Journal of Curriculum Studies Research
curriculumstudies.org
Open Access Journal
2019, 1(1): 43-53
Research Paper
Theoretical Constructs and Practical Strategies for Intercultural
Communication: Informed Teaching Practices in Vietnam
Tung Ngoc Vu*
* University at Albany, New York,
USA (PhD student)
E-mail:
vungoctung2006@gmail.com
Article Info
Received: 26 October 2019
Accepted: 20 November 2019
How to cite
Vu, T. N. (2019). Theoretical
Constructs
and
Practical
Strategies
for
Intercultural
Communication:
Informed
Teaching Practices in Vietnam.
Journal of Curriculum Studies
Research, 1(1), 43-53.
ABSTRACT
Delving into English language education in Vietnam, this theory-oriented
article aims to generate a new debate on critical cultural awareness
(CCA) in light of increasing literature on intercultural communication
competence (ICC), thus offering practical implementations to academic
agents. Once ICC is strongly considered indispensable within
communication, CCA can strengthen the power of sociocultural and
psychological relationships. This study specifies the role of intercultural
communication, aiming to develop Vietnamese learners to reach beyond
abstract linguistic features towards language awareness by engaging in
cultural and societal plurality. Seemingly, they need use language that
advocate the enactment of change, fostering their abilities in their civic
life. Coupled with that, they are obliged for learning the power of positive
attitudes in terms of intercultural engagement, such as sympathy
towards and acceptance of differences. Critical cultural awareness as a
contribution to intercultural communication drives two primary aspects,
namely social and psychological dimensions. In addition to dragging
learners out of traditionally perceived skills related to native-like
competences, the framework application expands potential goals and
instructional steps that cover learning based on learner voice reflected
upon privilege and power. Apparently, it is relevant in response to
learning environment driven by social mechanisms which focus on
citizenship, expecting that they learn and possess knowledge for certain
purposes relating to career goals and social needs. Comprehensively, this
study will outline the short examination of language education in
Vietnam as a way to understand existing hindrances to be resolved. It
anchored this analysis in a theoretical paradigm: critical cultural
awareness, which is then critically embedded to involve social and
psychological pedagogies. This enables to shift learners’ desire and
willingness that hone their learning skills which influences academic
success and communicative adaptability. Pedagogical implications are
also suggested.
KEYWORDS
Intercultural communication, critical cultural awareness, English
language teaching, Vietnamese learners, culturally responsive pedagogy.
44
Vu, T. N.
INTRODUCTION
Functioning the varieties of roles in a large number of social fields, English is widely shared as
the common language that relieves difficulties in the cross-cultural communication. Also,
bilingual or multilingual speakers of English have surged in quantity over the past decades, even
higher than those in inner circle (the first-language English users). Estimates have showed that
non-native English users are greater than that of natives in terms of population, meaning the
rising needs of encouraging “dialogue across the boundaries of languages, countries, and
cultures” (Mirzaei and Forouzandeh, 2013, p. 303). English fosters the social and racial harmony
between people of different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. However, defining learning
tools to justify the plurality of culture and language remains largely neglected in developing
countries.
Amidst significant effects of culture, language education has been unstoppably challenged
to inform critically several approaches which can accommodate the vast contacts of culture and
language in communities of practice. Also, this has failed the consistency of native-like
competence at the expense of learners’ fluent and proficient response in sociocultural contexts.
The study used a framework developed by Byram (2012), named as Critical Cultural Awareness
(CCA), of which intercultural competence is developed. In the context of higher education as a
central focus in this oriented study, educational “businesses” are more entitled to discern their
willingness “towards more market-oriented and entrepreneurial models” (Nguyen, 2018, pp.
78).
