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RNI NO. MP BIL 01034/12/1/2005-TC
ISSN 0973-3914
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS)
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Volume- XXXVI
English Edition
Year- 18
Jan.- June 2022
Chief Editor
Prof. Braj Gopal
Honoured with Prestigious Bhartendu Harishchand Award
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Honorary Editor
Dr. Akhilesh Shukla
Honored with Prestigious Pt. G.B. Pant Award
and Bhartendu Harishchand Award, Government of India
Professor, Department of Sociology & Social Work
Institute for Excellence in Higher Education
Government T. R. S. College, Rewa (M.P.)
akhileshtrscollege@gmail.com
Dr. Sandhya Shukla
Professor and Head
Department of Political Science
Institute for Excellence in Higher Education
Government T. R. S. College, Rewa (M.P.)
drsandhyatrs@gmail.com
Dr. Gayatri Shukla
Additional Director, Center for Research Studies
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Dr. R. N. Sharma
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5
Editorial
Social, educational and economic empowerment of women and
girls is an important dimension of social and economic development. This
dimension can be achieved through gender equality, poverty alleviation and
inclusive economic growth, but it is also necessary to include women and
girls in the economy and make workplaces and public spaces safe. There is
also a need to stop violence against women and girls. At the same time,
attention should also be paid to their full participation in the society and their
health and prosperity.
The number of youth in India is very high. One person in every three
is young, ie between the ages of 15 and 24, and the number of children in the
country's population is close to 37 percent. India's economic growth
prospects and achievements depend to a large extent on the skill, energy and
desire for success among the youth and whether effective processes that
nurture leadership, participation and volunteering are available. If women,
girls and youth get proper opportunities, then the social and economic
scenario of the country can reach a very high level of progress, but it requires
continuous change and effort. The morale of the youth should be boosted and
they should be made participants in the decisions related to the areas which
are going to have a direct impact on their future.
For women and girls to live respectfully in a violence-free
environment, along with their support, their economic empowerment is also
necessary. The decline in the child sex ratio (CSR), the practice of biased
sex selection and child marriage, all show the extent to which gender
discrimination and gender inequality remain a challenge for India. There
are also many incidents of domestic violence against women. What is
needed today is to create a civil society whose environment gives equal
opportunity to all to acquire skills. They should be made partners in creating
policies and developing practices that recognize all genders and challenge
gender stereotypes and norms. The Government of India has made ending
violence against women its priority. Along with this, special measures have
been taken to prevent their trafÞcking, domestic violence and sexual
exploitation. Efforts have also been made to propose and integrate gender
into policy programs. The campaign 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' campaign
was launched to protect and empower the girl child, which is being operated
at the national level. Women's skill and employment programs along with
funding services are reaching out to underprivileged rural women in every
nook and corner of the country. Laws relating to sexual abuse, domestic
violence and unequal remuneration are also being strengthened. The vision
of empowering youth is clearly articulated in the National Youth Policy
2014. The policy identiÞes Þve well-deÞned objectives and 11 priority areas
and suggests policy interventions for each. The priority sectors include
education, skill development and employment, entrepreneurship, health
and healthy lifestyle, sports, promotion of social values, community
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
participation, participation in politics and administration, youth
engagement, inclusion and social justice. The government has taken
initiatives to enable youth to achieve full participation in the job market and
availability of employment services. The government has initiated skill
development programs for capacity building of rural youth, especially
those living below the poverty line (BPL), and youth belonging to
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Efforts have been made to work on
health issues, physical development, digital inclusion, child abuse, drug
abuse, discrimination against young women and other youth-speciÞc
topics.
Certainly the efforts of governance are leading the Indian society
towards a good goal. The need is that every citizen of the entire society
becomes a watchdog of democracy and fulÞlls his duties, then surely we can
achieve these goals.
Professor Braj Gopal
Cheif Editor
Professor Akhilesh Shukla
Editor
CONTENTS
01.
