-1 are also shown. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4–5 in each group; *p
< .05 vs untreated, #p < .05 vs no Keap-1 overexpression, and & p < .05 vs
young VSMCs).
significant mitochondrial ROS production (57,58), which
significantly increases the transcriptional activity of Nrf2
(8,11,12). Our present studies provide evidence that aging
impairs the ability of primate VSMCs to mount an effective
Nrf2-dependent antioxidant defense in response to hyperglycemia (Figure 6B–D), which results in more robust oxidative stress in VSMCs derived from aged monkeys than in
those of young animals (Figure 6A). We posit that impaired
ability of aged cells to mount an effective Nrf2/ARE-mediated antioxidant response (50,52) would render the vascular
system vulnerable to the deleterious effects of metabolic
disease. Because type 2 diabetes is a disease of aging (affecting almost one in five of people aged 65 years or more),
future studies should investigate the interaction of aging
and type 2 diabetes, with special emphasis on the role of
Nrf2 dysfunction in exaggerated vascular complications observed in aged diabetics (59). Both aging (16) and diabetes
mellitus (60) exacerbates the production of reactive nitrogen species in the cardiovascular system, thus subsequent
studies should also elucidate whether Nrf2 dysregulation
renders the aged vasculature more sensitive to the adverse
effects of diabetes-related nitrosative stress as well (61).
In conclusion, our studies provide evidence that aging in
a nonhuman primate impairs the ability of vascular cells to
mount an effective Nrf2-dependent antioxidant defense in
response to age-related increases in ROS production. Nrf2
may provide a therapeutic target for countering oxidative
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
Figure 4. Expression of GCLC (A), NQO1 (B), and HMOX1 (C) mRNA in
carotid arteries of young and aged Macaca mulatta. Data are mean ± SEM (n =
4 in each group; *p < .05). (D and E) Protein expression of GCLC (D) and
NQO1 (E) in carotid arteries of young and aged M mulatta (Western blotting,
b-actin was used for normalization purposes). Bar graphs are summary densitometric values. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4 in each group).
873
874
UNGVARI ET AL.
Funding
This work was supported by grants from the American Diabetes
Association (to Z. Ungvari), American Federation for Aging Research
(to A. Csiszar), the University of Oklahoma College of Medicine Alumni
Association (to A. Csiszar), the National Institutes of Health (AG031085
to A. Csiszar; AT006526 and HL077256 to Z. Ungvari; P01 AG11370
to W. E. Sonntag), and the Intramural Research Program of the National
Institute on Aging (M. Wang, E. Lakatta, R. de Cabo).
References
1. Gurwitz JH, Goldberg RJ, Gore JM. Coronary thrombolysis for the
elderly? JAMA. 1991;265:1720–1723.
2. Ungvari Z, Kaley G, de Cabo R, Sonntag WE, Csiszar A. Mechanisms
of vascular aging: new perspectives. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.
2010;65:1028–1041.
3. Jang YC, Perez VI, Song W, et al. Overexpression of Mn superoxide
dismutase does not increase life span in mice. J Gerontol A Biol Sci
Med Sci. 2009;64(11):1114–1125.
4. Zhang Y, Ikeno Y, Qi W, et al. Mice deficient in both Mn superoxide
dismutase and glutathione peroxidase-1 have increased oxidative
damage and a greater incidence of pathology but no reduction in longevity. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2009;64:1212–1220.
5. Ran Q, Liang H, Ikeno Y, et al. Reduction in glutathione peroxidase 4
increases life span through increased sensitivity to apoptosis. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007;62:932–942.
6. Csiszar A, Wang M, Lakatta EG, Ungvari ZI. Inflammation and endothelial dysfunction during aging: role of NF-{kappa}B. J Appl Physiol.
2008;105:1333–1341.
7. Yoh K, Hirayama A, Ishizaki K, et al. Hyperglycemia induces oxidative and nitrosative stress and increases renal functional impairment in
Nrf2-deficient mice. Genes Cells. 2008;13:1159–1170.
8. Xue M, Qian Q, Antonysunil A, Rabbani N, Babaei-Jadidi R, Thornalley PJ. Activation of NF-E2-related factor-2 reverses biochemical dysfunction of endothelial cells induced by hyperglycemia linked to
vascular disease. Diabetes. 2008;57(10):2809–2817.