In light of the significant body of literature on intercultural communicative competence
(Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013), this study is significant to contribute towards the neglected
concepts relating to CCA especially. In Vietnamese context, the necessity of embedding
appropriate methods to develop speakers’ ICC skills are progressively questioned. Byram (1997)
claimed the clusters of knowledge, skills and attitudes are inextricably contributing towards the
acquisition and changes of learners’ intercultural competence. Therefore, this study is initiated
to inspire more scholarly attention in the field, by elaborating on what is hindering English
language education in Vietnam in light of the country’s international expansion and intercultural
integration. From that vantage point, this study is going to interpret the perspectives of Byram
(2012) into the application of class-based ICC instruction.
The growing needs of English in Vietnam
In light of political and cultural changes, Vietnam has made multiple attempts relating to
foreign language education. The time 1954-1975 was the period when English and French were
required foreign languages in the South of Vietnam (the capitalist South) and Russian and
Chinese in the North (the communist North). However, right after 1985, Russia as the main
foreign language for instruction was unprecedented in the nation-wide education as a sign of
close collaboration with the Soviet Union. In 1986, the economic reforms led to various plans to
house the communicative needs with foreign investors and customers, resulting in increasing
needs of English as a vehicle for communication. In addition, that Vietnam was officially a
member of ASEAN in 2015 and TPP in 2016 incentivized Vietnamese citizens to care more about
their language competence to satisfy a wide range of purposes, such as study, employment,
immigration and so on. Especially in terms of higher education sectors, English started to be
included in curriculum as a compulsory subject and was seen as a required component in
entrance exams and for HE graduation. English has been normally designed to teach both as
45
Theoretical Constructs and Practical Strategies for Intercultural Communication
General English for English-majoring and non-English-majoring students in all levels and as
English for Specific Purposes.
The nature of language acquisition in Vietnam was predominantly developed by GrammarTranslation method, asking learners to memorize and employ accurately the grammar rules,
vocabulary, syntax and morphology. Heavily driven by the deep-rooted Confucian traditions,
current efforts were obviously based on hierarchical knowledge transmission (linear instruction)
and out-of-culture languages. The overlooked Vietnamese mother tongue in EFL classes, albeit
its own inevitable benefits in some cases, has lowered students’ access to knowledge of target
language and culture. In parallel to them, while required to teach and learn English with ‘nativelike’ quality without any consideration of learners’ cultural background, assuming the dominant
communicating needs between natives and non-natives, it is directly linked to withdrawing the
students’ curiosity and interest in real-life intercultural contacts. Thus, various innovative
approaches have been introduced because it was reported that foreign language education in
Vietnam was inappropriate in terms of direction. Before pedagogical implications are presented,
the Byram’s model will be described and linked to other pertaining areas. It is highlighted that
this study is of paramount importance to leave a powerful platform for prospective scholarly
attention in order that theories are crucial practices and implementation plans to be rendered
in Vietnamese classrooms.
The use of intercultural communicative competence in Vietnam EFL classrooms
After joining ASEAN, Vietnam is home to numerous FDI investments from numerous
continental countries. Beyond educational purposes, English as a Lingua Franca was needed to
assist locals in effectively communicating in settings where intentions, assumptions, beliefs and
goals of people exist variously. Therefore, intercultural communication is critically such a target
that Vietnamese speakers of English can qualify in the multicultural education (Government of
Vietnam, 2008). As referred to teaching settings, Moeller and Nugent (2014) indicated that ICC
appears to be practically implemented. In parallel with instructional implementations of ICC is
advocated by National Standards for Foreign Language Learning (NSFLEP) that “the true content
of the foreign language course is not the grammar and the vocabulary of the language, but the
cultures expressed through the language” (1999, p. 43).
Teaching culture involves a series of dynamic processes to save learners from “becoming
a fluent fool” (Bennett, 1997, p. 16), making them “conscious of their own perspective, of the
way in which their thinking is culturally determined, rather than believing that their
understanding and perspectives is nature” (Byram, 2000, p. 10). In other words, it is to help
learners recognize that culture is dynamically changing, not stable. Moreover, culture in
language classes is necessarily beyond 4Fs (cultural facts, festivals, food, fairs) towards human
beings’ behavioural and attitudinal aspects (Liddicoat and Scarino, 2013; Dema & Moeller, 2012)
widely seen as learner identities, that is, who they are in distinctive settings.