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
7
Social StratiÞcation in India (With special reference
09
to Caste System)
Akhilesh Shukla
Situations of Drug Offending Responses: A Glimpse
16
Richa Chowdhary
Deepshikha Chowdhary
Sukriti Chowdhary
Rural Tourism: An Approach to Promote Sustainable
22
Tourism in India
Tanusree Chaudhuri
An Analysis of offences Relating to Marriage in Indian
28
a Critical Study
Pinky Sagar; Manisha Saini
Hate Crime: A Rising Menace
32
Ashhad Ahmad
Position of Altruistic and Commercial Surrogacy: An Appraisal 42
Qazi Nadeem Alam
Women Empowerment Through Skill Development &
53
Vocational Training
Shashank Shekhar Thakur, Sushma Mishra
Issuesand Challenges of The Women Empowerment in
63
Jammu and Kashmir
Indira Barman
An Outline of Neediness Destruction Programs in India
71
Subhash Kumar, Rameshwar Singh
India's road to Economic recovery in the Post Covid-19 era 78
Ritika Chowdhary, Paras Jain
Coronavirus Impacton Online Shopping
92
Kumar Ravi Ranjan
A study on success of green marketing practices
97
through customer engagement
Nawab Akram
Performance Management System in Private Hospitals of 102
Bihar with special Reference to Patna District
Sunil Kumar Bharti
Leadership and Participation: Indian Women in The United 115
Nations: Select Case Studies
Priyamvada Anksuh Sawant
Taphonomical Analysis of Archaeological Faunal Remains: 125
An Overview
Priyanka Raj, Yogambar Singh Farswan, Devideen Patel
The Condiition of TenantsDuring the Colonial Rule
133
Nisha Rathore
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17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Mental Clock Comparison in Blind and Sighted Students 137
Kalpana Pandey
Subjective Well-Being Among Married and
142
Unmarried Women
Fahmeeda Zaidi Anubha Srivastava
Advent and Growth ofFemale Education in Singhbhumin
149
the Nineteenth Century
Vijeta Kumari
Adjustment and dependence Proneness among Youth
157
Jago Choudhary
A Comparative Study of Selected Yogic Intervention
162
Strategies on Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL):
A Comparative Study
Diwakar Pal, Hukum Singh
Women's Confessional Poetry: A Strong Subversive Strategy 167
Sonal Singhvi Choudhary
E-Learning through Academic Libraries: An Over View
172
Geetanjali Bajpai
A Study on the Adoption of Classic Block Prints in
179
Contemporary Dress Designs
Ranjana Updhayay, Zainab Khan
Blue Green Algae and Oil Production
188
Anup Kumar Mishra
Heavy Metal Pollution in Tamus River Satna : A Review
195
Shikha Dwivedi, Pushpendra Singh
Effects of physcio-chemical characteristics of water on 199
population density of Phytoplanktons inhabit in Baya
river Vidyapatinagar, Samastipur, Bihar
Mithilesh Kumar Singh, S.N.P. Yadav
A Theoretical Study of Thermo Physicaland Cohesive
210
Properties of LiCl 1-xFxMixed Alkali Halide
A.K. Dixit
A Survey on Population Dynamics of Helminth Parasites
214
in Some Carnivorous Fishes namely Eutropiichthysvacha
and Ailiacoilaof River Ganga.
Nazia Hasan, Rakesh Prasad
Effect of Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) on longevity of
221
Diacrisia obliqua
Lalit Gupta
Increase in Manganese Content of Paddy Plants After
224
Application of Biofertilizers
Anup Kumar Mishra, Pushpendra Kr. Sharma
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Akhilesh Shukla
Abstract- Every complex society faces the difÞcult task of placing its members
into roles that are necessary for the society to survive. These roles must be Þlled
with as little conßict and confusion as possible. There must be people willing to
perform jobs (roles) with little status and those that carry a great deal of
prestige. In your community there are people who are doctors, lawyers, and
teachers. Others collect trash, direct trafÞc, and put out Þres. Although these
roles do not all carry the same prestige, there is very little conßict involved in
determining who will perform which one. Caste in Indian society refers to a
social group where membership is largely decided by birth. Members of such
local group avoid entering into marital relationships with outsiders. Originally,
these groups were associated with speciÞc professions. The mutual relationship
of one caste with the other is established on the principle of lineage and the
resultant purity of blood, making the relationship between one and another
caste distant.
Keywords- Social StratiÞcation, Society, Caste system
Introduction- There are different theories about the establishment of
the caste system. There are religious, mystical, biological , and sociohistorical theories.The religious theories explain how the four Varnas were
founded, but they do not explain how the castes in each Varna or the
untouchables were founded. Other religious theory claims that the Varnas
were created from the body organs of Brahma, who is the creator of the
world.The biological theory claims that all existing things, animated and
inanimated, inherent three qualities in different apportionment. Sattva
qualities include wisdom, intelligence, honesty, goodness and other positive
qualities. Rajas include qualities like passion, pride, valour and other
passionate qualities. Tamas qualities include dullness, stupidity, lack of
creativity and other negative qualities. People with different doses of these
inherent qualities adopted different types of occupation. According to this
theory the Brahmans inherent Sattva qualities. Kshatrias and Vaisias inherent
Rajas qualities and the Sudras inherent Tamas qualities. Like human beings,
food also inherents different dosage of these qualities and it affects its eater's
intelligence. The Brahmans and the Vaisias have Sattvic diet which includes
fruits, milk, honey, roots and vegetables. Most of the meats are considered to
have Tamasic qualities. Many Sudra communities eat different kinds of meat
(but not beef) and other Tamasic food. But the Kshatrias who had Rajasic diet
eat some kinds of meat like deer meat which is considered to have Rajasic
qualities. Many Marathas who claim to be Kshatrias eat mutton. The
Professor, Department of Sociology, T.R.S. Autonomous College, Rewa (M.P.)