9. Ungvari Z, Parrado-Fernandez C, Csiszar A, de Cabo R. Mechanisms
underlying caloric restriction and lifespan regulation: implications for
vascular aging. Circ Res. 2008;102:519–528.
10. Ungvari Z, Bagi Z, Feher A, et al. Resveratrol confers endothelial protection via activation of the antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2. Am J
Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2010;299:H18–H24.
11. He X, Kan H, Cai L, Ma Q. Nrf2 is critical in defense against high
glucose-induced oxidative damage in cardiomyocytes. J Mol Cell
Cardiol. 2009;46:47–58.
12. Ungvari Z, Bailey-Downs L, Gautam T, et al. Adaptive induction
of NF-E2-related factor-2-driven antioxidant genes in endothelial
cells in response to hyperglycemia. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol.
2011;300(4):H1133–H1140.
13. Warabi E, Takabe W, Minami T, et al. Shear stress stabilizes NF-E2related factor 2 and induces antioxidant genes in endothelial cells: role
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species. Free Radic Biol Med.
2007;42:260–269.
Afonyushkin T, Oskolkova OV, Philippova M, et al. Oxidized phospholipids regulate expression of ATF4 and VEGF in endothelial cells
via NRF2-dependent mechanism: novel point of convergence between
electrophilic and unfolded protein stress pathways. Arterioscler
Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010;30:1007–1013.
Ungvari Z, Orosz Z, Labinskyy N, et al. Increased mitochondrial
H2O2 production promotes endothelial NF-kappaB activation
in aged rat arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293:
H37–H47.
Csiszar A, Ungvari Z, Edwards JG, et al. Aging-induced phenotypic
changes and oxidative stress impair coronary arteriolar function. Circ
Res. 2002;90:1159–1166.
Pearson KJ, Baur JA, Lewis KN, et al. Resveratrol delays age-related
deterioration and mimics transcriptional aspects of dietary restriction
without extending life span. Cell Metab. 2008;8:157–168.
Csiszar A, Labinskyy N, Smith K, Rivera A, Orosz Z, Ungvari Z. Vasculoprotective effects of anti-TNFalfa treatment in aging. Am J Pathol.
2007;170:388–698.
Asai K, Kudej RK, Shen YT, et al. Peripheral vascular endothelial dysfunction and apoptosis in old monkeys. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc
Biol. 2000;20:1493–1499.
Shi Q, Aida K, Vandeberg JL, Wang XL. Passage-dependent changes
in baboon endothelial cells—relevance to in vitro aging. DNA Cell
Biol. 2004;23:502–509.
Vaitkevicius PV, Lane M, Spurgeon H, et al. A cross-link breaker has
sustained effects on arterial and ventricular properties in older rhesus
monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98:1171–1175.
de Magalhaes JP, Costa J, Church GM. An analysis of the relationship
between metabolism, developmental schedules, and longevity using
phylogenetic independent contrasts. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.
2007;62:149–160.
Addabbo F, Ratliff B, Park HC, et al. The Krebs cycle and mitochondrial mass are early victims of endothelial dysfunction: proteomic approach. Am J Pathol. 2009;174:34–43.
Csiszar A, Labinskyy N, Jimenez R, et al. Anti-oxidative and antiinflammatory vasoprotective effects of caloric restriction in aging:
role of circulating factors and SIRT1. Mech Ageing Dev. 2009;130:
518–527.
Ungvari Z, Gautam T, Koncz P, et al. Vasoprotective effects of life
span-extending peripubertal GH replacement in Lewis dwarf rats. J
Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;65:1145–1156.
Csiszar A, Smith KE, Koller A, Kaley G, Edwards JG, Ungvari Z.
Regulation of bone morphogenetic protein-2 expression in endothelial
cells: role of nuclear factor-kappaB activation by tumor necrosis factor-alpha, H2O2, and high intravascular pressure. Circulation.
2005;111:2364–2372.
Ungvari ZI, Labinskyy N, Gupte SA, Chander PN, Edwards JG,
Csiszar A. Dysregulation of mitochondrial biogenesis in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells of aged rats. Am J Physiol Heart
Circ Physiol. 2008;294:H2121–H2128.
