How Students Spend Their Time

HOW B y W illia m R . H o r n e , S T U D E N T S S P E N D T H E IR T IM E IHGFEDCBA U n iv e r s ity o f N o r th e r n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a MLKJIHGFEDCBA A b s tra c t wvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Many books on time management provide methodologies but do not provide actual examples or suggestions for the appropriate allocation of activities. The study which is presented in this paper reports on ajournal keeping exercise conducted by a group of third year university students. The results show a mean of 40 hours per week spent on school work and also reveal how the other 128 hours in the week are filled. This information is linked to the literature to suggest appropriate time allocations for various maintenance and leisure activities. Student well-being requires a proper balance of the entire 168 hours in a week. In tro d u c tio n Every term, instructors are faced with the problem of students asking for extensions on assignments because they claim they do not have enough time available to meet the deadlines which have been set. While there is a considerable amount ofliterature available on the subject of time management, most of it does not actually present examples of what might be a reasonable way to spend one's time. After trying to put together some possible recommendations from the literature, this paper presents data on how a group of university students actually spent a week of their time and then proposes specific amounts of time which students might reasonably devote to various activities in a typical week. For everyone, each week contains 168 hours that may be divided into three types of activities: work, maintenance, and leisure. For college students, the work category may be defined as school related activities including class time, study and assignment time, and parttime employment. Authors such as Kingsbury (1994) and Page (1997) identify these categories but provide no suggestions on actual hours which might be appropriate for each; indeed, very few sources provide a sufficient template to be of practical use to a student. The discussion below demonstrates just how difficult constructing a table of recommended times can be. R e v ie w o f th e L ite ra tu re Most authors say that the time related to schoolwork must be given top priority. This includes class time, study and assignment time, and for an increasing number of students time for part-time employment in order to finance their education. The typical class time for a student in a Bachelor of Arts program is 15 hours per week. Hoehn and Sayer (1989) suggest that study time will average two hours for each hour of class time, producing a 45 hour schoolwork week. Dougan and Dougan (1998) suggest three hours of study per hour of class time, producing adcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 6 0 hour week. They recommend blocking study time between classes and doing two to three hours each evening. Kendrick and Kendrick (1988) present 22DCBA T L A R , Fall 2000 a chart with 1.6 hours of out of class work on a four course 21 hour schedule giving much time devoted to schoolwork. T IM E wvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 55 hours, but then argue that this is too not provide actual . The study which is by a group of third week spent on school This information is ious maintenance and e entire 168 hours in a . g for extensions on available to meet the ofliterature available nt examples of what gether some possible a group of university . c amounts of time ical week. into three types of ork category may be enttime, and part1997) identify these appropriate for each; use to a student. The ~recommendedtimes top priority. This _ number of students typical class time for and Sayer (1989) . e, producing a 45 of study per hour study time between .ck (1988) present These suggestions leave limited time for part-time employment. Race (1999) recognizes the financial need for paid employment, and Haworth (1997) says employment is also important for building self-esteem. Carter, Bishop, Kravits, and Maurin (1998) suggest that up to 15 hours of paid employment will actually help students, not just financially, but also by building self-esteem and encouraging time management. Hoehn and Sayer (1989) report that in 1986, 75% of American college freshmen worked part-time and 40% worked 16 hours or more. Collectively, these proposals for school and work take anywhere from 60 to 80 hours out of a week, providing the student with minimal guidance in knowing what is an appropriate amount of time for this category. Some authors deal only with schoolwork while others recognize that there are other aspects to life. Everyone has certain inescapable personal and family maintenance functions to perform: eating, grooming, doing laundry, cleaning, shopping, and getting enough sleep. Finding estimates of how much time these activities should take is challenging. While Hoehn and Sayer (1989), Carter et al (1998), Newman (1995), and Race (1999) all tell students to maintain a healthy diet, specific time allotments are not given. Dougan and Dougan (1998) advise taking a comfortable amount of time to do morning activities and at least an hour for the main meal of the day. Kendrick and Kendrick (1988) present a chart with 45 minutes for lunch and 90 minutes for dinner but then argue that 20 hours per week is too much time in this category. In addition, no references to an appropriate length of time for grooming, laundry, cleaning, or shopping were found in the time management books examined. Robinson and Godbey (1997) provide survey results for typical Americans, but college students as a specific group are not identified. Everyone has a need for sufficient sleep. Dougan and Dougan (1998) advise a good night's sleep without specifying how much. Horne (1985) states that 6 hours per night is sufficient for most individuals. Carter et al. (1998) recommend 7 to 7.5 hours per night but suggest that individuals in their early twenties may require 8 to 9 hours. Robinson and Godbey (1997) state that most Americans sleep 8 hours a day. Hoehn and Sayer (1989) suggest that if one goes to bed by 10 p.m., he/she could be prepared for the following day by 8 in the morning. Beyond schoolwork and maintenance activities, a balanced life also requires leisure time. Dougan and Dougan (1998), Carter et al. (1998), and Newman (1995) all recommend an unspecified amount of time for exercise. Kendrick and Kendrick (1988) suggest exercising six hours per week after work. Stein (1994) views exercise as a second level priority and suggests it be done after the school day. No time allocation is suggested. Carter et al. (1998) state that a spiritual life of some kind is absolutely necessary for psychological health, and they define the term broadly enough to include community service. Stein (1994) also states that students should have spiritual and charitable goals. Dougan and Dougan (1998) recommend volunteer work, and Race (1999) also encourages students to get involved in the school or local community. Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R 23 Reid (1995) states that time for socializing is a key part of the work environment while Mackenzie (1997) calls making friendships the most satisfying part of a job. One can extrapolate from this that it is as important, if not more so, in the university environment. Dougan and Dougan (1998) see social time as a way to fill left over spaces, and they suggest after supper as a good time. Kendrick and Kendrick (1988) suggest it be done after eating lunch. In contrast, Carter et al (1998) recommend students curb their social time without specifying how much is too much. "other" category . ..:l-or leisure activities : Travel time was to reach the to were compiled . Kendrick and Kendrick (1988) envision three hours a night to watch television or otherwise relax but warn that such activities may be used to postpone more important things. Haworth (1997) argues that those who seek interpersonal rewards through leisure are healthier than those who seek isolation and escapism and warns that short periods of time between activities are often lost or wasted. Mackenzie (1997) and Dougan and Dougan (1998) both recommend making these times productive by carrying a book to read. Carter et al. (1998), however, recommend having downtime and some unscheduled time in the day. The total length of time appropriate for the leisure category is difficult to determine from the current literature in the field. The general impression, however, despite comments that leisure time is necessary, is that leisure activities should be considered as a way to fill in time left over when all the more important activities are completed.MLKJIHGFEDCBA T h e S tu d y To find out what students actually do with their time, a study was conducted with a group of students at the University of Northern British Columbia. All of the participants were registered in a third year human geography course. Responses were obtained from 57 fulltime students consisting of23 males and 34 females. Forty-eight of the students were single, nine