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
drawback of this theory is that in different parts of India the same food was
sometimes qualiÞed to have different dosage of inherent qualities.
The social historical theory explains the creation of the Varnas,
Castes and of the untouchables. According to this theory, the caste system
began with the arrival of the Aryans in India. The Aryans arrived in India
around 1500 BC. The fair skinned Aryans arrived in India from south
Europe and north Asia. Before the Aryans there were other communities in
India of other origins. Among them Negrito, Mongoloid, Austroloid and
Dravidian. The Negrito have physical features similar to people of Africa.
The Mongoloid have Chinese features. The Austroloids have features
similar the aboriginals of Australia. The Dravidians originate from the
Mediterranean and they were the largest community in India. When the
Aryans arrived in India their main contact was with the Dravidians and the
Austroloids. The Aryans disregarded the local cultures. They began
conquering and taking control over regions in north India and at the same
time pushed the local people southwards or towards the jungles and
mountains in north India. The Aryans organized among themselves in three
groups. The Þrst group was of the warriors and they were called Rajayana,
later they changed their name Rajayana to Kshatria. The second group was
of the priests and they were called Brahmans. These two groups struggled
politically for leadership among the Aryans. In this struggle the Brahmans
got to be the leaders of the Aryan society. The third group was of the farmers
and craftsmen and they were called Vaisia. The Aryans who conquered and
took control over parts of north India subdued the locals and made them
their servants. In this process the Vaisias who were the farmers and the
craftsmen became the landlords and the businessmen of the society and the
locals became the peasants and the craftsmen of the society. In order to
secure their status the Aryans resolved some social and religious rules
which, allowed only them to be the priests, warriors and the businesmen of
the society. For example take Maharashtra. Maharashtra is in west India.
This region is known by this name for hundreds of years. Many think that
the meaning of the name Maharashtra is in its name, Great Land. But there
are some who claim that the name, Maharashtra, is derived from the caste
called Mahar who are considered to be the original people of this region. In
the caste hierarchy the dark skinned Mahars were outcasts. The skin color
was an important factor in the caste system. The meaning of the word
“Varna” is not class or status but skin color.
Between the outcasts and the three Aryan Varnas there is the Sudra
Varna who are the simple workers of the society. The Sudras consisted of two
communities. One community was of the locals who were subdued by the
Aryans and the other were the descendants of Aryans with locals. In Hindu
religious stories there are many wars between the good Aryans and the dark
skinned demons and devils. The different Gods also have dark skinned
slaves. There are stories of demon women trying to seduce good Aryan men
in deceptive ways. There were also marriages between Aryan heroes and
demon women. Many believe that these incidences really occurred in which,
the gods and the positive heroes were people of Aryan origin. And the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
11
demons, the devils and the dark skinned slaves were in fact the original
residence of India whom the Aryans coined as monsters, devil, demons and
slaves. As in most of the societies of the world, so in India, the son inherited
his father's profession. And so in India there developed families, who
professed the same family profession for generation in which, the son
continued his father's profession. Later on as these families became larger,
they were seen as communities or as they are called in Indian languages,
Caste. Different families who professed the same profession developed
social relations between them and organized as a common community,
meaning Caste. Later on the Aryans who created the caste system, added to
their system non-Aryans. Different Castes who professed different
professions were integrated in different Varnas according to their profession.
Other foreign invaders of ancient India - Greeks, Huns, Scythains and others
- who conquered parts of India and created kingdoms were integrated in the
Kshatria Varna (warrior castes). But probably the Aryan policy was not to
integrate original Indian communities within them and therefore many
aristocratic and warrior communities that were in India before the Aryans
did not get the Kshatria status. Most of the communities that were in India
before the arrival of the Aryans were integrated in the Sudra Varna or were
made outcast depending on the professions of these communities.
Communities who professed non-polluting jobs were integrated in Sudra
Varna. And communities who professed polluting professions were made
outcasts. The Brahmans are very strict about cleanliness. In the past people
believed that diseases can also spread also through air and not only through
physical touch. Perhaps because of this reason the untouchables were not
only disallowed to touch the high caste communities but they also had to
stand at a certain distance from the high castes.
Caste System- Caste is closely connected with the Hindu philosophy and
religion, custom and tradition.It is believed to have had a divine origin and
sanction. It is deeply rooted social institution in India. There are more than
2800 castes and sub-castes with all their peculiarities. The term caste is
derived from the Spanish word caste meaning breed or lineage. The word
caste also signiÞes race or kind. The Sanskrit word for caste is varna which
means colour.The caste stratiÞcation of the Indian society had its origin in
the chaturvarna system. According to this doctrine the Hindu society was
divided into four main varnas - Brahmins, Kashtriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras.The Varna system prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly
based on division of labour and occupation. The caste system owns its origin
to the Varna system. Ghurye says any attempt to deÞne caste is bound to fail
because of the complexity of the phenomenon. According to Risely caste is a
collection of families bearing a common name claiming a common descent
from a mythical ancestor professing to follow the same hereditary calling
and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a
single homogeneous community. According to Maclver and Page when
status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without any
hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste. Cooley
says that when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary we may call it
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
caste.M.N Srinivas sees caste as a segmentary system. Every caste for him
divided into sub castes which are the units of endogamy whose members
follow a common occupation, social and ritual life and common culture and
whose members are governed by the same authoritative body viz the
panchayat.According to Bailey caste groups are united into a system
through two principles of segregation and hierarchy. For Dumont caste is not
a form of stratiÞcation but as a special form of inequality. The major
attributes of caste are the hierarchy, the separation and the division of
labour.Weber sees caste as the enhancement and transformation of social
distance into religious or strictly a magical principle. For Adrian Mayer caste
hierarchy is not just determined by economic and political factors although
these are important.
