Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
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Food Research International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres
Mapping the variability in physical, cooking, and nutritional properties of
Zamnè, a wild food in Burkina Faso
Moustapha Soungalo Drabo a, b, Habtu Shumoy a, Hama Cissé b, Charles Parkouda c,
Fulbert Nikiéma d, Ismail Odetokun e, Yves Traoré b, Aly Savadogo b, Katleen Raes a, *
a
Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry and Immunology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University Joseph Ki-Zerbo, BP 7021 Ouagadougou 03, Burkina
Faso
c
Department of Food Technologies, Institute of Research in Applied Sciences and Technologies, BP 7047 Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso
d
Direction of Food Control and Applied Nutrition, National Laboratory of Public health, BP 24 Ouagadougou 09, Burkina Faso
e
Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ilorin, PMB 1515, Nigeria
b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Senegalia macrostachya
Acacia
Wild legume
Terroir food
Hard-to-cook defect
Zamnè is an Acacia seed used as a terroir food in Burkina Faso. It has been introduced as a famine-resilience crop
and has become a cultural diet. However, little is known about its culinary and nutritional properties. This study
aimed to explore the cooking and nutritional properties of Zamnè (Senegalia macrostachya (Reichenb. ex DC.)
Kyal. & Boatwr.). Zamnè presented characteristics of medium size, flattened, dry, and hard-to-cook legume. The
moisture, cylindrical ratio, diameter, thickness, weight, true density, coat percentage, coat thickness, and
cooking time of the seeds were in the range of 4.5–5.8%, 1.1, 7.4–8.0 mm, 1.6–1.8 mm, 65.0–76.4 mg, 1.1 g/ml,
16.8–22.2%, 9.0–11.9 mg/cm2, and 180 min, respectively. The raw Zamnè showed 39.8–43.6, 9.7–11.5,
16.6–29.4, 13.3–20.2, 16.6–26.4, and 3.7–3.9 (g/100 g dry weight) of protein, fat, total dietary fiber, insoluble
dietary fiber, digestible carbohydrate, and ash contents, respectively. The traditional cooking process improved
most of the parameters determining the proximate compositions but resulted in 51–52% of protein and 47–50%
carbohydrate losses into the cooking wastewater. Besides, pseudoZamnè, a famine-emergency crop similar to
Zamnè, revealed inferior cooking quality than Zamnè. The data reported here provide a basis for alternative
cooking techniques and further investigations of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè seeds’ nutritional quality.
1. Introduction
The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic emphasized the vulnerability of
several parts of the world to hunger and the urgency to rethink the
current food system’s sustainability. FAO/IFAD/UNICEF/WFP/WHO
(2020) has reported that the lockdown compromised food supply in
several hunger-prone regions of the world and might add up 83 to 132
million people to the ranks of undernourished in 2020. United Nations
agenda to end hunger, reduce nutrition-associated health problems, and
mitigate climate-change costs by 2030 is falling short (FAO/IFAD/
UNICEF/WFP/WHO, 2020; Galanakis, 2020). Under the lockdown,
people have been compelled to rely on local food supply (ECLAC/FAO,
2020; Galanakis, 2020). The concept of “local production for local
consumption” can reconcile the global food system’s resilience with
biodiversity preservation, environment protection, agriculture
sustainability, food security, and public health (ECLAC/FAO, 2020;
Galanakis, 2020). Local food resources, such as Zamnè, have then been
put back in the spotlight.
Zamnè is an endogenous legume seed in Burkina Faso, which can be
promoted in human diets to tackle the frequent food shortage in several
West African countries or globally in the growing market for healthy
foods. The name Zamnè designates both to the raw and cooked seeds
from Senegalia macrostachya (Reichenb. ex DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr. The
species belongs to Acacia sensu lato and is mainly spread in the semi-arid
lands from West to Northcentral Africa (Arbonnier, 2000). To our
knowledge, Zamnè is only known in Burkina Faso, where it first has been
used as a famine-resilience crop but rising nowadays in traditional diets
as a cultural and health-promoting food. Zamnè is eaten as a main dish or
ingredient in salads or sauces.
The scarcity of research on Zamnè does not give a clear insight into
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: katleen.raes@ugent.be (K. Raes).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109810
Received 9 June 2020; Received in revised form 12 October 2020; Accepted 13 October 2020
Available online 21 October 2020
0963-9969/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.S. Drabo et al.
Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
the previously reported compositional variabilities and culinary properties. In general, Zamnè is considered as a wild protein-rich legume
(38% dry weight (dw) on average) (Guissou, Parkouda, Ganaba, &
Savadogo, 2017; Hama-Bâ et al., 2017; Msika, Saunois, Leclere-Bienfait,
& Baudoin, 2017). However, in contrast, Savadogo, Ilboudo, and Traore
(2011) reported significant variations in the proximate compositions
(10–13 and 11–36% dw of proteins and starches, respectively). Besides,
Guissou et al. (2017) surveyed the cooking practices and reported very
extensive alkali hydrothermal processes. The cooking processes include
highly varying alkalinization levels (between 1 and 5% m/m alkali/
cooking water), two distinct boiling steps of between 47 and 147 min
each, and hot soaking (3 h or overnight) or steaming (30 min) (Guissou
et al., 2017). The cooking processes’ variations suggest variability of the
seed quality in terms of cookability and quality of the end food products.
On the other hand, related species to Zamnè, known as pseudoZamnès,
could be mixed up. The ethnic group Samo, from Burkina Faso, uses the
seeds from Senegalia senegal, Senegalia dudgeonii, and S. ataxacantha as
pseudoZamnès during food scarcity times. The pseudoZamnès are not
supposed to be sold in the markets but could be a source of fraud.