were married, and all of the participants were between 20 and 30 years of age. UNBC is located in Prince George, British Columbia and offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in the arts and sciences. The total enrollment is slightly over 3,000 students, 63% of which come from the northern part of the province. Of the remainder, 27% come from the southern part of the province, primarily the Greater Vancouver area, 10% come from outside of the province, primarily neighboring Alberta, and a small number are foreign exchange students (UNBC, 1999). As the sample suggests, most of the students are recent high school graduates or transfer students from the provincial community college system when they arrive at UNBC. M e th o d o lo g y The students were enrolled in a human geography course dealing with recreational activities. In one of the introductory lectures, the question of how people spend their time was discussed. Based on Barnmel and Barnmel (1996), the students were introduced to the concepts of work, maintenance, and leisure time and were asked to volunteer to participate in a three part project. The first part required that they estimate how they would spend their time during the next seven days using the main categories of work, maintenance, and free TLA R 24DCBA , Fall 2000 Robinson and Goc..: disadvantages of to obtain meanin group was an alm made to create subgi studies such as She work, housework, the past two decad educated people. T:Godbey argue thar . picking a group of ~ reporting that there respect to the use 0: F in d in g s Work is a req school activities.. time or did so e. hours per week, they worked 0 ork environment while _ part of a job. One can university environment. spaces, and they suggest it be done after eating eir social time without television or otherwise rtant things. Haworth leisure are healthier than .ods of time between d Dougan (1998) both read, Carter et al. (1998), - e in the day. to determine from the · despite comments that as a way to fill in time time. Based on suggestions from the class, work was divided into paid employment and schoolwork. Maintenance included sleep, meals, grooming, housework, shopping, and an "other" category. In the free time category, students were asked to identify any recreational or leisure activities for which they expected to spend more than one hour during the week. Travel time was to be included with the appropriate activities. Any remaining time required to reach the total of 168 hours for the week was to be designated "wasted". These estimates were compiled in class. In the next class, students were asked to actually keep a diary for one week, recording their activities in 15 minute intervals. A handout listing specific categories for recreation was distributed. This was based on the activities submitted in the estimates so that each category would include at least 10% of the participants in order to maintain anonymity. The categories were television including video games and movies watched at home or in theaters, reading or relaxing, board games including cards and craft activities, face to face socializing in any context, talking on the telephone, listening or playing music, time on the computer or the Internet, downhill or cross country skiing or snow boarding, swimming or skating including hockey, gym workouts including racquet ball, walking including jogging or hiking, club or religious activities, and an "other" category. Volunteer activities were included with paid employment, babysitting was included as housework, and wasted time remained a category. When more than one thing was being done at once, students were instructed to identify the dominant activity. After completion of the diary, students were asked to write about 500 words on their time recording experience. As this was an open ended exercise, these reports were considered as anecdotal. conducted with a group of the participants were obtained from 57 fullthe students were single, 30 years of age. Robinson and Godbey (1997) provide an extensive discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the time diary techniques and also discuss the problems related to trying to obtain meaningful information on subgroups within the sample. Given that the study group was an almost homogeneous group of young, single, white students, no attempt was made to create subgroups in the data. Although a gender breakdown was a possibility, studies such as Shelton (1992) and Robinson and Godbey have indicated that time spent in ,ergraduate and graduatedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA work, housework, and leisure by males and females has become increasingly similar over rer 3,000 students, 63% the past two decades and are particulariy similar for young adults, single people, and college . der, 27% come from educated people. These are the three groups represented in this survey. Robinson and area, 10% come from Godbey argue that the gender differences claimed by Hochschild (1989) were the result of number are foreign picking a group of people who were not representative of mainstream America while also the students are recent reporting that there are no significant differences between Canadians and Americans with unity college system respect to the use of time.MLKJIHGFEDCBA F in d in g s · recreational activities. e spend their time was were introduced to the olunteer to participate - they would spend their · maintenance, and free Work is a requirement of adult life. For students, the primary "work" is, of course, school activities. However, 53% of students surveyed reported they are also employed time or did some voluntary work (Table 1). The mean time employed was reported as hours per week, slightly less than the estimated time. A number of students commented they worked on an "on call" basis, thus their hours fluctuated from week to week. Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R their part 12.9 that 25 Table 1. Estimated Table 2. Com and Actual Time Spent on Work Activities Test Score (%) ACTUAL TIME ESTIMATED TIME DCBA Students Taking Part (%) Activity M e a n T im e (hours) Min Response (hours) Max Response (hours) Students Taking Part (%) MeanTime (hours) 24 75-79 9 47 40 18 67 85-89 46.9 18 77 90> no data 100 15.6 n o d a ta 100 24.4 100 33.5 10 70 100 42.1 17 70 100 60-69 9 Class Time Study Time 100 . <60 70-74 46 Total Max Response (hours) 35 2 12.9 3S 53 I dcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Paid Work 15.6 Min Response (hours) 80-84 School Total Work The typical class time for a full time Bachelor of Arts student is 15 hours per week, and the recorded times produced a mean just above this. Some students included group meetings as class time, thus their class time entry was high. Low values for class time were usually identified in the commentaries as the result of missed classes due to illness or other commitments. Out of class schoolwork averaged 24.4 hours for the week although there was a significant range in recorded times. The mean class time and assignment time totaled 40 hours; however, the range was from less than half of that to almost 70% more. Over 20 students mentioned that the week chosen for the study was heavy with midterms and assignments due, thus they felt that their study time was more than usual. Comments indicated that maintenance activities were about equally as likely to be forgone as leisure activities to make time for the extra work. Only one student offered skipping classes as his solution to the problem. The "work" category had a mean of 47 hours, suggesting that the average student in this group spent more time "working" than the average North American adult in full-time employment. The question examination 0 maintenance single main sleep time of reality, they _ night. Unde six hours a nig over 11. An sleep was an nights and tri Activity Sleep Although this was not strictly a time management exercise, about 12% of the students found it necessary to say they felt they manage their time well while about half that number felt that the exercise had demonstrated to them that they needed to manage their study time better. One student commented that she could have spread out her assignments in a better fashion by doing some of them earlier in the term. The students wrote a midterm for this course shortly after completing the assignment. The results showed that while there was no direct relationship between results and amount of time spent on schoolwork by individual students, grouping the marks did on average produce a trend in which longer hours led to higher marks (Table 2). 