Main features of caste system- Caste system hierarchically divides the
society. A sense of highness and lowness or superiority and inferiority is
associated with this gradation or ranking. The Brahmins are placed at the top
of the hierarchy and are regarded as pure or supreme. The degraded caste or
the untouchables have occupied the other end of the hierarchy. The status of
an individual is determined by his birth and not by selection nor by
accomplishments. Each caste has its own customs, traditions practices and
rituals.It has its own informal rules, regulations and procedures. The caste
panchayats or the caste councils regulate the conduct of members. The caste
system has imposed certain restrictions on the food habitats of the members
these differ from caste to caste. In North India Brahmin would accept pakka
food only from some castes lower than his own. But he would not accept
kachcha food prepared with the use of water at the hands of no other caste
except his own. As a matter of rule and practice no individual would accept
kachcha food prepared by an inferior casteman.The caste system put
restriction on the range of social relations also. The idea of pollution means a
touch of lower caste man would pollute or deÞle a man of higher caste. Even
his shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man. The lower
caste people suffered from certain socio-religious disabilities. The impure
castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city and they are not allowed to
draw water from the public wells. In earlier times entrance to temples and
other places of religious importance were forbidden to them. Educational
facilities, legal rights and political representation were denied to them for a
very long time. If the lower castes suffer from certain disabilities some
higher caste like the Brahmins enjoy certain privileges like conducting
prayers in the temples etc.There is gradation of occupations also. Some
occupations are considered superior and sacred while certain others
degrading and inferior. For a long time occupations were very much
associated with the caste system. Each caste had its own speciÞc occupations
which were almost hereditary. There was no scope for individual talent,
aptitude, enterprise or abilities. The caste system imposes restrictions on
marriage also. Caste is an endogamous group. Each caste is subdivided into
certain sub castes which are again endogamous.Intercaste marriages are still
looked down upon in the traditional Indian society.
Sanskritization- Prof M.N Srinivas introduced the term sanskritization to
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-35, Year-18, July-Dec. 2021
13
Indian Sociology. The term refers to a process whereby people of lower
castes collectively try to adopt upper caste practices and beliefs to acquire
higher status. It indicates a process of cultural mobility that is taking place in
the traditional social system of India.M.N Srinivas in his study of the Coorg
in Karnataka found that lower castes in order to raise their position in the
caste hierarchy adopted some customs and practices of the Brahmins and
gave up some of their own which were considered to be impure by the higher
castes. For example they gave up meat eating, drinking liquor and animal
sacriÞce to their deities. They imitiated Brahmins in matters of dress, food
and rituals. By this they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of
castes within a generation. The reference group in this process is not always
Brahmins but may be the dominant caste of the locality.Sanskritization has
occurred usually in groups who have enjoyed political and economic power
but were not ranked high in ritual ranking. According to Yogendra Singh the
process of sanskritization is an endogenous source of social change
.Mackim Marriot observes that sanskritic rites are often added on to nonsanskritic rites without replacing them. Harold Gould writes, often the
motive force behind sanskritisation is not of cultural imitation per se but an
expression of challenge and revolt against the socioeconomic deprivations.
Functions of the caste system- The caste system is credited to ensure the
continuity of the traditional social organization of India. It has
accommodated multiple communities including invading tribes in the
Indian society. The knowledge and skills of the occupations have passed
down from one generation to the next. Through subsystems like Jajmani
system the caste system promoted interdependent interaction between
various castes and communities with in a village. The rituals and traditions
promoted cooperation and unity between members of the different castes.
Caste system promoted untouchability and discrimination against certain
members of the society. It hindered both horizontal and vertical social
mobility forcing an individual to carry on the traditional occupation against
his or her will and capacity. The status of women was affected and they were
relegated to the background. The caste system divided the society into
mutually hostile and conßicting groups and subgroups. This concept given
by M.N Srinivas holds that a caste is dominant when it is numerically higher
than the other castes. In the Mysore village he described the peasant
Okkalinga composed of nearly half of the population made up of nineteenth
castei group. The Okkalinga were the biggest land owner. The chief criteria
of domination of a caste are- Economic strength, Political Power, Ritual
Purity and Numerical strength.The dominant caste also wields economic
and political power over the other caste groups. It also enjoys a high ritual
status in the local caste hierarchy. The dominant caste may not be ritually
high but enjoy high status because of wealth, political power and numerical
strength. The presence of educated persons and high occupation rate also
play an important role in deciding its dominance over other caste groupings.