Empirically, this application has led to manifold benefits among both teachers and
learners. Nguyen, Harvey and Grant (2016) explore Vietnamese teachers’ perceptions regarding
teaching culture in language classes. They claimed that teaching is no useful in some reasons
(lack of cultural knowledge, lack of teaching techniques, lack of student abilities and
commitment) though they attempted to describe and analyze cultures in a certain extent.
Differently, Tran and Duong (2018) suggested that intercultural teaching is generating
manifold positive impacts among Vietnamese EFL learners. They introduced a framework,
entitled Intercultural Communication Language Teaching. In addition to positive effects on
Vu, T. N.
46
student attitudes, knowledge and awareness were on the rise, implying that learners
increasingly engage in learning environment which is more culturally diversified. They further
support that intercultural learning can develop learners’ critical thinking on seeing cultures
equally. Academically, learners can enhance their learning progress in two productive skills.
In well a similar vein, Truong & Tran (2014) researched on how to implement ICC teaching
and learning. They informed the impacts of using digital artefacts on learners in terms of cultural
recognition and intercultural understanding. It is well stated that delving into learning
environments if they are authentically embedded with cultural views and learning voices would
be a profound interest of Vietnamese language learners. More importantly, they are willing to
reconsider themselves in addressing existing stereotypes to undertake as many positive
viewpoints as possible.
Byram’s Critical Cultural Awareness
Educational learning environment has existed fruitfully in a wide range of forms regardless
of learner geographical distance, background, and financial and non-financial capacity. It is
meant that language learning is no longer beyond reach, through information-seeking processes
and under-surface exploration. From the lens of a hermeneutic view of self, culture not only
involves surface-level cultural aspects but also reflects on intercultural meanings among people
who perceive interpersonally (Dema & Moeller, 2012). They can talk about their assumptions,
show emotions, acquire cognitive competences, possessed understanding, exercised practices,
and so on. Intrinsically, it is common to manifest cultures in layers comprehensively and
logically. As those are articulate through human interactions, the nature of learning language
neglecting the cultural understanding presents numerous obstacles, leading to learners being
unable to cite worldviews in their intrinsic knowledge” (Kramsch, 1993; Kumaravadivelu, 2008;
Tran & Vu, 2017).
Currently, learning goals in Vietnamese EFL classes are to a certain extent equal to efforts
in addressing to overcome stereotypical views inside pedagogical mechanism. There is a positive
change among Asian students who were found to actively seeking chances to achieve personal
growth while accommodating learning challenges in developed nations (Ryan, 2011; Tran
2013a). This is a consequence of sociocultural impacts directly training Asian learners to activate
abilities and exercise sufficient agency in order to reflect on knowledge weaknesses towards
potential achievements. Also, it is a reversed misconception that Confucian philosophies are
eliminated in a sense that the elimination would contribute to linguistic and cultural awareness
optimism. Baker (2012) associated with intercultural awareness theory, asserting that “a
conscious understanding of the role culturally-based forms, practices and frames of reference
can have in intercultural communication” (p. 63).
Literature on intercultural communication is specifically motivating this theoretical
initiative on critical cultural awareness (CCA) to transform university-level students’ perceptions
on intercultural competence. Byram (1997) refers to critical cultural awareness (CCA) as “an
ability to evaluate critically and on the basis of explicit criteria perspectives, practices and
products in one’s own and other cultures and countries” (Byram and Guilherme, 2000, p. 72).