26 TLAR, Fall 2000 Meals MLKJIHGFE G ro o m House Shop Other Total Table 2. Comparison of Student Test Scores to Mean Total School Work Hours Test Score (%) 7NE .fin Mean Total Schoolwork Time (hours) dcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 27 <60 :.oms) Max Response (hours) 6Q-69 39.9 2 35 70-74 34.2 9 24 75-79 36.6 9 47 80-84 41.7 .8 67 85-89 48.1 18 77 90> 40.8 ~ per week, and the group meetings as time were usually to illness or other - although there was .gnment time totaled 70% more. Over ith midterms and usual. Comments forgone as leisure ping classes as his suggesting that the se North American • me assignment. The and amount of did on average The question of whether students have enough time to do their assignments requires an examination of how they spend their non-school time as well as their school time. Time for maintenance activities, necessary to maintain a healthy body, must be set aside. The biggest single maintenance activity is sleep (Table 3). The students in the survey predicted a mean sleep time of 56.3 hours per week, the culturally accepted norm of 8 hours per night. In reality, they reported an average of 59.9 hours for the study week or an extra half hour per night. Underestimates were fairly consistent, with a student who predicted sleeping less than six hours a night reporting almost seven, and a student who estimated 10 hours, sleeping over 11. A number of students commented they felt they slept too much with 9% saying sleep was an escape from stress. Many students stayed up until after midnight on week nights and tried to catch up on weekends by staying in bed as long as 14 hours. Table 3. Estimated and Actual Time Spent on Maintenance Activities ACTUAL TIME ESTIMATED TIME Activity Students Taking Part (%) MeanTime (hours) Min Response (hours) Max Response (hours) Students Taking Part (%) Mean Time (hours) Min Response (hours) 100 59.9 48 81 23 Max DCBA R esp on se (hours) Sleep 100 56.3 45 70 Meals 100 11.4 3 25 100 10.7 2 Groom 100 6.2 I 21 100 5.8 .5 13 House 79 2.3 .5 4.5 79 3.4 .5 16 Shop 79 3.6 I 21 68 2.8 I 6 Other 15 1.3 3 30 30 5.8 I 18 Total 100 80.4 60 112 100 82.3 66 104 Volume 5, Number 2, T L A R 27 Students' estimates were not particularly accurate when it came to reporting the other maintenance activities. With respect to preparing, eating, and cleaning up after meals, for example, the mean difference between the estimated times and the actual times was 5.1 hours. However, there were as many students who overestimated as underestimated, so the mean estimate of 11.4 hours per week was close to the actual time of 10.7 hours. There was a large range among both the estimated and actual times. Students commented that meal times were sacrificed when they felt they were under time constraints, and they "ate on the run," often during classes. Others commented that visits by friends and family had upset their usual eating patterns. Although the means of the estimates and actual times were close, the range was significant. Robinson and Godbey (1997) reported typical Americans spend about nine hours per week eating, but they included cooking time under housework while the above survey figures include cooking time. Grooming posed similar problems for the students. Laundry, housework, or babysitting at home was reported by 79% of students. The amount of time this activity would take was generally underestimated. In contrast, more than half of the students overestimated the time they would spend shopping. Students' comments identified single purpose trips to convenience stores as a major waste of time. The amount of time spent shopping was about 60% that of typical Americans in studies conducted by Robinson and Godbey (1997). Although Bammel and Bammel (1996) state that shopping is the major leisure activity among Americans, only one student commented that shopping was a recreational activity. Few students could think of anything to put in the "other" category when developing their estimates, but it appeared in 30% of diaries. One common activity given was driving, other people to work. The net result of the poor time estimates in the maintenance category was that the mean of the estimated times was 80 hours per week, and the diaries actually produced a mean of 82 hours for the study week, while the range of times reported in the diaries was 14 hours less than in the estimates. The range was also less than in the work category in both actual and percentage terms even though this category takes up almost twice as much time. the main renew and activities isolation, worthy to the reside certainly fe Among the. students and ~ 23%anddo e did not think available leism and the aetna; All of'the passi and the mean the students periods of time se at it. Indeed,dcbaZY part in an activ There were few number of stu the exception 0 with more SID ' Skiing was the only activity did devoted to becomem ~ Table 4. Es' Bammel and Bammel (1996) suggest that leisure time is a necessary counterbalance to the required elements of life. They divide leisure time into four categories: passive-solitary, passive-social, active-solitary, and active-social. They suggest that activities which are active and social are best for personal well-being. Activity T. Interestingly, the largest single recreational activity in this study was watching television, primarily a passive-solitary activity. Attending movies is included in this category but few students reported doing this (Table 4). Although only 67% of students expected to watch television, in reality 82% did. However, the average viewing time was less than 60% of that of the average American adult (Bammel and Bammel, 1996). Many students felt television was a waste of time, and they could use their time more productively. Other passive-solitary activities such as reading, listening to music, and surfing the web also scored high. Comments suggested music was often listened to while doing other activities such as maintenance or schoolwork and the value given here is an underestimation as only 28 TLAR, Fall 2000 v. Reading 0: '" M u sic 21 Internet I: Games 11 Socializing r Phone 23 Clubs J; Skiing 3'; Skate 21 G ym 42 Walk 17 Other IS Total 100 the main activity engaged in at the time could be recorded. While some solitary time to reporting the otherIHGFEDCBA renew and recharge is necessary, Tinsley (1987) argues that a high degree of passive-solitary a up after meals, for activities could be viewed with some concern as it suggests a considerable amount of e actual times was isolation, particularly for those in institutional settings such as residential dormitories. It is . as underestimated, so worthy to note that there was considerable concern about threats of attempted suicides in ~ of 10.7 hours. There the residences during the time this study was conducted. The university administration commented that meal certainly felt that student isolation was something to avoid. and they "ate on the and family had upset Among the passive-social activities, face to face socializing was estimated by 37% of times were close, students and actually reported by 77%. Similarly, talking on the telephone was estimated by ical Americans spend 23 % and done by 72%. Comments suggested that these were activities which many students der housework while did not think about when estimating their week, yet they consumed large amounts of problems for the available leisure time. In contrast, very few students took part in clubs or religious activities, and the actual time spent on these was less than estimated. dents. The amount t, more than half _ Students' comments of time. The amount smdies conducted by state that shopping ented that shopping to put in the "other" .aries. One common was that the mean of produced a mean of diaries was 14 hours gory in both actual as much time. All of the passive activity categories had more students taking part than had been predicted, and the mean time went down in every category as did the minimum time. This suggests that the students who predicted they would do these activities actually did so for relatively long periods of time while those who had not predicted doing the activity spent only a short time at it. Indeed, several students commented in their reports that they had not expected to take part in an activity reported. There were fewer active activities than passive activities suggested in the estimates, and the number of students participating in each of them was lower than in the passive activities with the exception of clubs. Three of the activities showed the same pattern as passive activities with more students taking part then predicted but less time devoted to the activity (Table 4). Skiing was the only exception to this pattern. It probably scored lower because it was the only activity requiring significant travel time. Thus, fewer people took part, but those who did devoted more time to it than expected. A number of students commented they wanted to become more active but time and money constraints prevented it. Table 4. Estimated counterbalance to the .es: passive-solitary, iDes which are active and Actual Time Spent on Leisure Activities Students Taking Part surfing the web also oing other activities erestimation as only Min M ax MeanTIme dcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA MeanTime Min (b o w s) R e sp o n se R esponse (b o u ,,) (h o u rs ) C%) (%) watching television, this category but few expected to watch ess than 60% of that dents felt television ACTUAL TIME ESTIMATED TIME Activity M ax Students Taking Pan (b o w s) R e sp o n se R e sp o n se (h o w s) (h o W "S ) T. v , 67 11.3 29 8~ 10.3 Reading 42 5.4 IJ 56 4.6 Music 21 10.5 24 30 3.7 .5 Internet 17 7.1 15 47 4.8 .5 Games 12 5.7 14 28 3.6 