Sometimes a single clan of dominant caste controls a number of villages in
areas. The dominant caste settle dispute between persons belonging to their
own and other castei.The power of the dominant caste is supported by a
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
14
norm discouraging village from seeking justice from area,govt ofÞcial, court
or police located outside the village. The members of the dominant caste
particularly those from the wealthy and powerful families are representative
of this village in dealing with the ofÞcials. The notions of purity and
pollution are critical for deÞning and understanding caste hierarchy.
According to these concepts, Brahmins hold the highest rank and Shudras
the lowest in the caste hierarchy. The Varna System represents a social
stratiÞcation which includes four varnas namely- Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
Vaisyas and Shudras.The Shudras were allocated the lowest rank of social
ladder and their responsibilities included service of the three Varnas. The
superior castes tried to maintain their ceremonial purity Dumont holds the
notion of purity and pollution interlinked with the caste system and
untouchability.The hierarchy of caste is decided according to the degree of
purity and pollution. It plays a very crucial role in maintaining the required
distance between different castes. But the pollution distance varies from
caste to caste and from place to place. Dipankar Gupta observes that the
notion of purity and pollution as Dumont observed is integrally linked with
the institution of untouchability .But unlike untouchability the notion of
purity and pollution is also a historical accretion. Over time this notion freed
itself from its speciÞc and original task of separating untouchables from the
others and began to be operative at different planes of the caste system.The
concept of purity and pollution plays a very crucial role in maintaining the
required distance between different castes. But the pollution distance varies
from caste to caste and from place to place. Even after Independance Caste,
politically speaking, has played such a basic role in the decision making
process that even the reorganization of states in India had to grapple with it
so that no caste group dominates a particular territory. Although
untouchability has been prohibited under the Constitution, Harijan and
Adivasi people have also been given legal protection as a positive measure.
Thus an attempt has been made to create economic and social equality but
these reservations have affected Indian politics in an unwholesome manner.
Groups declared “backward” are not prepared to forego the concessions that
accrue to them by the label of “backwardness.” Caste has thus become a
major obstacle in the establishment of a casteless society and has cemented
communal connections. Politicians are also caught in a difÞcult situation.
On the one hand, they would like the differences and preferences based on
caste to be abolished and on the other, they are well aware that these are
helpful in securing the vote. Therefore, they allow the caste organizations
while simultaneously trying to determine their limitations and containing
their inßuence. This paradoxical situation can be overcome only if the caste
entity and the impact it makes on politics is fully recognized.
References1. http://hindustan.org/forum/showthread.php?t=38
2.
3.
http://adaniel.tripod.com/origin.htm
h t t p : / / w r i t i n g . w i k i n u t . c o m / H o w - d o e s - C a s t e - a ff e c t - e l e c t o r a l behavior/1baj.d.5/
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-35, Year-18, July-Dec. 2021
4.
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Craig, Jeffrey. Caste, Class, and Clientelism: A Political Economy of Everyday
Corruption in Rural North India..
Jeffrey, Craig. Caste, Class, and Clientelism: A Political Economy of Everyday
Corruption in Rural North India.
Suhas, Pahlshikar. Caste Politics Through the Prism of Region.
Rai, Shirin. “Class, Caste and Gender- Women in Parliament in India”. IDEA'S
Handbook: Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers: 1–8.
Kela, Shashank. Caste, Class and Politics in Contemporary North India.
“Vote Bank”.
Witsoe, Jeffrey. Corruption as Power: Caste and the Political Imagination of
the Postcolonial State.
Witsoe, Jeffrey (2011). “Corruption as A Power: Caste and the Political
Imagination of the Postcolonial State”. Journal of the American Ethnological
Society 38 (1): 73–85.
Chandra, Kanchan (June 2005). “Ethnic Parties and Democratic Stability”.
Perspectives on Politics 3: 235–252.
a b c Krishna, Anirudh (November 2003). “What is happening to Caste? A
View from Some North Indian Villages”. The Journal of Asian Studies 62 (4):
1171–1193.
a b “Caste-Based Parties”. Country Studies US. Retrieved 2006-12-12.
Are Brahmins the Dalits of today?
'We Are Like The Jews: Politics apart, Brahmin-bashing is rampant in literary
and cultural worlds too'
Rao and Ban. The Political Construction of Caste in South India.
16
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Richa Chowdhary
Deepshikha Chowdhary
Sukriti Chowdhary
Abstract- Substance addiction in cutting-edge technologies has grown
dangerously in India. Changes in societal ethics, rising Þnancial demands, and
dwindling auxiliary relationships all contribute to the onset of drug abuse. The
most often utilised drugs in India include cannabis, heroin, and Indian-made
pharmaceuticals. Substance use, abuse, or misuse is typically caused by the
nature of the drug, the person's personality, and the addict's surrounding
environment. Methods of industrialization, urbanisation, and migration have
destroyed traditional social practises.