Compared to Zamnè, they are not much appreciated due to the hard-tocook problem and the lower palatability.
Easy processability and high nutritional profile of legumes are the
main prerequisites for their wider acceptance as human food. The hardto-cook trait is a common concern with legumes (Mubaiwa, Fogliano,
Chidewe, & Linnemann, 2017; Shehata, 1992). It implicates excessive
expenditure of energy (fuel and labor) and time for cooking, the
degradation of essential nutrients (associated with the required longer
cooking), and the under-utilization of legumes (Mubaiwa et al., 2017;
Shehata, 1992). Understanding the basis of the hard-to-cook problem,
such as specific physical and chemical properties and responses to
processings, allows to improve the cooking techniques and to develop
alternative processing of legumes into concentrated-protein, nutritive
and healthy foods (Duranti, 2006; Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Shehata, 1992).
Zamnè is not a well-known legume, and there is scarce information on its
nutritional properties and processability. Therefore, this study aimed to
map the variability in the physical, chemical, and cooking properties of
Zamnè obtained from the local markets in Burkina Faso. Besides, the
differences in nutritional values and cookability between Zamnè and
pseudoZamnè were identified.
Diameter (mm) =
Major diameter + Minor diameter
2
Cylindrical ratio =
Major diameter
Minor diameter
(
)
(
)
Diameter
Seed surface area mm2 = π*Diameter*
+ Thickness
2
(1)
(2)
(3)
Seed coat percentage and thickness were gravimetrically determined. Briefly, 50 g of samples were boiled for 90 min until the seed
coats were removable by squeezing between fingers. Then, duplicates of
fifteen random seeds were picked, and the coats and cotyledons were
separated and dried (at 105 ◦ C for 4 h) until constant weight. The coat
percentage and thickness were calculated using the following formulas
(Avola & Patane, 2010) :
Coat% =
100*Coat (g)
(Coat (g) + Cotyledon (g) )
(
) Coat%*Thousand seeds weight (mg)
Coat thickness mg/cm2 =
1000*Seed surface area (cm2 )
(4)
(5)
Seed bulk density, true density, and porosity were determined, according to Mpotokwane, Gaditlhatlhelwe, Sebaka, and Jideani (2008). A
container (1000 ml cylinder) was filled with the seeds, and the content
was weighed (bulk weight). Then, 10 g of seeds were accurately
weighed, placed in a 100 ml measuring cylinder, and immersed with 15
ml of water. The water level was read and converted to the true volume
of the seeds. The analyses were performed in duplicate, and seed densities and porosity were accounted as follows:
Bulk density (mg/ml) =
Bulk weight (g)
Container volume (ml)
(6)
True density (mg/ml) =
Sample weight (g)
True volume (ml)
(7)
(
)
Bulk density
Porosity = 100* 1 −
True density
(8)
2.3. Hydration tests
2. Material and methods
Fifteen g of samples (~250 raw seeds) were soaked in tap water (28
± 1 ◦ C), boiled water (99 ± 1 ◦ C), boiled potash solution (potash/water
1% m/m, 99 ± 1 ◦ C), and boiled baking soda solution (NaHCO3/water
1% m/m, 99 ± 1 ◦ C). Duplicates of 10 random seeds were picked after 1,
3, and 6 h, the free water was removed using a blotting towel, and the
seeds were dried (105 ◦ C for 4 h) until constant weight. The hydration
indices were calculated using the formula (Avola & Patane, 2010):
2.1. Sampling
S. macrostachya seeds, as control Zamnè, were harvested from a wild
field (GPS N 12◦ 39′ W −3◦ 00′ , Village Kamba) in January 2018. A
specimen (a branch with leaves, pods, and flowers) was identified and
deposited at the herbarium (INFOBIO N◦ 6885, University Joseph KiZerbo). Five markets, namely three in Ouagadougou, one in Ouahigouya, and one in Dedougou (Burkina Faso), were inspected. Besides,
two local enterprises of forest-based products were visited in Dedougou
and Gassam, respectively. One sample (about 3 kg) of seeds was purchased (between January and February 2018) at each visited place. The
seeds collected from the market in Dedougou were suspected as false
Zamnè and designated as pseudoZamnè. All the samples were manually
cleaned to remove foreign matters and damaged seeds.
Absorbed water (g)
Hydration index (g/100 g dw) = 100*
Seed dry weight (g)
(9)
All the experiments were performed at room temperature (30 ±
1 ◦ C). The pH and temperature drops of the soaking solutions were
monitored using a digital pH meter and thermometer.
2.4. Determination of hydration indices and cooking times
Samples (50 g each) were placed in boiling distilled water and
continuously boiled (99 ± 2 ◦ C). The hydration indices were determined
at different time points up to 6 h of cooking, as described above. According to Avola and Patane (2010), the hydration capacity and rate
were defined as the maximum water absorption after 6 h and the slope in
the linear phase between 0 and 60 min, respectively. Besides, the softening degree was continuously monitored using the finger-pressing
method. The cooking times were determined when the seeds were
perceived well-soften (Kinyanjui et al., 2015).
2.2. Physical examination
The weight of thousand seeds was determined by counting and
weighing a duplicate of 100 seeds and multiplying by 10 (Kumar, Prasad, Chandra, & Debnath, 2016). The dimensions (diameters and
thickness) of 15 random seeds were measured using a digital caliper
(precision = 0.01 mm). According to the shape similarity principle of
Mohsenin (1986), the geometric features of the seeds were calculated
using the following formulas :
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Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
2.5. Cooking trial and preparation of samples
2.6. Compositional analysis
The traditional cooking process of Zamnè was performed in the
laboratory, as summarized in Fig. 1. Briefly, 500 g of selected Zamnè and
pseudoZamnè samples were separately precooked (first step boiling) in
~ 1.5% m/m of cooking aid/water for 90 and 150 min, respectively.