Socializing 37 11.2 P hone 23 5.5 C lubs 13 3.4 1.5 Skiing 33 8.6 .5 20 25 Skate 21 8.5 34 28 4.7 Gym 42 5.7 15 46 4.4 Walk 17 15 30 2.5 .5 6.5 .5 25 .5 50 77 8.9 20 72 2.9 14 2.6 33 18 16 8.5 60 .5 12 30 O th e r 15 10.4 48 )3 4.5 Total 100 34.3 70 100 34 14 19 61 Volume 5, Number 2, TLAR 29 The results from the "other" category were unusual. All but one person who estimated some time in this category reported no time in this category in their diary. Nonetheless, 33% of students, who had originally estimated nothing in this category, claimed "other" time in their diaries with a mean of 4.5 hours. Total recreation time was estimated at a mean of34.3 hours per week, and the actual figures had a mean of 34 hours. A number of students said that time constraints forced them to choose alternatives to what they had planned. Others said that they like to have variety in their leisure and do different things each week, thus they did not know in advance what they would be doing. The typical day has small pockets of time which are unavoidably wasted. When the students tried to estimate how they would use their time, they were forced to put any remaining time into the "wasted" category to bring the total to 168 hours (Table 5). This category was used by 77% of students with an average of 13.3 hours. While completing their diaries, many students discovered how they spent this time, but 70% still claimed "wasted" time although the mean dropped to 5.6 hours. Table 5. Total Time Spent During Week ACTUAL TIME ESTIMATED TIME Min Response (hours) Max Response (hours) 40 18 67 100 46.9 18 77 112 100 82.3 66 104 70 100 34 4 61 Students Taking Part (%) MeanTime (hours) Min Response (hours) Max Response (hours) Students Taking Part (%) Total School 100 33.5 10 70 100 Total Work 100 42.1 17 70 100 80.4 60 100 34.3 5 77 13.3 Activity Total M a in te n a n c e L e is u r e MeanTime (hours) DCBA T im e Wasted Time dcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 5.6 .5 I 51 70 65 Qui the 30 T L A R , Fall 2000 who estimated some : __-onetheless, 33% of "other" time in their When the students any remaining time :- - category was used g their diaries, many -asted" time although Min Response (hours) Max Response (hours) 18 67 18 77 66 104 4 61 .5 65 C o n d u s io n A balanced life is one in which there is time for work, personal maintenance, and relaxation. While the literature often puts schoolwork first, the study indicated that sleep was a priority for students need their sleep. When they did not get enough sleep during the week, they tried to make up for it on the weekend. Between 8 and 8.5 hours per night should be encouraged. Class times are often beyond the control of the student but must be attended and therefore establish much of the daily routine, including when one has to get up in the morning and go to bed the night before. The diaries and marks obtained in the midterm suggest that 1.6 to 2 hours of study time per class hour is sufficient to obtain an above average grade. Scheduling this time during the day, between classes, should reduce wasted time and free up the evening for leisure activities. If extra time in the evening is necessary it should be blocked out for that purpose. This would leave the weekend open for up to 15 hours of parttime employment. The literature clearly supports following a good diet, and the average time of 1.5 hours per day for meals found in the study fits the suggestions in the literature. Although the literature was silent on other maintenance activities, the survey found that an average of2.5 hours per day would be needed for such activities. Shopping on the way home from school and doing the laundry while studying are two ways to efficiently complete these tasks. This busy schedule still leaves about 3 hours on weekdays and 4.5 hours on Saturdays and Sundays for leisure activities. The literature encouraged exercise and socializing. Exercises such as walking, gym workouts, and swimming may be done during lunch hour or at the end of the school day, before going home. Activities which take more time, such as skiing, are usually done on the weekend. The survey indicated that many students do not exercise, and of those who do exercise, few meet the 6 hours per week suggested by Kendrick and Kendrick (1988). Much of the activity in the socializing category is passive rather than active. In the survey, MLKJIHGFEDCBA 72% of students reported spending time on the telephone, and they averaged 3 hours per week. Authors such as Kendrick and Kendrick (1988) and Mackenzie (1997) give tips on how to control telephone time. Face to face socializing may take place over lunch or while walking between classes although much will occur in the evening and on weekends. Students should be cautioned not to let socializing take away from required work or maintenance activities. The literature suggests that to become well-rounded a person needs to spend some time in voluntary community service or religious activities. It was therefore of some concern that one of the fmdings of the study was that only 14% of students took part in volunteer work, club activities, or religious activities. Quiet time to recharge is also necessary. As is typical ofN orth American society in general, the majority of the study group spent the majority of its leisure time in front of the television. Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R 31 Again, the main concern would be that too much television does not leave time for other more important activities including schoolwork, maintenance, exercise, and socializing. The literature suggests that not every moment of life should be assigned to an activity, and the mean of 5 hours of wasted time reported in the diaries supports this. However, many authors do not provide enough information to meaningfully decide just how to allocate a typical week into work, maintenance, and leisure activities. This study provides some actual data which, in general, can be incorporated into the suggestions made in the literature and at the same time provide a more detailed guide to organizing activities. Certainly not every week will be the same as the next, but a firm template from which to work is still the secret to successful time management.HGFEDCBA IHGFEDCBAP r o f e s s o r i n t h e G e o g r a p h y i n C a n a d a . MLKJIHGFEDCBA W illia m R . H o m e i s a n A s s i s t a n t B r itis h C o lu m b ia P rogram a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f N o r th e r n R e fe re n c e s Bammel,dcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA G ., & Bammel, L . L . (1996). increase your satisfaction in living. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharp. Leisure and human behavior (3rd ed). Kingsbury, S. (1994). In a class of our Dubuque, IA: Brown and Benchmark. Carter, c., Bishop, J., Kravits, S. L., & own: Secrets to student success. Maurin, P. J. (1998). Keys to success. Ottawa, ON: KNG. Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall. Mackenzie, A. (1997). The time trap Dougan, C., & Dougan, R. (1998). College (3rd ed). New York: American smarts: The survival and success Management Association. Newman, R. (1995). The complete guide to guide for Canadian students. Calgary, AB: Red Stone. college success. New York: New Haworth, J. T. (1997). Work, leisure and York University Press. well-being. London: Routledge. Page, C. (Ed.) (1997). The smart girl's Hochschild, A. (1989). The second shift: guide to college. New York: Noonday Press. Working parents and the revolution at home. New York: Viking. Race, P. (1999). How to get a good degree. Hoehn, L . P., & Sayer, J. E. (1989). Keys Buckingham, PA: Open University Press. to college success. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Reid, D. G. (1995). Work. leisure and the Horne, J. (1985). Sleep loss: Underlying 21st century. Toronto, ON: Wall and mechanisms and tiredness. In S. Emerson. Folkard, & T. H. Monk (Eds.), Hours Robinson, J. P., & Godbey, G. (1997). of work: Temporal factors in workTime for life: The surprising ways scheduling (pp.64-65). New York: Americans use their time. University Wiley. Park, PA: Pennsylvania State Kendrick, 1. W., & Kendrick, J. B. (1988). University Press. Personal productivity: How to Stein, G. D. (1994). Secrets of the 32DCBA T L A R , Fall 2000 ~ .... Shelton, B. time. ~ Tinsley, n . age g; status to an activity, and . . However, many how to allocate a vides some actual the literature and Certainly not every is still the secret successful student. 2nd ed. Toronto, ON: Culture Concepts. Shelton, B. A. (1992). Women, men and time. New York: Greenwood Press. Tinsley, H. A. (1987) The relationship of age, gender, health and economic status to the psychological benefits older persons report from participation in leisure activities. Leisure Science, 9. 