Keywords- Rendering, Pecuniary, Pharmaceuticals, Cannabis, Heroin
Introduction- The prevalent of substance misuse in youth
technology has taken a dangerous turn in India. Constantly changing social
morals, Þnancial problems increasing daily with diminishing auxiliary bonds,
are leading to substance abuse. In step with the Arena Fitness Corporation
(WHO), substance abuse is the use of persistent or irregular medicines that are
not compatible with or dissimilar to satisfactory scientiÞc exercise (Nadeem
et al., 2009).
This image is forbidding, given the world record of the state of
medicine. With approximately 500 billion in sales, it is the world's third
largest corporation after petroleum and weaponry alternatives. One drug or
alternative is used by around 190 million individuals worldwide. Drug
compulsion reasons a great deal of human suffering, and the illicit
manufacture and delivery of drugs has led to crime and violence worldwide.
Every year, June 26 is eminent as the International Day Against Drug Abuse
and Illegal Marketing; when the Field Network raises awareness of the
dangers of drugs to the people and especially the youth.
The National Centre for Biotechnology Information Database, US
National Library of Medicine (1988). Nowadays, it is possible that no
section of the arena is free of the afßiction of drug smuggling & dependence.
Hundreds of thousands of drug users live dreary lives between life and death
all over the world. India, too, is trapped in a vicious cycle of drug misuse, and
the number of drug addicts is expanding by the day."
Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College
University of Delhi
Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Bhim Rao Ambedkar College
University of Delhi
ResearchScholar, Delhi School of Social Work, University of Delhi
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
17
According to UN Þgures, India has only one million legally
designated heroin addicts and an approximated Þve million covertly. What
started as an informal use by a tiny group of high-income companies in the
metro has extended to all parts of society. The inhalation of heroin has given
way to venous drug usage, including other narcotics and general
anaesthesia. This enhances the potency of the impact. This increases the
potency of the impact, accelerates it, and complicates the healing procedure.
The pharmaceutical capsule medicines that are often used
medications in India are hashish, heroin, and manufactured in India. 1
cannabis harvests, also known as charas, bhang, or ganja, are hurt at some
time in our lives because they have gained some non-secular holiness as a
result of their association. This enlarges the strength of the effect, speeds it
up and complicates the healing technique.
Hashish, heroin, and produced in India, are the medicinal capsule
drugs that are regularly used medications in India. ( C. R. (2021, December
11). Medicinal heroin? How the Dutch deal with their. heroin addicts. “Dutch Review.
https://dutchreview.com/culture/how-the-dutch-treat-heroin-addicts”) cannabis
harvests, frequently known as charas, bhang, or ganja, are harmed at some
point of us as it has attained some amount of non-secular sanctity due to their
afÞliation with some with certain Hindu bagwan (Dwivedi, et al, 2003).
The worldwide Narcotics Control Board stated in its 2002 report
published in Vienna that opiate addicts in India are unstable their narcotic of
preference, ranging from opium to heroin (Roberts et al., 2011).
Pharmacological products comprising sedative capsules are also
being used more and more. Many states prescribe painkillers such as dextro
propoxy phene and other injections, which is much easier to apply at onetenth (tenths) of the heroin fee. Cough syrups based primarily on codeine are
removed from the domestic market for use.
Drug use is a multifaceted spectacle, with many communal, social,
living, physical, archaeological and Þnancial factors. The collapse of
antique joint family gadgets, an absence of parental love and care in modern
households where every parent resides, the fall of old non-secular and moral
ideals, and a variety of other factors have led to a wide range of medicines.
Increases Addicts who take narcotics to avoid life's harsh truths.
Medication usage, mishandling, or misuse is also widespread due to
the nature of the substance consumed, the personality of the surroundings,
and the addict's attention to the structure. Traditional social regulator
measures have been destroyed by mechanisation, industrialization, and
mobility techniques, leaving a separate exposed to the demands and
concerns of modern life. The use of synthetic pharmaceuticals and injectable
drugs for HIV/AIDS has contributed signiÞcantly to the predicament. The
need for manufactured narcotics and intramuscular drugs for HIV/AIDS has
added a new dimension to the problem, prominently in the North-eastern
United States.
Narcotics usage has a negative impact on the economy. This has
resulted in an increase in corruption penalties. Druggies have the option of
rebelling in terms of paying for their sachets.
18
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Bullets damage the cost of stopping and judging those who commit crimes.
Incidents of molestation, organizational clatters, attacks and forced killings
are on the rise due to drug use. In addition to the monetary disturbances,
dependence will surely increase struggle causing tangible pain for each
associate of the family. “Most drug operators are between the ages of 18-35,
and the damage done to human capacity is countless. Adolescents have done
lot of damage to their physical, emotional health.”