Csiszar A, Smith K, Labinskyy N, Orosz Z, Rivera A, Ungvari Z. Resveratrol attenuates TNF-{alpha}-induced activation of coronary arterial endothelial cells: role of NF-{kappa}B inhibition. Am J Physiol.
2006;291:H1694–H1699.
Csiszar A, Labinskyy N, Zhao X, et al. Vascular superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production and oxidative stress resistance in two
closely related rodent species with disparate longevity. Aging Cell.
2007;6:783–797.
Krug AW, Allenhofer L, Monticone R, et al. Elevated mineralocorticoid receptor activity in aged rat vascular smooth muscle cells promotes a proinflammatory phenotype via extracellular signal-regulated
kinase 1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase and epidermal growth
factor receptor-dependent pathways. Hypertension. 2010;55:
1476–1483.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
stress associated with aging and pathological conditions
characterized by accelerated vascular aging. In that regard,
it is significant that in vascular cells, Nrf2 can be activated
pharmacologically by resveratrol (10), a polyphenolic compound with diverse antiaging properties (17,62–65). Importantly, resveratrol was shown to confer vasoprotection in
rodent models of aging, upregulating antioxidant systems,
decreasing oxidative stress, improving endothelial function,
and attenuating vascular inflammation (17). Further studies
are warranted to determine whether resveratrol and/or other
activators of Nrf2 can confer similar vasoprotective effects
in aged primates as well.
VASCULAR Nrf2 DYSFUNCTION IN PRIMATE AGING
49. Fledderus JO, Boon RA, Volger OL, et al. KLF2 primes the antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2 for activation in endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1339–1346.
50. Suh JH, Shenvi SV, Dixon BM, et al. Decline in transcriptional activity of Nrf2 causes age-related loss of glutathione synthesis, which is
reversible with lipoic acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101:
3381–3386.
51. Bloomer SA, Zhang HJ, Brown KE, Kregel KC. Differential regulation of hepatic heme oxygenase-1 protein with aging and heat stress. J
Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2009;64:419–425.
52. Collins AR, Lyon CJ, Xia X, et al. Age-accelerated atherosclerosis
correlates with failure to upregulate antioxidant genes. Circ Res.
2009;104:e42–e54.
53. Espinoza SE, Guo H, Fedarko N, et al. Glutathione peroxidase
enzyme activity in aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63:
505–509.
54. Xu J, Rong S, Xie B, et al. Procyanidins extracted from the lotus seedpod ameliorate age-related antioxidant deficit in aged rats. J Gerontol
A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;65:236–241.
55. Chen CN, Brown-Borg HM, Rakoczy SG, Ferrington DA, Thompson
LV. Aging impairs the expression of the catalytic subunit of glutamate
cysteine ligase in soleus muscle under stress. J Gerontol A Biol Sci
Med Sci. 2010;65:129–137.
56. Chen CN, Brown-Borg HM, Rakoczy SG, Thompson LV. Muscle disuse: adaptation of antioxidant systems is age dependent. J Gerontol A
Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63:461–466.
57. Ungvari Z, Labinskyy N, Mukhopadhyay P, et al. Resveratrol attenuates mitochondrial oxidative stress in coronary arterial endothelial
cells. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2009;297:H1876–H1881.
58. Mukhopadhyay P, Rajesh M, Hasko G, Hawkins BJ, Madesh M,
Pacher P. Simultaneous detection of apoptosis and mitochondrial superoxide production in live cells by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Nat Protoc. 2007;2:2295–2301.
59. Bruce DG, Davis WA, Casey GP, et al. Predictors of cognitive decline in older individuals with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:
2103–2107.
60. Pacher P, Beckman JS, Liaudet L. Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in
health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2007;87:315–424.
61. Szabo C, Zanchi A, Komjati K, et al. Poly(ADP-Ribose) polymerase
is activated in subjects at risk of developing type 2 diabetes and is associated with impaired vascular reactivity. Circulation. 2002;106:
2680–2686.
62. Ryan MJ, Jackson JR, Hao Y, et al. Suppression of oxidative stress by
resveratrol after isometric contractions in gastrocnemius muscles of
aged mice. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;65:815–831.
63. Labbe A, Garand C, Cogger VC, et al. Resveratrol improves insulin
resistance hyperglycemia and hepatosteatosis but not hypertriglyceridemia, inflammation, and life span in a mouse model for Werner syndrome. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011;66:264–278.