53-65. University of Northern British Columbia. (1999). Facts 1999 . [Brochure] Prince George, BC: UNBC. ction in living . . Sharp. In a class of our student success. ess. The smart girl's -ewYork:Noonday get a good degree. . Open University Secrets of the Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R 33 , IHGFEDCBA L ib ra ry S u b s c rip tio n fo r HGFEDCBA T h e L e a rn in g A s s is ta n c e R e v ie w dcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA By San T he Learning A ssistance R eview is a publication of the N ational C ollege Learning C enter A ssociation (N C LC A J.It is published tw ice a year, in the fall and spring. Techno wisely, relevaa teaching are the e the smo T he journal seeks to expand and dissem inate know ledge about learning centers and to foster com m unication am ong learning center professionals. Its audience includes learning center adm inistrators, teaching staff, and tutors as w ell as other faculty and adm inistrators across the curriculum w ho are interested in im proving the learning skills of postsecondary students. The fall (Americ If you w ould like an annual subscription to T he Learning A ssistance R eview , please m ail or fax, on institutional letterhead, your nam e, address, telephone num ber, fax num ber and e-m ail address. P lease include a check or P .o. num ber. for invoicing. Institutional subscription rates are $25.00. S end your requests to: R ichard D am ashek C alum et C ollege of st. Joseph 2400 N ew Y ork A venue W hiting, IN 46394 P hone: (2191473-4273 R ichardd8@ aol.com The quests for develo distinct ac promotei::: The Iiteraza wide variec Usage of e- : 34 - TLAR, Fall 2000 : wvutsrqponm J O IN T H E C O N V E R S A n O N HGFEDCBA U s e DCBA o f T e c h n o lo g y w ith D e v e lo p m e n ta l B y S a n d r a L . M ille r , A tla n tic C a p e C o m m u n ity S tu d e n ts IHGFEDCBA C o l l e g e wvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA o f th e N a tio n a l u b llsh e d tw ice a o w le d g e a b o u t g le a rn in g ce n te r e r a d m in istra to rs, d a d m in istra to rs in g th e le a rn in g n in Technology can be one of the strongest teaching and learning tools available today if used wisely. Students learn best when the subject is embedded in content that is of interest and relevance and when the learning is active. Technology can broaden the opportunity for teaching in context and for learning in an active way (Cowles, 1997), but what matters most are the educational strategies for using technology-strategies that ultimately can influence the student's total course of study (Ehrmann, 1997). The following set of guiding principles is a good place to start looking (American Distance Education Consortium, 1999). at strategies ~ The learning experience must have a clear purpose with tightly focused outcomes and objectives. ~ The learner is actively engaged . ~ The learning environment makes appropriate use of a variety of media. ~ Learning environments must include problem-based as well as knowledge-based learning. ~ Learning experiences should communities of interest. A ssista n ce e a d , yo u r n a m e , . a d d re ss. P le a se n o l su b scrip tio n MLKJIHGFEDCBA support interaction and the development of The questions we have to ask ourselves, as educators considering the usage of technology for developmental students, arise from these guidelines. We have to ask ourselves what distinct advantages does the applied instructional technology offer the instructor in order to promote improved learning in the students (Owston, 1997)? The literature suggests that computer-mediated communication (CMC) can be offered in a wide variety of delivery formats to successfully enhance teaching and learning strategies. Usage of e-mail, bulletin boards, and Internet research results in greater enrichment for Volume 5, Number 2, T L A R 35 academic courses (Drew, 1996; Collins, 1998). Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) maximize student reflection and encourage progressive thought, take multiple perspectives, and create independent thinking (Oshima & Oshima, 1999). In CSILE, students externalize their thoughts as electronic text or graphic "notes." Then, they organize their knowledge collaboratively within an electronic framework to advance their common understanding. CMC can provide extra access to the instructor, other students, and the world-at-Iarge (Rossi, 1996). Additional findings by Regalbuto et al. (2000) indicate that two well-established educational strategies, discussion or seminar mode and lecture mode work well with two new on-line paradigms. Discussion or seminar mode is effective with text-based CMC, such as e-mail, and lecture mode is enhanced with interactive, graphically based material such as PowerPoint. As instructors, both Michael Collins and Ellen Freedman have used electronic bulletin boards in their traditional classrooms (Collins, 1988; Floyd, 1998). They found that electronic bulletin boards were wonderful stimulants of student-to-student interaction as well as student-to-instructor. Electronic bulletin boards can offer an excellent opportunity for students to interact at convenient times. Many developmental educators are familiar with the "fact and skills, drill and practice" media of computer-assisted instruction and computer-based instruction. Studies have shown there is a place for this methodology (Kulik, 1994; King and Crouse, 1997; Weems, 1999); however, an effective delivery of developmental instruction necessarily involves the creative use of integrated labs and computer-assisted instruction to supplement classroom instruction. It is extremely important that this kind of usage is directly linked to classroom instruction (Boylan, H., Bonham, B., Bliss, and Claxton, 1998). Tomei (1997) places usage of the Internet high on the level of humanistic effectiveness. He points out that the Internet is much too hands-on and much too reliant on students interacting with others to be utilized at the basic drill and skill level. The Internet poses a higher level option for developmental students through collaboration and interaction. Again, it's a matter of determining the desired educational strategy (or strategies) and applying that strategy through the technology's features to promote learning. Another advantage of CMC is in the potential affective support for the developmental learner. As a developmental math teacher at Camden County Community College, Ellen Freedman finds that "her students open up more easily on-line than in person, and she learned a lot about their anxieties" (Floyd, 1998). This means that developmental students may find their public voices that are so often lost in the bustle of the busy, traditional classroom. In addition, studies have shown that computers often motivate students to participate more (Ireson, 1997; Cavanaugh, 1999). "Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaboration of knowledge" (Brown, 1989, p. 40). The value of constructivist education theory is that it bridges the gap between knowing and doing. 36DCBA T L A R , FalI 2000 Another stud' :". in any course from feeling 'e mediated co learning. He Interestingl (Ehrmann, 1 Howat, and developed for Word process _ the Internet. important facets '0 systems anddcba (Ehrmann). Going back to educational list of educatio based learning communicatio student's choo improved sID strategies are ~_ electronic em - The teacher's. determined contextualizing f context; mo meta-functio - 1 summarize e supports th community Caverly an .• ' developmental The first generaa throughel interactivity developmental coherent app students. High e this perspectivIHG c_ Beginning Vi- Intentional Learning _rogressivethought, take ? & Oshima, 1999). In _ .c "notes." Then, they ework to advance their . ., world-at-large (Rossi, two well-established e work well with two text-based CMC, such _.based material such as - d electronic bulletin 998). They found that dent interaction as well . cellent opportunity for , drill and practice" .on. Studies have shown ,1997; Weems, 1999); . Y involves the creative classroom instruction. classroom instruction .stic effectiveness. He - on students interacting et poses a higher level .on. Again, it's a matter applying that strategy for the developmental unity College, Ellen in person, and she developmental students f the busy, traditional nts to participate more ide school, advances value of constructivist Another study by Bonk, Appelman, and Hay (1996) found that individual success or failure in any course depended upon the extent to which students were able to cross a threshold from feeling like outsiders to feeling like insiders. Wegerif(1998) suggests that computermediated communication provides the support for interactive and collaborative teaching and learning. He further suggests that this helps to bring the student back across that threshold. Interestingly enough, software that isn't designed for instruction can be good for learning (Ehrmann, 1997). In a casebook analysis of such software, Morris, Ehrmann, Goldsmith, Howat, and Kumar (1994) gave such software the name of worldware. Worldware is developed for purposes other than instruction, but is also used for teaching and learning. Word processors are worldware as are computer-aided design packages, electronic mail, and the Internet. Worldware packages are educationally valuable because they enable several important facets of instructional improvement. For example, electronic mail, conferencing systems and voice mail can support