Youth drug use is a major problem in the behavior of adolescents and
young people. It is predicted that, in India, at most, as many boys as possible
reach 9th grade, with approximately 50% of them trying to use at least one
compliant material. In the last three periods, various epidemiologic reviews
have been conducted to gauge the occurrence of drug use in India. In Uttar
Pradesh, “Dubey and Honda” declared that 22.8 per 1000 were reliant on
alcohol and pills, while Lucknow's “Thakur” estimated 18.55 per 1000.”
The vital conclusion of those research is that alcohol become the
shared constituent used (60-ninety-eight%) accompanied by the aid of
hashish use (4-20%). "Epidemiological survey had found that 20 to 40 % of
subjects/abusers, above Þfteen years, are current customers of alcohol and
10% of are immoderate customers.(NIAAA. (2002). Epidemiologic Data |
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).
Epidemiologic Data, NIAAA. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov /research/
guidelines-and-resources/epidemiologic-data) inside the rural populace of
Uttar Pradesh alcohol was found to be the most typical substance abused
(eighty-two. 5%) observed by way of cannabis (16.1%). In a report by
“Nadeem et al., 2009”, it was found that alcohol consumption in Punjab was
currently costing around 45.9% in Jalandhar, 27.7% in Chandigarh and
28.1% in rural localities of Punjab. In a study conducted on rural societies in
Bihar by “Jain et al. (1996),” the occurrence of alcohol / medication use
turned out to be 28.8% of the study population and it also stated that 38.3%
of the rural population in “Uttar Pradesh has become a general substance
user”. Increased occurrence of HIV, hepatitis B and C and tuberculosis puts
more strain on the healthcare machine in the contaminant deposits in the
network due to intoxication. In India, women face more problems due to
drug use.
“India has steadied itself to face the risk of drug trading, at the
coast-to-coast and at the global stage. numerous procedures related to
innovative modiÞcations in enforcement, prison and judicial systems had
been brought into effect. The creation of the demise penalty for drugassociated offences has been a primary deterrent” (UNODC, 2005).
The Sedative Capsules and Psychotropic Substances Act of 1985,
was revised with strict provisions in order to reduce this risk. The Act
envisions a least sentence of 10 years detention which can be extended up to
20 years and a Þne of Rs. Rs 2 lakh to extensible criminals up to Rs 1 lakh. An
inclusive policy consisting of unique programs as a result of general
discounts in drug use has been pursued by several governmental
organizations and NGOs, as well as through initiatives such as schooling,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
19
counselling, behavior and restoration programs has been completed. Drug
abuse can be lectured on a personal level, at a close level (society, national,
and many others) and at a broader country level. On a personal level, the
search for historical socio-cultural elements must be accompanied by a
synthetic understanding. At the national and cross-country level, there
should be a concentrated determination by all international stakeholders to
work together to tackle the problem of drug use, taking into account the
social, cultural and political conditions of the neighbourhood.
Conclusion- Materials related to drug use in civilizations are usually
supervised by a government-run organization. The Coast-to-coast
Organization on Drug Misapplication (NIDA), is a part, of the National
Institutes of Health in US, and has been tasked with overseeing the use of
therapies in the United States. The development of NIDA video display units
is mainly through prescription misuse, mainly through the National Survey
on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) and Monitoring the Future (MTF)
metering (also called National High School Senior Survey). MTF still uses
attitudes about pills among 8th, 10th, and then 12th grade students. NSDUH
traces the use of physics among humans over the age of 12 across the
country. These surveys differentiate designs in the use of materials from
Bose to fashion designer tablets, such as PCP, in imitation of marijuana. This
data is shared with the DEA, which assists the organization in supplying,
smuggling, and then diversifying regular drugs. In Europe, statistics on the
use of drugs in different countries are compiled and then maintained by the
European Monitoring Center for Drug Addiction (EMCDDA); the
information supply, is used by means of the European Union then its part
states to investigate the content concerning physic use diagonally the
location yet in accordance with becoming aware of patterns regarding
prescript glide within countries. Drug abuse designs alternate over a concise
time. For example, into the Sixties, the fashionable physic LSD grew to
become famous in the hippie subculture, wight ancient in accordance with
enlarging the degree concerning awareness. Since the late twentieth period,
misbehaviour regarding opioids, such as heroin, direction castigation
substitutes, and artiÞcial opioids (e.g., fentanyl), was on the upward jab
internationally. In the United States, opioid compulsion grew to be a
countrywide disaster; in 2015 individual an assessed 2,000,000 Americans
abused opioid drugs yet extra than 33,000 died from an opioid overdo. Since