Then, half of the precooked Zamnè and pseudoZamnè underwent a second boiling step for 90 and 180 min, respectively, to obtain fully cooked
seeds. The proportion of the boiling water to seeds was kept constant
throughout the cooking by adding lukewarm water when necessary. The
precooked and cooked seeds were dried in a ventilated oven (50 ◦ C for
20 h). The precooking and cooking wastewaters were pooled and dried
(105 ◦ C for 24 h). After all, the recovered leached solids and the cooked,
precooked, and raw seeds were finely ground to pass 0.5 mm mesh (IKA
M20, 25000 rpm) and further dried overnight (50 ◦ C for 16 h).
Total moisture, ash, nitrogen, and fat contents were determined according to AOAC 925.09, AOAC 923.03, AOAC 979.09 (AOAC, 1995),
and Thiex, Anderson, and Gildemeister (2003), respectively. Total protein was calculated by converting the nitrogen content using the general
factor 6.25. Dietary fiber composition (total and insoluble) was analyzed
following AOAC 991.43 (AOAC, 1995). Total carbohydrate, digestible
carbohydrate, and soluble dietary fiber contents were calculated according to the differential methods. The effect of the cooking on the
protein dispersibility index (PDI%) was assessed following AOCS Ba
10–65 (AOCS, 1990). All the analyses were performed in duplicate.
2.7. Cooking loss analysis
The leached solids’ proximate compositions (total dry weight, ash,
fat, protein, and carbohydrate) were determined as described above.
The nutrient losses were calculated, according to Murphy, Criner, and
Gray (1975):
Nutrient% of leached solid*total leached solid dw (g)
Loss% = 100*
Nutrient% of used raw seeds*total used raw seeds dw (g)
(10)
2.8. Data analysis
The data were analyzed using R program version 3.6.1. The results
were expressed as means ± standard deviations and subjected to one or
two way ANOVA. The differences among the means were determined
using Tukey’s HSD post-hoc analyses at p-value ≤ 0.05, and the principal component analysis was performed to examine the distribution.
The interrelationships among the parameters were investigated by
determining the coefficients r of Pearson.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Variability in the chemical properties
The proximate compositions of the raw Zamnè seeds are shown in
Table 1. The fat and ash contents were similar to previous reports
(Guissou et al., 2017; Hama-Bâ et al., 2017; Msika et al., 2017). The total
dietary fiber content varied significantly between the samples. Still, the
values were in between the values reported by Msika et al. (2017) (38%
dw) and Hama-Bâ et al. (2017) and Guissou et al. (2017) (15–16% dw).
This study showed that 20–35% of the total dietary fiber is present in the
soluble form and is comparable with the content in soybeans but higher
than in faba beans (El-shemy, Abdel-rahim, Shaban, Ragab, & Fujita,
2000). Subsequently, the carbohydrate composition significantly varied,
suggesting a difference in carbohydrate digestibility among the samples
and probably hard-to-cook defects (Gwala et al., 2019). Seeds’ hard-tocook defects have been attributed to their harvest maturity and storability (Iliadis, 2001; Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Shehata, 1992). Further
research is needed to determine the impact of harvest maturity and the
storability of Zamnè on the hard-to-cook phenomena.
Compared to the collected pseudoZamnè (Table 1), Zamnè had higher
fat and protein contents but lower ash and dietary fiber contents. While
the protein contents of both Zamnè and pseudoZamnè were similar to the
values (35–40% dw) in recent literature on Zamnè (Guissou et al., 2017;
Hama-Bâ et al., 2017; Msika et al., 2017), there is a huge discrepancy
with the values (10–13% dw) reported by Savadogo et al. (2011).
Furthermore, both Zamnè and pseudoZamnè exhibited higher or comparable protein, fat, dietary fibers, and ash contents, but lower or similar
digestible carbohydrate contents to most staple legumes (FAO/INFOOD,
2017).
Fig. 1. Traditional cooking process of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè. Adapted according to Guissou et al. (2017) and the cooking time as determined above.
3
M.S. Drabo et al.
Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
Table 1
Physical, chemical, and cooking properties of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè purchased from the local markets in Burkina Faso.
Sample
description
Chemical
Properties (%
dw)
Species
Origin
Ouahigouya
Code
ZWr1
ZWr2
ZWr3
ZOr
43.27 ±
1.84a
10.68 ±
0.08abc
40.36 ±
2.28a
11.53 ±
0.08a
41.02 ±
1.71a
11.24 ±
0.14ab
41.28 ± 0.49a
Fat
Insoluble dietary
fiber
Soluble dietary
fiber
Digestible
carbohydrate
Ash
Moisture
Diameter (mm)
Cylindrical ratio
Thickness (mm)
1000 seeds weight
(g)
Bulk density (g/ml)
True density (g/ml)
Porosity %
Coat (% dw)
Cooking
properties
Ouagadougou
PseudoZamnè
Protein
Total dietary fiber
Physical
properties
Zamnè
Coat thickness
(mg/cm2)
Cooking time (min)
Hydration rate
(g H2O /100 g dw.