collaborative learning by non-residential students (Ehrmann). Going back to the original premise that it is the educational strategy driving the usage of educational technology that is significant, it pays to examine the AnnenburglCPB Project's list of educational strategies for using technology (Ehrmann, 1997). The list includes projectbased learning in an information-rich, too-rich environment; collaborative learning when communication can be synchronous and asynchronous; learning at paces and times of the student's choosing; learning marked by continuous improvement of a piece of work, improved student-faculty and student-student interaction, and enhanced feedback. These strategies are appropriate for developmental students given the proper scaffolding in the electronic environment. The teacher's role changes in the on-line environment. Feenberg (1989) and his colleagues determined that the instructor's role as on-line moderator breaks down into three parts: contextualizing functions are necessary to put time-delayed comments into the proper context; monitoring functions are important to keep students on-task while on-line; and meta-functions (usage of "weaving comments" to remedy problems in context and to summarize the state of discussion) bring it all together for the students. Harasim (1995) supports these functions. The instructor's use of technology to form a strong sense of community through student collaboration and affective interaction. Caverly and MacDonald (1999) recommend a continuum of web-based activities for developmental on-line students. They suggest three different levels or "generations" (p. 36): The first generation is web-based supplemental instruction; the second adds interactivity through electronic bulletin boards and e-mail while the third adds the benefit of synchronous interactivity in chat rooms. Caverly and MacDonald and others are inclined to pursue on-line developmental courses. A continuum leading up to totally on-line courses may be the most coherent approach to integrating the appropriate educational technology for developmental students. Higher education can certainly look at incorporating educational technology from this perspective. Beginning with the American Distance Education Consortium's guidelines (1999) Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R 37 previously defined, developmental educators can form their own continuum of educational strategies incorporating educational technology for developmental students. They can look at delivering instruction in a mixed mode to start that could evolve into a totally computermedicated delivery depending upon the students' responses. "Mixed mode classes can be comprised of the best of both worlds: the human interactions of the classroom with the powerful learning tools of the computer" (Regalbuto et aI., 2000). As Imel (1998) explains, "Adult educators may once have been able to ignore the educational applications of technology, but that is no longer the case."DCBA I t is incumbent upon us to develop a meaningful set of educational strategies employing technology in ways that improve learning and connection. It behooves us to prepare our students for on-line work in these and other courses. More importantly, we need to help prepare them for the world of work within a developmental, educationally sound, technological environment.HGFEDCBA MLKJIHGFEDCBA IHGFEDCBA o f le a r n in g S a n d r a L M ille r is t h e d i r e c t o r C o m m u n ity C o lle g e a s s is ta n c e c e n te r s and support s e r v ic e s a t A tla n tic C ape in N e w J e r s e y . R e fe re n c e s American Distance Education Consortium. computer as a motivational tool. (1999). ADEC Guiding Principles for Innovation Abstracts, XXI(16), 2. Distance and Learning. [On-line] Caverly, D. C., & MacDonald, L. (1999). Available: http://www.adec.edu/ Techtalk: Designing on-line admin/papers/distance-teaching developmental education courses. yrinciples.html. Journal of Developmental Education, Bonk, C. J., Appelman, R., & Hay,dcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA K . E. 23(1),36-37. (1996). Electronic conferencing tools Collins, M. (1998). The use of e-mail and electronic bulletin boards in collegefor student apprenticeship and level biology. Journal of Computers perspective taking. Educational Technology, 36(5), 8-18. in Mathematics and Science Technology, 17(1), 75-94. Boylan, H., Bonham, B., Bliss, L., & Cowles, S. K . (1997). Technology melts Claxton, C. (1998, November). The state of the art in developmental classroom walls. Focus on Basics, education: Report of a national study. l(A),l1-l3. Paper presented at the First National Drew, B. (1996). Using the worldwide Conference on Research in web, e-mail, and campus network to enrich classes and academic support Developmental Education, Charlotte, NC. services. Innovation Abstracts, XVIII(14), 1. Brown, J. S. (1989, January-February). Ehrmann, S. C. (1997). Asking the right Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 32question: What does research tell us about technology and higher 42. Cavanaugh, C. J. (1999). Using the learning? [On-line] AnnenburglCPB. 38 T L A R , FaIl 2000 assessmem Hillsdale, _- : Morris, P., Ehrn[}2::~ · own continuum of educational _ ental students. They can look . e olve into a totally computer. "Mixed mode classes can be ions of the classroom with the 000). e . ave been able to ignore the _ the case." It is incumbent upon ploying technology in ways that our students for on-line work elp prepare them for the world -;. ological environment. Available: http://www .Ie ar n e r . org/ edtech/rscheval/rightquestion.h tml. Feenberg, A. (1989). The written world: On the theory and practice of computer conferencing. In R. Mason, & A. Kaye (Eds.), Mindweave: Communication. computers, and distance education (pp. 22-39). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. Floyd, B. P. (1998, September 11). Bookmark. The Chronicle of Higher Education, A31. Harasim, L., Hiltz, S. R., Teles, L., & Turnoff, M. (Eds.). (1995). Learning networks: A field guide to teaching and learning on-line. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Imel, S. (1998). Technology and adult learning: Currentperspectives. (ERIC Digest No. 197). Ireson, S. R. (1997). Remedial! developmental studies students' attitudes toward computer aided instruction. Master's Research Report. Mercer University, Macon, GA. er as a motivational tool. ration Abstracts, XXI(16), 2. . C., & MacDonald, L. (1999). · talk: Designing on-line opmental education courses. of Developmental Education, King, M. C., & Crouse, T. T. (1997, .36-37. August-September). Opening the (1998). The use of e-mail and bottleneck: Using computer-mediated nic bulletin boards in collegelearning to increase success and · biology. Journal of Computers productivity in developmental _ 1athematics and Science algebra. Community College Journal, 010 17(1),75-94. 18-22 . . K. (1997). Technology melts Kulik, 1. A. (1994). Meta-analytic studies m walls. Focus on Basics. of findings on computer-based 11-13. instruction. In E. L. Baker, & H. (1996). Using the worldwide O'Neill (Eds.), Technology e-mail, and campus network to assessment in education and training. . classes and academic support Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. es. Innovation Abstracts. Morris, P., Ehrmann, S. c., Goldsmith, R., (14), 1. S. C. (1997). Asking the right .on: What does research tell usdcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA k technology and higher , . o? [On-line] AnnenburglCPB. Howat, K., & Kumar, V. (1994). Valuable, viable software in education: Cases and analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill. Oshima, J., & Oshima, R. (1999). Scaffolding for progressive discourse in CSILE: Case study of university undergraduate programs. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. TM029936) . Owston, R D. (1997). The worldwide web: A technology to enhance teaching and learning. Educational Researcher, 26(2),27-33. Regalbuto, 1., Anderson, R., Aref, H., Burbules, N., Cook, A., D'Arcy, c., Gelula, M., Hansen, D., Loui, M., Neuberger, B., Smith, L., Smith, R., Sosnoski, J., Theis, S., Wengert, R, Wink, D., & Woodbury, C. (2000). Teaching at an internet distance: The pedagogy of on-line teaching and learning. The report of a 1998-1999 University of Illinois faculty seminar. [On-line] Available: http://www.vpaa.uillinois.edu/ tid/reportltid report.html. Rossi, T. (1996). Using computer-mediated communication to supplement instruction. Research in Developmental Education, 13(1), 1-4. Tomei, L. A., Dr. (1997, December). Instructional technology: Pedagogy for the future. T.H.E. Journal, 56-59. Weems, G. (1999). Exploring teacher constructed audio tutorials. Paper presented at the NADE 1999 Annual Conference, Detroit, MI. Wegerif, R. (1998). The social dimension of asynchronous learning networks. Journal of Asvnchronous Learning Networks, 2( 1), 17. Volume 5, Number 2, TLAR 39 B O O K R E V IE W wvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA T U T O R IN G G U ID E S : R E C E N T T E X T S F O R T R A IN IN G R e v ie w e d B y Jam es M cN am ara, A /v e r n o P E E R E D U C A T O R S IHGFEDCBA Another sig classes and groups as the: frustration, n of increasing atmosphere, progression of C o lle g e Ender, S., & Newton, F. (2000). Students helping students: A guide for peer educators on college campuses. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gillespie, P., & Lerner, N. (2000). The Allyn and Bacon guide to peer tutoring. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Rafoth, B. (Ed.). (2000). A tutor's guide: Helping writers one to one. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. If sheer numbers of publications tell the story of how popular a topic is, then how one educates peer tutors or peer educators is the hot button issue of the year 2000. No less than three new texts have appeared in the last twelve months. Iflearning center administrators are in the market for additional material to add to their workshops or courses for peer assistants, then one of the following texts may be of service. Each employs interesting and informative methods of instruction as it considers the significant issues facing students as they work with their classmates in writing, reading, and study strategy situations. The first text, Ender and Newton's Students helping students: A guide for peer educators on college campuses, presents material in both a logical and thorough fashion. The chapters of the text are arranged in a consistent manner, with each including a list oflearning objectives, followed by informative textual explication, and finally exercises and questions. The language of the text is appropriate for the presumed audience: students training to be peer educators. In addition to significant discussions which include working with diverse students, the group process, reading and study strategies, and ethical issues, the text also contains an impressive references section for further reading. In Chapter 3, one of two sections written for Ender and Newton by an outside authority, the assumption is that most peer educators will be working with diverse populations of students. The author, Ata U. Karim, a licensed psychologist and coordinator of multicultural training and outreach at Kansas State University, substitutes "intercultural" for the more common "multicultural," hinting at the complex nature of culture and noting that individuals often TLA R 40DCBA , FaIl 2000 A second text tutoring, a th . obviously co materials that . writers. The the writing an trenches.HGFEDC exist within more than one cultural setting (p. 50). She warns against over-generalizing and offers methods of neutralizing stereotypes. In addition, she openly discusses things that might hinder a peer educator from becoming competent in an intercultural world, such as concerns with personal discomfort and fear of embarrassment, and notes that a solid starting point is to become more aware of one's own cultural position (pp. 57-58). Another significant issue that Ender and Newton consider is the use of group activities in classes and tutorial situations, as discussed in Chapter 6. The authors note the advantages of groups as they discuss what might go wrong: apathy, boredom, conflict, indifference, frustration, nonsupport, or inability to accomplish purpose (p. 133). They discuss methods of increasing the efficiency of the group process, including vigilance in communication, atmosphere, decision-making, and recognizing membership roles. A useful table traces the progression of group development and offers tips for success at each stage (p.147). The second guest author, Sally Lipsky of the Learning Center Department at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, traces a number of strategies for academic success in Chapter 8 that are oftenIHGFEDCBA d e r i g u e u r in all peer educator training texts: passive versus active learning, time management, environment, listening, note-taking, critical reading, organizing practices, ;:= = -= --"'-"= -= = = -= = . wvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Boston: and exam preparation. e to one. Portsmouth, NH: a topic is, then how one o the year 2000. No less than . g center administrators are or courses for peer assistants, :"5 interesting and informative . g students as they work with ~ !Wide for eer educators on g fashion. The chapters of g a list oflearning objectives, cises and questions. The . students training to be peer de working with diverse ..:ethical issues, the text also y an outside authority, the populations of students. r of multicultural training " for the more common oting that individuals often Finally, in the Ender and Newton text, Chapter 10 treats peer educators, appropriately, as professionals, and as such considers ethical standards that might be employed to ensure proper behavior, roles, and responsibilities. The authors succinctly discuss the relationships a peer educator will take part in: with students, with a supervisor, with the university community, and with the local community at large. A second text that debuted this year is Gillespie and Lerner's Allyn and Bacon guide to peer tutoring, a thorough and practical approach to training peer tutors. This manual, while obviously considering the relevant issues of the field, is augmented with supplemental materials that include interesting and insightful observations from actual tutors and student writers. The authors trace the training process in a developmental fashion, from explaining the writing and tutoring process to observation, practical advice, and fmally tutoring in the trenches. For example, in Chapter 4, the authors look at expectations of both the tutor and the writer. As in the Ender and Newton text, Gillespie and Lerner desire tutors to be aware of cultural biases; they also want the learning assistants to be conscious of their previous educational experiences. They speak of the expectations of rules of interaction and how they apply to a tutoring session. Tutors are encouraged to clarify the goals of the writer and reach a compromise on the tutor's goals, so as to remain committed to the writer rather than writing. The chapter also examines how views of writing an essay have been formed by previous influential teachers of the tutors; such experiences may block communication between the tutor and tutee. The tutor is reminded to avoid the "one-size-fits-all" mentality. Locating tutors in a situation common to many campuses, Chapter 9 overtly considers tutorials that involve critical reading. Often, students are writing in response to something Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R 41 they have read, and this chapter examines how tutors can help "writers who are grappling with texts" (p. 107). The authors thoroughly examine the reading process, offering examples of tutors working with students "reading" in a writing center. Keeping in mind that tutoring will take on new challenges in the near future with the advent of more and more technological advances, Chapter 12 introduces the relatively new concept of on-line tutoring. The authors consider primarily low-tech e-mail exchanges and the need to consider several variables: different expectations, response time, establishing tone, and context setting. They note that two types of comments dominate responses during tutoring on-line: "interlaced comments" and "comments at the end" of a piece, and they discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each (pp. 144-45). The third text this year that considers the training of peer educators, Rafoth's A tutor's guide: Helping writers one to one, brings together a myriad of voices that discuss what might occur in a tutoring session. The text also considers theory and practice that might help make what a tutor does easier and more enjoyable. Chapters are logically organized in a consistent fashion, with the following sections: introduction, background material, concrete suggestions for action, complicating matters, further reading, and works cited. The text closes with brief overviews of several informative topics for further consideration: from the socially constructive methods of critiquing "bad assignments" to the liberating feeling of working in a radical writing center, and finally to the peril or wisdom of a student writer ignoring his or her audience. In Chapter 2, Molly Wingate discusses concerns about crossing from a "writer-centered, process-oriented" tutorial session to a "tutor-centered, product-oriented" session (p. 9). She acknowledges that there is always a dichotomy of doing what is helpful and best for the student-writer to move towards independence and doing what the student/writer desires. Tutors are encouraged to continue to assess their role in a session and within those boundaries, to remain in character. However, since the line is constantly in a state of flux, tutors should also be willing to adapt and move with it. Alice L. Trupe, in Chapter 8, offers methods for tutors to help students recognize the importance of organization and the steps necessary to move through the chaos that often traps them. Tutors must keep in mind that the movement they experience in a tutoring session is through the writing process as well as in an