64. Miller RA, Harrison DE, Astle CM, et al. Rapamycin, but not resveratrol or simvastatin, extends life span of genetically heterogeneous
mice. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011;66:191–201.
65. Giovannelli L, Pitozzi V, Jacomelli M, et al. Protective effects of resveratrol against senescence-associated changes in cultured human fibroblasts. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011;66:9–18.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/66A/8/866/559873 by guest on 18 June 2022
31. Csiszar A, Labinskyy N, Podlutsky A, et al. Vasoprotective effects of
resveratrol and SIRT1: attenuation of cigarette smoke-induced oxidative stress and proinflammatory phenotypic alterations. Am J Physiol
Heart Circ Physiol. 2008;294:H2721–H2735.
32. Csiszar A, Labinskyy N, Perez V, et al. Endothelial function and vascular oxidative stress in long-lived GH/IGF-deficient Ames dwarf
mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2008;295:H1882–H1894.
33. Nishikawa T, Edelstein D, Du XL, et al. Normalizing mitochondrial
superoxide production blocks three pathways of hyperglycaemic damage. Nature. 2000;404:787–790.
34. Lambert AJ, Brand MD. Inhibitors of the quinone-binding site allow
rapid superoxide production from mitochondrial NADH:ubiquinone
oxidoreductase (complex I). J Biol Chem. 2004;279:39414–39420.
35. Csiszar A, Ahmad M, Smith KE, et al. Bone morphogenetic protein-2
induces proinflammatory endothelial phenotype. Am J Pathol. 2006;
168:629–638.
36. Csiszar A, Ungvari Z, Koller A, Edwards JG, Kaley G. Proinflammatory phenotype of coronary arteries promotes endothelial apoptosis in
aging. Physiol Genomics. 2004;17:21–30.
37. Csiszar A, Labinskyy N, Orosz Z, Xiangmin Z, Buffenstein R,
Ungvari Z. Vascular aging in the longest-living rodent, the naked mole
rat. Am J Physiol. 2007;293:H919–H927.
38. Donato AJ, Eskurza I, Silver AE, et al. Direct evidence of endothelial
oxidative stress with aging in humans: relation to impaired endothelium-dependent dilation and upregulation of nuclear factor-kappaB.
Circ Res. 2007;100:1659–1666.
39. Lesniewski LA, Durrant JR, Connell ML, Folian BJ, Donato AJ, Seals
DR. Salicylate treatment improves age-associated vascular endothelial
dysfunction: potential role of nuclear factor {kappa}B and forkhead box
O phosphorylation. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011;66:409–418.
40. Lesniewski LA, Connell ML, Durrant JR, et al. B6D2F1 mice are a
suitable model of oxidative stress-mediated impaired endotheliumdependent dilation with aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.
2009;64:9–20.
41. Jodar L, Mercken EM, Ariza J, et al. Genetic deletion of nrf2 promotes
immortalization and decreases life span of murine embryonic fibroblasts. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011;66:247–256.
42. Pearson KJ, Lewis KN, Price NL, et al. Nrf2 mediates cancer protection but not prolongevity induced by caloric restriction. Proc Natl
Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105:2325–2330.
43. Minor RK, Allard JS, Younts CM, Ward TM, de Cabo R. Dietary interventions to extend life span and health span based on calorie restriction. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2010;65:695–703.
44. Martin-Montalvo A, Villalba JM, Navas P, de Cabo R. NRF2, cancer
and calorie restriction. Oncogene. 2011;30:505–520.
45. Jasper H. SKNy worms and long life. Cell. 2008;132:915–916.
46. Chen XL, Varner SE, Rao AS, et al. Laminar flow induction of antioxidant response element-mediated genes in endothelial cells. A novel
anti-inflammatory mechanism. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:703–711.
47. Jyrkkanen HK, Kansanen E, Inkala M, et al. Nrf2 regulates antioxidant gene expression evoked by oxidized phospholipids in endothelial
cells and murine arteries in vivo. Circ Res. 2008;103:e1–e9.
48. Zakkar M, Van der Heiden K, Luong LA, et al. Activation of Nrf2 in
endothelial cells protects arteries from exhibiting a proinflammatory
state. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29(11):1851–1857.
875