min)
Hydration capacity
(g H2O / 100 g dw)
10.15 ±
0.10bc
23.26 ±
3.43ab
17.93 ± 1.21a
5.33
21.48
3.74 ±
0.28a
4.45 ±
0.43a
7.46 ±
0.48a
1.07 ±
0.03a
1.73 ±
0.24a
65.00 ±
2.33a
0.75 ±
0.01a
1.06 ±
0.01ab
28.77
22.24 ±
0.36a
11.22 ±
0.18ab
3.78 ±
0.23a
4.84 ±
0.14ab
7.38 ±
0.71a
1.06 ±
0.05a
1.56 ±
0.25a
65.92 ±
0.42a
0.75 ±
0.01a
1.05 ±
0.02ab
28.85
22.03 ±
0.32a
11.93 ±
0.18a
3.54 ±
0.12a
4.79 ±
0.15ab
7.97 ±
0.48a
1.06 ±
0.5a
1.76 ±
0.02a
76.38 ±
0.51b
0.77 ±
0.01ab
1.08 ±
0.01ac
28.71
20.07 ±
0.50ab
10.71 ±
0.26ab
a
3.83 ± 0.17
4.80 ± 0.36ab
7.78 ± 0.60a
1.07 ± 0.07a
1.74 ± 0.24a
71.18 ± 1.17c
0.79 ± 0.01b
1.01 ± 0.01b
22.33
20.07 ±
0.36ab
10.39 ± 0.19
cd
180
5.46 ± 0.11a
312.7 ± 10.5a
Toma.
Gassam
ZTGr
Toma.
Kamba
ZTKr
Dedougou
Dedougou
ZDr
spZDr
43.45 ±
1.93a
9.72 ±
0.01c
16.61 ±
2.84a
13.25 ±
1.11b
3.35
43.55 ±
0.55a
10.26 ±
0.03bc
22.03 ±
0.86ab
14.26 ±
0.33a
7.77
39.81 ±
0.86ab
10.50 ±
0.10abc
29.35 ±
2.54bc
20.16 ±
0.22a
9.19
35.99 ±
0.07b
4.70 ± 0.08d
26.43
20.22
16.60
32.63 ± 1.70
c
22.54 ±
3.52a
10.08
pvalue
0.010
<
0.001
0.005
0.013
21.56
a
3.78 ±
0.15a
4.85 ±
0.14ab
7.59 ±
0.59a
1.06 ±
0.05a
1.71 ±
0.19a
68.49 ±
0.02ac
0.79 ±
0.02b
1.12 ±
0.02c
29.47
18.20 ±
0.59bc
9.51 ±
0.31bc
180
5.29 ±
0.30a
3.93 ±
0.20a
5.37 ±
0.31bc
7.37 ±
0.61a
1.12 ±
0.11a
1.62 ±
0.26a
65.56 ±
0.53a
0.75 ±
0.01a
1.07 ±
0.01ac
30.41
20.03 ±
0.57c
8.98 ±
0.47d
180
5.40 ±
0.54a
3.74 ± 0.13
5.13 ± 0.15b
5.84 ± 0.29
6.45 ± 0.07d
7.76 ± 0.39a
8.87 ± 0.33b
1.07 ± 0.04a
1.08 ± 0.09a
<
0.001
<
0.001
<
0.001
0.365
1.65 ± 0.23a
1.70 ± 0.13a
0.236
71.86 ±
0.15c
0.77 ±
0.01ab
1.07 ±
0.01abc
27.58
16.80 ±
0.88ab
10.68 ±
0.30abc
180
6.50 ± 0.42a
92.68 ±
0.47d
0.90 ± 0.01c
340.4 ±
30.3a
319.5 ±
5.4a
300.5 ± 1.0a
348.2 ± 9.4a
cd
1.20 ± 0.02d
24.97
33.89 ±
0.94d
18.36 ±
0.51e
330
2.15 ± 0.06b
<
0.001
<
0.001
<
0.001
<
0.001
<
0.001
<
0.001
0.091
Z, spZ, (W, O, TG, TK, D), and the indices (1–3) designate Zamnè, pseudoZamnè, town, and the number of the markets inspected, respectively. The values are expressed
as the means ± SD (n = 2). % dw = per 100 g dry weight. The values in the same row with the different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The different physical properties are directly associated with the
processability of seeds. The moisture content indicates Zamnè as hard
and dry seeds, which must have good storability (Mubaiwa et al., 2017;
Shehata, 1992). The physical dimensions will determine operations for
the grading, sorting, and storage of Zamnè. For instance, the flat shape
will enable Zamnè seeds to slide and occupy less volume or space, which
is interesting for designing storage facilities. Bulk density is useful for
monitoring the seeds’ quality, while true density will support cleaning
and grading operations (Kumar et al., 2016; Mpotokwane et al., 2008;
Mubaiwa et al., 2017). Porosity is supposed to ease fluid, air, and heat
flow through seed bulk during processing operations (Kumar et al.,
2016; Mpotokwane et al., 2008; Mubaiwa et al., 2017). The low porosity
of Zamnè may, therefore, pose constraints in operations such as soaking,
heating, cooling, and drying. Finally, the coat may provide numerous
functional properties to Zamnè, such as biofunctional nutrients and
protection against insect attacks during storage (Dueñas et al., 2002;
Miao et al., 2001; Mubaiwa et al., 2017). Besides, the coat can pose hardshell concerns, such as low digestibility, hydration properties, and
processability or cookability (Miao et al., 2001; Mubaiwa et al., 2017) which is discussed in sections below.
3.2. Variability in the physical properties and the processability
The physical properties of the Zamnè samples and the collected
pseudoZamnè are summarized in Table 1. Both Zamnè and pseudoZamnè
were dry, round, and flattened seeds (~5% moisture, cylindrical ratio =
1.1, diameter = 7–9 mm, and thickness = 1.7 mm), and had brown seed
coats and yellow dicotyledons. The seeds were both marked by a sickleform areole on both sides and were difficult to differentiate visually.