individual product. It is often at odds with writing textbooks, which concentrate on "orienting the reader," when one works on topic sentences or transitional phrases (p. 68). Tutors need to be aware of audience and context; they might have students work on brief summaries of ideas, presented in oral form, to help them determine what they want to say. Another method is to have writers contextualise "the journalist's five 'w-questions '" to help them discover their own focus and to produce a more "reader-based rather than writer-based text" (p. 70). Trupe reminds the tutor to keep an open mind and to avoid failing to "recognize unfamiliar organizational patterns where our [writing tutors] preconceived ideas" might be thwarted (p. 73). In the [mal chapter, Jennifer J. Ritter introduces another layer of difference in a tutorial situation which involves an English as a second language (ESL) writer. She acknowledges TLA R 42DCBA , Fall 2000 that su that the Since this may considcbaZYX =<- _ iters who are grappling ocess, offering examples ear future with the advent the relatively new concept . exchanges and the need . e, establishing tone, and responses during tutoring piece, and they discuss the ors, Rafoth's A tutor's that discuss what might actice that might help make _.organized in a consistent .ai, concrete suggestions The text closes with brief 'on: from the socially ting feeling of working student writer ignoring his that such sessions offer difficulty in deciding where to start: grammar or ideas. She desires that the tutor consider trying to "negotiate meanings and focus in the student's text" (p. 102). Since ESL students often expect, and may need, extensive sentence-level help and editing, this may be at odds with the previous training a tutor has received. Tutors also need to consider "which ESL errors are more serious and can affect reading comprehension" (p. 103). By negotiating, tutor and writer are enacting the theory of "interaction hypothesis" (Goss, S., Mackey, A., and Pica, T., 1998). Negotiation "slows the conversation and allows the student more time to process information," thus allowing the student to "discover problems on his [or her] own" (p. 108). If a learning assistance educator is looking for a new text to augment current training materials, any of the books mentioned above would be a welcome addition. Each offers the supplementary information and examples necessary to complement any instructional practice, whether it is a semester-long course on tutoring or a series of workshops designed to improve the quality of instruction.HGFEDCBA J a m e s M c N a m a ra , A lv e r n o C o lle g e IHGFEDCBA is a n In s tr u c to r in M ilw a u k e e , o f C o m m u n ic a tio n W is c o n s in . in th e In s tr u c tio n a l S e r v ic e s D e p a r tm e n t at MLKJIHGFEDCBA R e fe re n c e _ from a "writer-centered, iented" session (p. 9). She -- helpful and best for the the student/writer desires. session and within those tantly in a state of flux, Goss, S., Mackey, A., & Pica, T. (1998). The role of input and interaction in second language acquisition: Introduction to the special issue. The Modem Language Journal, 82, 302. students recognize the ugh the chaos that often experience in a tutoring roduct. It is often at odds er," when one works on aware of audience and presented in oral form, od is to have writers scover their own focus and . 70). Trupe reminds the amiliar organizational thwarted (p. 73). difference in a tutorial Titer. She acknowledges Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R 43 P U B U C A T IO N You will receivedcbaZYXWV G review process receive further publication, a co •DCBA G U ID E U N E S As an official publication of the National College Learning Center Association, The Learning Assistance Review seeks to expand and disseminate knowledge about learning centers and to foster communication among learning center professionals. Its audience includes learning center administrators, teaching staff and tutors, as well as other faculty and administrators across the curriculum who are interested in improving the learning skills of post-secondary students. The journal publishes scholarly articles and reviews that address issues of interest to a broad range of learning center professionals. Primary consideration will be given to articles about program design and evaluation, classroom-based research, the application of theory and research to practice, innovative teaching strategies, student assessment, and other topics that bridge gaps within our diverse discipline. 44 1. Prepare a manuscript that is approximately 12 to 15 pages in length and includes an introduction, bibliography, and subheadings throughout the text. 2. Include an abstract of 100 words or less that clearly describes the focus of your paper and summarizes its contents. 3. Type the text with double spacing and number the pages. Follow APA style (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th edition, 1994). 4. Include your name, title, address, institutional affiliation and telephone number along with the title of the article on a separate cover sheet; the manuscript pages should include a running title at the top of each page with no additional identifying information. 5. Submit all tables or charts camera ready on separate pages. 6. Do not send manuscripts that are under consideration elsewhere. 7. Send four copies of your manuscript to the following address: Nancy Bornstein, Co-Editor, The Learning Assistance Review, Alverno College, 3401 S. 39 Street, Milwaukee, WI 53215. T L A R , Fall 2000 or have been published You will receive a letter of acknowledgment that your manuscript has been received. The review process will then take approximately three to six weeks at which time you will receive further notification related to your work. If your manuscript is accepted for publication, a computer disk or e-mail transmission will be requested. g Center Association, The knowledge about learning professionals. Its audience _as well as other faculty and _roving the learning skills of issues of interest to a broaddcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA ill be given to articles about - e application of theory and ent, and other topics that - pages in length and includes ughout the text. _"describes the focus of your e pages. Follow APA style cal Association, 4th edition, " 'on and telephone number sheet; the manuscript pages page with no additional 'on or have been published g address: Nancy Bomstein, o College, 3401 S. 39 Street, Volume 5, Number 2,DCBA T L A R 45 M C L C A M E M B E R S H IP IN F O R M A T IO N Name: W h a t is N C L C A ? wvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFED Ad The mission of the National College Learning Center Association (NCLCA) is to support learning assistance professionals as they develop and maintain learning centers, programs, and services to enhance student learning at the postsecondary level. Pho e: Fax: W hat Does NCLCA Do? ~ Promotes professional standards in the areas of administration and management, program and curriculum design, evaluation, and research; ~ Acts on learning assistance issues at local, regional, and national levels; ~ Assists in the creation of new, and enhancement of existing, learning centers and programs; ~ Provides opportunities for professional development, networking, and idea exchange through conferences, workshops, institutes, and publications; and ~ Offers forums for celebrating and respecting the profession. H o w C a n I P a rtic ip a te ? The NCLCA Executive Board is anxious to involve as many learning center professionals as possible in achieving its objectives and meeting our mutual needs. Therefore, we invite you to become a member of the National College Learning Center Association. The membership year extends from October 1 through September 30, and annual dues are $40.00. Membership includes the NCLCA Newsletter and The Learning Assistance Review, discounted registration for the annual NCLCA Conference, workshops, in-service events, and announcements regarding upcoming NCLCA activities. We look forward to having you as an active member of our growing organization. TLA R 46DCBA , Fall 2000 N C L C A M e m b e rs h ip A p p lic a tio n nONwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA (Journal subscription included) Name: Institution: . ion (NCLCA) is to support . learning centers, programs, .~level. . tration and management, ch; . g, learning centers and ent, networking, and idea and publications; and Address: Phone: (1- ) Fax: (~------)--------------------------------- E-mail address: ----------------------------------------- Send application form and a check made out to NCLCA for $40.00* to: Richard Damashek NCLCA Membership Secretary Calumet College of St. Joseph 2400 New York A venue Whiting, IN 46394 219/473-4273 Richardd8@aoLcom * International members please add $5.00 to cover the cost of mailings. g center professionals eeds. Therefore, we invite Center Association. The 30, and annual dues aredcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Assistance Review, kshops, in-service events, k forward to having youMLKJIHGFEDCBA • 0' _