Schumann (1978b) supplements with acculturation which is defined as “the social and
psychological integration of the learner with the target language group” (p. 29). It means that
beyond engaging in cultural manifestations is learners to become critical of communities where
engagement takes place. It is comprehended that they are critical in a way to particularize the
certain perspectives, which enable them to succeed in meaning-making interactions. However,
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Theoretical Constructs and Practical Strategies for Intercultural Communication
it is not without communication conflicts when social power and hierarchy are encountered on
a frequent basis. In such, intense engagement with CCA is involved adequately in not dealing
with We and They, rather involved continuously in constructing surface-level and interpersonal
level knowledge. Apparently, accomplishing it requires them an acceptable level of cognition,
attitude and behavior (Kumaravadivelu, 2008). In terms of involvement in CCA, learners need to
beware actively of politically civic skills. In fact, they would be able to figure out how to see and
understand others’ language and culture in their stand, so it can be called as effective skills to
participate in multicultural interaction (Bennett, Bennett, & Allen, 2003; Houghton, 2013;
Kramsch, 1993; Kumaravadivelu, 2008; Mirzaeil & Forouzandeh, 2013). However, how can we
teach with how to design that curriculum which showcases? It is rarely developed in Asian
studies.
It is critical that attitudes and knowledge should be initially a central focus. As stated
above, in addition to the framework of 3Ps (NSFLEP, 2006): practices, products, perspectives of
both target and national cultures, social dimension and psychological dimension are now come
into play.
Social dimension
To a certain extent, it is centered on a place of pilgrimage that offers students space to
conduct spatial analysis by reflecting over how language is socially and culturally influenced in
particular settings. Therefore, integrating the learning of English means providing knowledge
for identifying and grasping social reality (Kramsch, 1993) around learners, especially for
knowledge which seems neglected in traditional classes, such as determining learners’ values,
learners’ beliefs, learners’ attitudes, learners’ behaviors and learners’ ideas (Ozdemir, 2017). In
other words, no learners’ particular culture is the key to classroom’s opportunity structure as
any culture is believed to be progressing in different ways to evaluate its own level of
competence and acceptance. Besides that, providing knowledge for learners’ intellectual voices
to be heard extends the exploration of how learners approached and handled interpersonal
conflicts which influences their personal growth. Therefore, it might enable learners to adapt
holistically in variously defined cultures. This is similar to empirical findings by Le & Tran (2013).
Interesting, that it demonstrates learners’ sense of belonging to a classroom context, or broadly
immediately surrounding societies influencing their daily interactions (including family, relative
network, schools, neighbors, communities and so on) can promote their self-efficacy towards
interests in, trusts in and understanding about the common good.
To be specific, learning English in Vietnamese EFL classrooms is strictly based on the
transmission of linguistic forms which neglects intellectual skills, so learners’ engagement in CCA
could be an active way to help them notice systematically linguistic differences in response to
cultural manifestations (Lamber, 1967). Thus, it is hoped to combine communicative
competence with intercultural competence to interact successfully in intercultural settings
among learners with others (Trofimovich & Turuseva, 2015). They can show their identities
freely with political skills, such as critical thinking, problem solving and analytical analysis.
Psychological dimension
It is overlapped with social dimensions that psychological dimension attaches importance
to learners’ identities, discerning learners’ motivations and willingness to fulfil political skills that
helps them act rigorous inquiry and thoughtful reasoning. Therefore, their confidence is
enhanced in culturally unfamiliar contexts that is socially changing. Morgan (2007) confirms that
Vu, T. N.
48
learners are enhancing political skills, meaning that their identities become clearer and
dynamically formed as a way to succeed in future communication. It is explained under the
perspectives of sociocultural identity and constructionist theories that identity is not fixed, it is
dynamic given timely manner and interaction mechanism which leaners participate in to
perceive emotions differently. It is also supported by Norton (1997) that identities are mutually
struggled which seemingly reflect learners’ roles and positioning. With language instructed in
EFL classes, they tend to choose identities either inferior or superior to others’ learners or
teachers to make them feel comfortable, which promptly enables their exercise of proper
agency to decide cognition, attitude and behavior linguistically (Garcia, 2010, p. 524).