Zamnè had a lower weight, true density, and bulk density than
pseudoZamnè. The porosity of both seed species, for instance, were
comparable. Seed coat percentage and thickness were found to be
almost twice higher for pseudoZamnè than Zamnè. The morphological
characteristics of Zamnè have high similarities to brown lentils (Khazaei,
Fedoruk, Caron, Vandenberg, & Bett, 2018; Kumar et al., 2016). Both
seed species had lower or similar porosity to Bambara groundnut
(Mubaiwa et al., 2017), Jack bean (Mpotokwane et al., 2008), and lentil
(Kumar et al., 2016). The coat weight percentage of Zamnè was higher
compared to chickpeas (5–7%) (Avola & Patane, 2010), lentils (8–11%)
(Dueñas, Hernández, & Estrella, 2002), and faba beans (15–17%)
(Avola, Gresta, & Abbate, 2009), but similar to lupins (22–32%) (Miao,
Fortune, & Gallagher, 2001). Still, the coat thickness of Zamnè (9–12
mg/cm2) was lower compared to faba beans (16–28 mg/cm2) (Avola
et al., 2009) but similar to chickpeas (8–12 mg/cm2) (Avola & Patane,
2010).
3.3. Variability in the cooking properties
PseudoZamnè were twice harder to cook than Zamnè (Table 1) and
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Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
were associated with darker (Fig. 1) and hard coat after cooking.
Nonetheless, both seed species were identified as hard-to-cook legumes
(cooking time more than 120 min) (Kinyanjui et al., 2015). Guissou et al.
(2017) reported that Zamnè is traditionally cooked by boiling for
140–300 min in an alkaline solution. The cooking times’ differences may
be associated with either the seed qualities (like hard-to-cook defects), a
mix-up of Zamnè with pseudoZamnè, or the culinary practices. Zamnè
showed a comparable cooking time to several staple legumes, i.e. lentils
(75–180 min), cowpeas (~145 min), common beans (90–450 min),
soybeans (~220 min), and Bambara groundnuts (180–240 min) (de
León, Elías, & Bressani, 1992; Iliadis, 2001; Kinyanjui et al., 2015;
Mubaiwa et al., 2017). As cited, staple legumes also require variable
cooking intensity according to the seeds’ quality and cooking
techniques.
The hydration kinetics and indices of selected Zamnè and
pseudoZamnè samples during cooking were assessed, and the results are
presented in Fig. 2 and Table 1, respectively. The hydration kinetics of
the selected Zamnè samples overlapped and reached maximum hydration after 45 min of boiling. In contrast, the pseudoZamnè showed a twice
slower hydration rate but reached a similar hydration capacity after 2 h.
The hydration capacity has been reported to be between 80 and 200 g
H2O/ 100 g dw for common legumes (Avola et al., 2009; Kinyanjui et al.,
2015; Kumar et al., 2016; Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Uzogara, Morton, &
Daniel, 1988). The higher hydration capacity of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè
can be explained in that Acacia species can develop superior drought
tolerance through high cell wall elasticity and large cell sizes with high
water holding capacity (Diallo, Nielsen, Kjær, Petersen, & Ræbild,
2016). Moreover, Kinyanjui et al. (2015) reported a slower hydration
rate (<1.5 g H2O / 100 g dw.min) during the cooking of both selected
easy- and hard-to-cook beans. These observations mean that Zamnè had
quite good hydration properties and that the hard-to-cook problem was
not only associated with the hydration ability (Avola & Patane, 2010;
Kigel, 1999; Shehata, 1992).
3.4. Mapping of the overall variability in the physicochemical properties
As mapped in Fig. 3, Zamnè had low overall variability, and most of
the samples (ZKr, ZOr, ZWr1, ZWr2, and ZWr3) formed a cluster. Only
ZTGr and ZDr were isolated due to the difference in their carbohydrate
digestibility. The pseudoZamnè sample (spZDr) was separated from
Zamnè through fat and ash contents, seed weight, seed density, hydration rate, coat percentage, and coat thickness. The visual identification
of the collected pseudoZamnè was not conclusive. In line with indigenous
people’s assertion, pseudoZamnès are mainly identified through their
hard-to-cook characteristics compared to Zamnè. The case of the
fraudulent seeds (spZDr) let us suppose that people can be easily fooled
with pseudoZamnès for Zamnè. The compositional properties and the
edibility for humans of pseudoZamnès are scarcely substantiated. Since
the toxicological profiles of Acacia seeds are not well documented,
consumers must be cautious not to eat the not well-known species
(Rinaudo, Patel, & Thomson, 2002).
3.5. Hard-to-cook phenomenon examination
Table 2 designates Pearson’s correlations between the chemical,
physical and cooking properties of the purchased Zamnè and
pseudoZamnè. The correlations were explored to identify interrelationships that may indicate the development of the hard-to-cook phenomenon. Only few parameters showed significant (p < 0.01) correlations.
Protein content, insoluble dietary fiber content, seed diameter, seed
weight, coat percentage, and coat thickness were strongly correlated
negatively. Also, fat content, ash content, seed diameter, seed weight,
seed densities, coat percentage, and coat thickness were strongly
correlated negatively. On the other hand, ash content, seed diameter,
seed weight, seed bulk density, coat percentage, coat thickness, and
cooking time were strongly correlated positively. The hydration rate, for
instance, strongly correlated positively with fat content but negatively
Fig. 2. Compared hydration kinetics of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè. The values are expressed as the means ± SD (n = 2). ZTKr, ZTGr, ZOr, and ZDr represent harvested
control Zamnè from the field in Toma-Kamba and purchased Zamnè samples from the local markets in Toma-Gassam, Ouahigouya, and Dedougou. spZDr represents
the pseudoZamnè purchased from the local market in Dedougou.
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Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
Fig. 3. Mapping of the variability in the physicochemical characteristics of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè purchased from the local markets in Burkina Faso Z, spZ, (W, O,
TG, TK, D), and the indices (1–3) designate Zamnè, pseudoZamnè, towns (Ouagadougou, Ouahigouya, Toma-Gassan, Toma-Kamba, and Dedougou), and the number of
the markets inspected, respectively. ZTKr represents the control sample harvested from field.
Table 2
Interrelationships (r of Pearson) among the chemical, physical and cooking properties of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè purchased from the local markets in Burkina Faso.
Fat
Protein
Fat
TDF
IDF
SDF
Ash
Moist.
Da
Sw
Bd
Td
Coat %
Ct
H. rate
0.70
TDF
IDF
SDF
Ash
Moist.
Da
Sw
Bd
Td
Coat %
Ct
H. rate
−0.91
−0.60
−0.97
−0.65
0.95
−0.71
−0.46
0.92
0.75
−0.74
−0.97
0.66
0.66
0.56
−0.76
−0.77
0.88
0.79
0.88
0.79
−0.86
−0.89
0.75
0.83
0.54
0.84
0.73
−0.87
−0.86
0.76
0.83
0.57
0.82
0.74
1.00
−0.80
−0.95
0.62
0.74
0.38
0.90
0.72
0.96
0.94
−0.58
−0.85
0.38
0.40
0.31
0.79
0.69
0.78
0.79
0.81
−0.86
−0.85
0.75
0.82
0.57
0.88
0.62
0.87
0.84
0.87
0.72
−0.85
−0.86
0.70
0.76
0.53
0.89
0.67
0.86
0.85
0.87
0.82
0.98
0.70
0.97
−0.47
−0.51
−0.35
−0.97
−0.60
−0.89
−0.89
−0.91
−0.83
−0.90
−0.91
C. time
−0.86
−0.99
0.69
0.71
0.56
0.99
0.79
0.97
0.97
0.96
0.85
0.98
0.98
−0.96
TDF, IDF, and SDF designate total, insoluble, and soluble dietary fiber contents, respectively. Moist., Da, Sw, Bd, Td, Ct, H. rate and C. time designate moisture content,
seed arithmetic diameter, seed weight, bulk density, true density, coat thickness, hydration rate, and cooking time, respectively. Dark gray, medium gray, light gray
and white background highlight value with p < 0.001, < 0.01, < 0.05 and > 0.05, respectively. The parameters without any significant correlation are omitted.
with ash content. The relationships between the physicochemical and
cooking properties of legumes vary (Avola & Patane, 2010). Nonetheless, comparable correlations have been reported for chickpeas and faba
beans (Avola et al., 2009; Avola & Patane, 2010). Several of the correlations suggest that Zamnè is exposed to the development of the hard-tocook phenomenon. For instance, the negative correlation of the hydration rate and the positive correlation of the cooking time with the ash
content suggest that the seeds might have accumulated different divalent cations (i.e. calcium and magnesium) contents. The cations can
complex with cell wall structures (including pectins, phytate, and lignins) and render the seeds resistant to water hydration and cooking
(Kigel, 1999; Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Shehata, 1992). Also, the negative
correlations between protein content, insoluble fiber content, and the
coat thickening indicate hard-to-cook traits that can develop during the
storage. In fact, during storage, seeds undergo critical changes, which
implicate hard-to-cook defects, protein degradation, lignification, and
accumulation of several insoluble and indigestible polymers (Gwala
et al., 2019; Iliadis, 2001; Kigel, 1999; Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Shehata,
1992). Zamnè is a famine-resilience commodity that can be stored for
several years before consumption. There is, therefore, a need to further
assess the development of the hard-to-cook phenomenon in Zamnè.
3.6. Cooking aids properties
Zamnè is traditionally boiled in an alkaline solution (traditional
potash or baking soda) to facilitate the cooking. The influence of the
cooking aids and the heat on the hydration properties were examined
(Fig. 4). In most soaking conditions, Zamnè showed higher hydration
indices than pseudoZamnè, except for the first hour of soaking in the
fresh and boiled tap water. As an effect of the initial soaking water
temperature, the hydration was accelerated (after 3 h of soaking) for
both seed species. In contrast, the hydration capacity (after 6 h of
soaking) was improved for only Zamnè. Kumar et al. (2016) and
Kinyanjui et al. (2015) also reported that the water temperature improves the hydration rate and capacity. The heat loosens the seeds’
tissue structures and, thus, triggers and accelerates the hydration
(Kinyanjui et al., 2015; Kumar et al., 2016). The non-improvement in the
hydration capacity of the pseudoZamnè provided evidence that hydration
and hardness are more dependent on the cotyledon hardness and
permeability than the coat hardness and permeability. Moreover, the
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M.S. Drabo et al.
Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
Fig. 4. Influence of the heat and cooking aids on
the hydration ability of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè.
Bwater, Bwater-K, and Bwater-B designate
respectively boiled tap water, boiled potash solution (1% m/m), and boiled baking soda solution (1% m/m). The values are expressed as the
means ± SD (n = 2). The hydration indexes
sample-wise (same color) with the different letter
superscripts are significantly different (p > 0.05).
The superscript * indicates the significant differences between the hydration indexes of Zamnè
and the pseudoZamnè at a specific soaking condition and time.
cooking aids, synergistically with the heat, improved the hydration
activation (after 1 h of soaking), rate, and capacity for Zamnè. The
cooking aids, similar to the heat, have also been shown to induce cell
wall constituents’ release and, thus, improve hydration, too (Kinyanjui
et al., 2015; Mubaiwa et al., 2017). The hydration ability of the
pseudoZamnè was, contrary, hampered by the use of the traditional
potash. In agreement, Avola and Patane (2010) noted a slight decrease
in chickpeas’ hydration capacity when soaked in a sodium bicarbonate
solution. The different effects suggest that the actions of cooking aids
depend on the seed species, probably related to their intrinsic chemical
compositions and the ion compositions of the cooking aids (de León
et al., 1992; Kigel, 1999; Kinyanjui et al., 2015; Mubaiwa et al., 2017;
Shehata, 1992).