When it comes to psychological properties, it is unnecessarily neglecting the learners’
psychological well-being because it is advantageous to tackle developmental needs of
intercultural sensitivity and self-esteem which were absent in traditional classes. EFL classrooms
now should nurture learners’ collaborative attitudes to work with others to make contributions
to others and pleasant views of cultural recognition with empathy and openness, practice of
newly conceptual knowledge which would be transforming them into skilled intercultural
communicator. It resonates with opinion of Hammer, Bennett and Wiseman (2003) that an
increase in intercultural sensitivity helps learners become familiar with their skills to observe
and judge their communication partners in a positive way. This would facilitate their strong wills
to articulate language use more sufficiently. Theoretically, it is true that Krashen (1985)
explicates the progress of language acquisition when he involves the effective filter as an
indispensable part. Accompanied by learners’ prior knowledge, surrounding learning experience
(e.g. with materials or social environments) is input hypothesis for learners’ knowledge
supplements. The effective filters make up learners’ emotional and attitudinal influences to
contribute towards their knowledge output. In sum, teachers are recommended to put in mind
language users who would allow the simulation of personal values and the continuing formation
of identities during their experience of language acquisition. As long as they have a sense of
belonging to learning environments or an exercise of agency in terms of learning tasks or
activities, they can find positive pathways to civil life.
Pedagogical discussions
The perspectives of Byram (2012) are well articulated concerning the aim to develop
intercultural development skills among language learners. In addition to linguistic skills, to the
forefront of Vietnamese learners’ language-related goals is intercultural competence replacing
native-level competence. In light of the Byram (2012) theory, insights into students’ patterns of
learning acts and personal thoughts are unpacked in the conditions in which students are
granted to make informed learning, coupled with exercising agency and power. As a
consequence, they are not only entitled to employ identities appropriately but also attend to
self-initiation and effective participation of others’ initiated interaction where involving cultures
qualifies interlocutor’s different roles and positions (Harré and van Langenhove, 1999;
Winslade, 2003). I can tell why awareness is a key driver in developing knowledge for
intercultural learning. Critically, students could appear insufficient to have concerns for and
have responsibilities in addressing other issues than theirs, without being made them aware of
what issues are occurring and why addressing these issues is important. By doing so, this leads
to the development in three areas: cognition, attitude and behavior.
In order to justify pedagogical implementations, it is central in Byram (2012) that is a range
of relevant discussions highlight how learning skills are constructed based on experience socially
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Theoretical Constructs and Practical Strategies for Intercultural Communication
and psychologically, for instance undertaking knowledge for and reflection on multiple
purposes. Learning with experience would provide knowledge – that knowledge is ultimately
for the purpose of intercultural learning or, broadly, intercultural advocacy. In this extent,
without experience as a primary agent in curriculum, learning would likely fail to help learners
understand the depth and truth of how knowledge is evolving and students thus would employ
practically to make certain achievements. Reflection is plausible in learning constructs
thoroughly when it comes to a number of lucid forms, as an example, through allowing learners
to feel empowered to explore the question regarding stereotypical viewpoints that they hold
kinesthetically. Another form is taking an account of actualizing learners’ self-efficacy and
identity formation and of the otherness. They are not disconnected to favor differences, in
addition to frequent commonalities.
As Byram (1997) conceptually defines five clustered saviors along with intercultural
communicative competence (ICC): attitude, knowledge, skills of interpreting, skills of
discovering and critical awareness, the very last one is influentially reliable to inform teaching
practices in association with the learning strategies: social and psychological. In the social
aspect, engaging in open learning environment can reinforce learners’ understanding of spatial
and social relations, widening their network in and outside the traditional classes. Explicitly, it is
about to necessarily assist them in finding connections and building rapport, thus developing
their belongingness. For the university-level English learners in Vietnam who are trained to
become social agents in workforce, given broad learning space, they can enjoy with
interdisciplinary exposure. It can be said that teamwork can beautify their minds as it is an
empowering way of developing bravery and confidence to reflect on their voices. It is not
important that they take passive or active roles in communities of practice, instead they are
given more power and the authority necessarily to exercise agency to employ identities fitting
certain circumstances. It is valuable that helping them take small steps can make impacts. These
resulting conditions are a great contribution to synthesize how knowledge are differentiated,
but mutually connected within relations, and insights across multiple disciplinary fields is
needed to solve any social problem.