Compared to the traditional potash, the baking soda elicited a more
considerable improvement in both seed species’ hydration. The baking
soda has a lower (trace) amount of divalent cations (i.e. calcium and
magnesium) and a higher amount of carbonate anions compared to the
traditional potash (unpublished data), which would have favored the
water absorption. It has been proposed that divalent cations permeate
into the seeds, induce stable cross-links between cell wall structures
(pectins, phytate, phenolics, proteins), and thus prone hardness and
resistance to hydration (de León et al., 1992; Kigel, 1999; Kinyanjui
et al., 2015; Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Shehata, 1992). Moreover, alkali has
been demonstrated to induce protein denaturation and cross-links (Guo,
Wei, & Zhu, 2017; Mubaiwa et al., 2017), which can also result in the
tightness of the tissue structures of the seeds (Kigel, 1999; Shehata,
1992), counteracting the effect of the cooking aid. Conversely, monovalent cations have been shown to alter pectins or cell wall structures
and facilitate the soaking and cooking of seeds (de León et al., 1992;
Kigel, 1999; Kinyanjui et al., 2015; Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Shehata,
1992). The carbonate anions, for instance, play a buffer role, prevent
protein denaturation, and partially with the alkaline condition reduce
the hard-to-cook problem (Mubaiwa et al., 2017; Shehata, 1992). These
observations mean that one must be cautious in choosing the alkali salt
as a cooking aid - taking into account the seeds’ specific response to the
cooking process and the alkali salt pH, buffer systems, and ion
compositions.
3.7. Impact of the traditional cooking on the nutritional values
The compositional changes associated with the traditional alkaline
and hydrothermal cooking of selected Zamnè and pseudoZamnè samples
are summarized in Table 3. Total protein contents were significantly
increased only after cooking (second boiling) for Zamnè while it was
observed through the precooking (first boiling) in the case of
pseudoZamnè. As a consequence of the cooking, the protein dispersibility
index in water significantly decreased by 4–6% and 13% for Zamnè and
pseudoZamnè, respectively. The protein dispersibility indexes of the
cooked Zamnè and pseudoZamnè were comparable to the values reported
for adequately heat processed soybean meal (40–45%), suggesting
protein digestibility improvement (Batal, Douglas, Engram, & Parsons,
2000). In contrast, the cooking process highly decreased carbohydrate
digestibility. The digestible carbohydrates and soluble dietary fibers
were almost all lost, and only insoluble dietary fibers were left. Similarly, Guissou et al. (2017) reported a significant decrease in total carbohydrate content and an increase in crude fiber content after Zamnè
cooking. Only fat content showed to be affected by the cooking aid
choice. Processing Zamnè in baking soda showed significant improvements in fat content compared to the processing in potash solution. The
fat content increased stepwise between precooking and cooking for
pseudoZamnè while it first increased after precooking and then decreased
after cooking for Zamnè. Guissou et al. (2017) had reported a much
higher decrease (more than 85%) in fat content in potash-cooked Zamnè.
Nonetheless, the fat content has been well preserved in most of the legumes after boiling (FAO/INFOOD, 2017; Murphy et al., 1975). Moreover, an increase has also been reported for related Acacia seeds (10.9 to
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Food Research International 138 (2020) 109810
Table 3
Effect of the cooking processes on the nutritional properties of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè.
Sample
Zamnè (ZTKr)
Raw
Cook
aid
Protein
PDI%
TDF
IDF
SDF
DCHO
Fat
Ash
43.55 ±
0.55a
50.05 ±
1.15a
22.03 ±
0.86a
14.26 ±
0.33a
7.77
20.22
10.26 ±
0.03a
3.93 ± 0.20a
PseudoZamnè (spZDr)
Precooked
Cooked
Raw
Potash
Baking soda
Potash
Baking soda
44.66 ±
0.01a
43.53 ±
0.01a
20.97 ±
0.94b
4.76 ± 0.06b
23.65 ±
0.19c
4.07 ±
0.37ab
49.80 ±
1.40b
44.39 ±
1.75b
27.74 ±
1.21ab
22.00 ±
1.50ab
5.75
1.05
14.61 ±
0.44d
6.80 ± 0.01
46.28 ±
0.41ab
46.35 ±
0.01bc
26.01 ±
1.78ab
24.08 ±
0.34b
1.92
3.60
17.18 ±
0.38e
6.93 ± 0.12
cd
Precooked
35.99 ±
0.07c
61.65 ±
0.14d
32.63 ±
1.70b
22.54 ±
3.52ab
10.08
21.56
4.70 ± 0.08f
5.13 ± 0.15
cd
b
Cooked
Potash
Baking soda
Potash
Baking soda
43.85 ±
0.21a
45.48 ±
0.08a
7.24 ± 0.11
45.31 ±
0.54a
48.36 ±
0.22ac
31.82 ±
2.25b
24.07 ±
1.36b
7.74
9.51
6.02 ± 0.01 g
44.53 ±
0.63a
48.61 ±
0.21ac
28.08 ±
1.48ab
21.53 ±
6.13ab
6.56
11.52
8.42 ± 0.01i
5.57 ± 0.28e
7.35 ± 0.01d
7.45 ± 0.11d
5.33 ± 0.21
fg
c
6.41 ± 0.43
h
PDI% = Protein dispersibility index, TDF = total dietary fiber, IDF = insoluble dietary fiber, SDF = soluble dietary fiber and DCHO = digestible carbohydrate. The
values are expressed as the means ± SD (n = 2) per 100 dry weight. The values in the same row with the different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05).