Teachers of college-level students with interdisciplinary domains would be more
concerned with current learning cultures. However, the majority of observations point out that
Vietnamese tertiary learners appeared to be largely influenced by Confucian-tied values to
formative exams and labelled as passive learners, so moving their attentions to be active
intercultural agents not only helps them find out possibilities to seek alternatives underpinning
effective learning choices, but also builds a co-learning space conducive to motivational and
autonomous learning. This opinion is, moreover, depicted to serve solutions to learners’ poor
motivation while they found little to no learning motivation and nonsense learning inputs that
they do not have chance to make themselves heard of what is important or now.
Learning CCA, inextricably, is to embrace learners’ growing competence in three areas of
focus: cognitive, attitudinal and behavioral. Firstly, referred to cognitive engagement,
intercultural learning should be inherently implemented by learners’ expression freedom in
physical and mental conditions. They know what their sense of language entails itself among
those whose living cultures shape their voices with regards to perceptions, thoughts, saying and
actions. Considering learners’ physical and mental conditions and creating conducive
environment can make teachers clear of hidden barriers that learners have while coping with
learning constraints. As a result, besides attention to required knowledge of language being
made, we should regard leaners’ voices as curriculum inclusion. Specifically, following
50
Vu, T. N.
Vietnamese students’ familiarity with either individual or collective culture, this is a starting
point for teachers to attend to authentic artefacts demonstrating learners’ conventionally
intimate living and newly goal-oriented cultural values tasked with new learning behaviors and
philosophical learning orientations. Thus, learners can engage cognitively to thrive on usual and
unusual interactions, deconstruct new knowledge, and falsify ethnocentrisms based on their
open interpretation of learning ends. In this regard, it is implicit that flexibility and responsibility
should be essentially reaching an acceptance level to help them achieve certain successes.
With this sense, we are unnecessarily transforming learners’ preferred and familiar
patterns in a complete way shortly, far more fundamental is a number of innovations to help
customize learners’ active participation in facing unavoidably prejudiced beliefs in cultural
exchange and common lack of understanding regarding their practice of roles following
sociocultural positions, hence contributing to evolving attitudinal and behavioral engagement
towards valuing other people’s ways to embody life experience as well as clustered identities.
As teachers, we should be aptly competent at brining consistently courage and great
determination into teaching zones, thus learners are feeling divulging of information and the
beauty of culture where interactions happen.
CONCLUSION
The study elaborated on the importance of intercultural communicative competence by
Byram (1997) and his extended framework of critical cultural awareness (2012). Based on a clear
understanding English language education which takes place in Vietnam, it is positively seen
that the development of social skills alone does not reveal adequately the well-rounded
intercultural growth. Much attention to shift learners’ attitudinal motivation is radically added
as a critical value to help them become confidently involved in civilized world with good
intercultural communication and interpersonal skills. Collaboration and decision-making skills
are also the consequences of integrating intercultural learning in EFL classes and out-of-class
activities. They are supposed to not only yield developmental skills in cognitive domains, but
also promote competence which highlights courageous attitudes and good effects of behavioral
intervention that influence their academic outcomes. The higher quality of effects invested by
academic stakeholders, the better outcomes gained among students in learning progress.
Indeed, the rapidly increasing number of research on the field of intercultural
communication was recorded in the past decades, in tighter connection to the larger complexity
of learning needs of English language education. Back and forth, by examining a series of
intercultural pedagogy that helps design culturally responsive pedagogies, this corresponding
study is impeccable that assumes a hypothesis that bears a positive relationship between the
Vietnamese college-level learners’ critical cultural awareness and intercultural competence.
Future empirical studies are needed to validate the impacts of critical cultural awareness on
learning outcomes among higher education students. Besides that, descriptive studies can be
supplementing instructional steps to make these expected goals possible in various settings.
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Theoretical Constructs and Practical Strategies for Intercultural Communication
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