18.9% of fat per dw) (Adewusi, Falade, & Harwood, 2003). Finally, the
cooking aids’ minerals increased stepwise the ash contents between
precooking and cooking for both seed species.
Food matrix composition changes after cooking are associated with
leaching, restructuration, and destruction of nutrients (Deng et al.,
2015; Murphy et al., 1975). Accordingly, the leached solids were
analyzed to understand the changes associated with the traditional
cooking process of Zamnè (Table 4). Zamnè exhibited extensive and
higher leaching of total dry matter, protein, carbohydrate, and ash
compared to the pseudoZamnè. In contrast, the total leaked solids have
been, generally, reported to be <20% for common legumes and
composed mainly of carbohydrates (57–80% dw), proteins (6–21% dw),
and ash (7% dw) (Güzel & Sayar, 2012; Uzogara et al., 1988). Nutrient
retention during cooking of legumes can significantly vary depending on
the seeds’ cooking quality and the cooking process. Contrary to common
legumes, Zamnè underwent a long precooking, which might have promoted the nutrients’ leaching. The washing and the renewing of the
boiling solution have been shown to accentuate solutes exchanges and
leaching (Mubaiwa et al., 2017). In the present study, the hardness
(resistance to cell disintegration) and the higher fiber contents of the
pseudoZamnè might have entrapped the nutrients and prevented their
leaching, despite the longer boiling time, compared to Zamnè. Besides,
nutrient solubility was also demonstrated essential in the loss through
leaching (Deng et al., 2015). For instance, the leached carbohydrate
should probably be composed of soluble fibers and digestible carbohydrates, as shown through the large decrease in the cooked seeds
(Table 3). On the other hand, despite the higher reduction of the seeds’
fat content after cooking in the potash solution compared to the cooking
in the baking soda solution (Table 3), a higher fat content was recovered
in the baking soda solution. Potash has higher alkaline and saponification potential than baking soda (Mubaiwa et al., 2017) and might have
induced a higher fat reduction in the form of alkali fatty salts.
The current trend in food processing is to achieve optimal utilization
of food raw materials (Galanakis, 2012). The traditional cooking of
Zamnè exposes the seeds to high alkaline and long heat treatment,
which, in addition to the leaching of water-soluble nutrients, might lead
to potentially toxic breakdown products (Friedman & Levin, 2012; Hou
et al., 2017). There is a need to explore alternative processes to optimize
the use of Zamnè raw seed material. Several techniques have been
developed to address the hard-to-cook defects in legumes (Mubaiwa
et al., 2017; Shehata, 1992) and apply to Zamnè. Moreover, the recycling
of nutrients from food wastewater receives more attention in food processing (Galanakis, 2012). The enzymatic hydrolysate of Zamnè carbohydrate and protein extracts have already been exploited in
formulations of nutraceuticals and cosmetics against hair loss, adipose
tissue alterations, and vascular disorders (Msika et al., 2017). The
wastewater after Zamnè cooking is, as shown, a source of nutrients,
including dietary fibers and proteins. Further processing of Zamnè
wastewater can recover the fibers and proteins, valuable as nutraceuticals and cosmetics supplements.
4. Conclusion
This study showed low variability in the physical, chemical, and
cooking properties among Zamnè seeds and confirmed a mix-up of
Zamnè and pseudoZamnè. The collected pseudoZamnè exhibited low
cooking quality, harder coat, and longer cooking time, while Zamnè
showed comparable cooking quality traits to several common legumes.
However, the traditional cooking process of Zamnè exhibited over processing defects, including fat destruction and extensive leaching of nutrients. It would be useful to investigate other processing alternatives,
such as milling into flour or fermentation, to increase the acceptability
of Zamnè. Moreover, further research is needed to identify the factors
that influence the variability in the physicochemical properties of
Zamnè.
Table 4
Proximate composition of the combined leached solids after the precooking and cooking of Zamnè and pseudoZamnè.
Samples
Cook aid
Dry matter
Protein
Zamnè (ZTKr)
Potash
Baking soda
Potash
Baking soda
49.24
50.40
32.38
39.48
45.29 ±
45.21 ±
46.46 ±
44.71 ±
PseudoZamnè (spZDr)
0.43a
0.76a
1.06a
1.01a
(51.20)
(52.32)
(41.81)
(49.04)
Total carbohydrate
Fat
40.75
42.11
45.57
47.28
0.20 ±
0.63 ±
0.24 ±
0.31 ±
(47.49)
(50.23)
(27.23)
(34.44)
Ash
0.03a (0.97)
0.11b (3.08)
0.06a (1.66)
0.09ab (2.59)
13.76 ± 0.09a
12.06 ± 0.15b
7.72 ± 0.05c
7.71 ± 0.13c
The values are expressed as the means ± SD (n = 2) per 100 dry weight. The values in the same row with the different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The parentheses represent % nutrient loss (dry weight) from the used raw seeds for the cooking trial.
8
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Moustapha Soungalo Drabo: Conceptualization, Investigation,
Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft. Habtu Shumoy:
Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing. Hama Cissé: Resources.
Charles Parkouda: Resources. Fulbert Nikiéma: Resources. Ismail
Odetokun: Resources. Yves Traoré: Resources. Aly Savadogo:
Conceptualization, Validation, Writing - review & editing, Supervision.
Katleen Raes: Validation, Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing,
Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the National Laboratory of Public Health
(Burkina Faso) for the laboratory facilities and reagents. The first author
is granted by UEMOA, Burkina Faso national, and Ghent University –
BOF Ph.D. scholarships.
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