of the assignment of companies certain namely NIDA or EMCDDA,
scholar's enquiry outlines concerning drug abuse have been in a position in
accordance with discover shifts among drug misconduct traits similar in
imitation of the sudden rise of popularity concerning LSD between the
Sixties and the upward shove concerning opioid dependency among the
twenty-Þrst century. This data is aged according to improve remedy misuse
control packages than in conformity with notifying remedy policy. Social
and ethical issues concerning cure abuse There is deep neighbourly yet
moral troubles encirclement the makes use of yet misconduct regarding
drugs. These troubles are performed multifaceted mainly as of duelling
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
20
standards regarding drug usage inside current societies. Morals may also lie
prejudiced by means of a couple of elements counting social, religious, or
personal views. In an odd society, ethics and sentiments perform deviate
considerably, subsequent in struggles upstairs and a number of problems
involving cure abuse.( Jaggi, N. K. (2021, November 13). NARCOTIC
DRUGS AND PSYCHOTROPIC SUBSTANCES ACT, 1985 ACT (LXI)
OF 1985 AT A GLANCE. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin. com/pulse
/narcotic-drugs-psychotropic-substances-act-1985-lxi-glance-jaggi)
Since the 1960s, remedy misconduct has occupied an extensive
region within the populace's awareness. This sensitive attention to drugs and
their signiÞcances have been very prejudiced mainly due to movements and
applications concerned with to reÞning the commons as regards the hazards
on cure misbehaviour yet respecting persons yet societies do take drugrelated difÞculties. One of the maximums passionately challenged subjects
regarding present-day drug misbehaviour centres concerning whether or not
presently illegal capsules need to be legitimatized. Additionally, problem
regarding pill abuse in sports, who execute meddlesome message,
according to young generations whose idols are these professional athletes.
Young people seem to be the imitation of discovering signiÞcant
assuagement of the fact so adults repeatedly make use of tablets consistent
blaming lousy existence and other factors too. The adult has an incomplete
sense of his/her identity; including incomplete degree regarding monetary
and convivial skill, then has been integrated and a minimum of assimilated
midst partial foremost neighbourly fashion. Whereas the adult may
additionally ßip per pills or alcohol for dense concerning the identical
motives the maximum amount the adolescent, physic use does now not
unavoidably stop the adult after odd creative, clearing duties, keeping
tumultuous then professional draws, admitting the rights yet dominion of
others, compliant limitations, or preparation due to the longer term. The
adolescent, in difference, is precise in accordance with the proof to be
ethnocentric or selÞsh together with physic usage. The singular withdraws
within a narrow cure culture yet inside himself and herself. Drug usage for
dense young people signiÞes an overlook of duties at a while when more
essential growing involvements are obligatory.
References
Brunt, T. M., Nagy, C., Bücheli, A., Martins, D., Ugarte, M., Beduwe, C.,
& Ventura
Vilamala, M. (2017). Drug testing in Europe: monitoring results of the Trans
European Drug
Information (TEDI) project. Drug testing and analysis, 9(2), 188-198
Crandall, R. (2020). Drugs and Thugs: The History and Future of
America's War on Drugs.Yale University Press
Dube, K. C., & Handa, S. K. (1971). Drug use in health and mental illness
in an Indian
population. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 118(544), 345-346.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
21
Dube, K. C., Kumar, A., Kumar, N., & Gupta, S. P. (1978). Prevalence and
pattern of drug use amongst college students. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica,
57(4), 336-356.
Jena, R., Shukla, T. R., & Pal, H. (1996). Drug use in a rural community in
Bihar: Some
psychosocial correlates. Indian journal of Psychiatry, 38(1), 43.
Lal, B., & Singh, G. (1979). Drug abuse in Punjab. British Journal of
Addiction, 74(4), 411-427.
Lal, B., Singh, G. (1978). Alcohol consumption in Punjab. Indian J Psychiatry
1978; 20:2126. Miller, W. R., & Sanchez, V. C. (1994). Motivating young adults for
treatment and lifestyle change.
Nadeem, A., Rubeena, B., Agarwal, V. K., & Piyush, K. (2009).
Substance abuse in
India. Pravara Med Rev, 4(1), 4-6.
Pal, H. R. (2005). Prevention of substance abuse: the Indian experience. World
Psychiatry, 4(1), 35.
Ramachandran, V. (1991). The prevention of alcohol-related problems. Indian
J Psychiatry.
33(1):3-10. PMID: 21897454; PMCID: PMC2988292.
Shukla, B. R. Drinks and Drugs in a North Indian Village–An Anthropological
Study. 1979
Lucknow. India Ethnographic and Folk culture Society.
Thacore, V. R. (1972). Drug-abuse in India with special reference to Lucknow.
Indian
Journal of Psychiatry, 14(3), 257-261.
Varma, V. K., Singh, A., Singh, S., & Malhotra, A. (1980). Extent and
pattern of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems in North India. Indian
Journal of Psychiatry, 22(4), 331.
22
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Tanusree Chaudhuri
Abstract- Geographical diversity of India and its rich culture attracts huge
number of tourists. The number of domestic as well as foreign tourists are ever
increasing in the country. Traditionally, tourist used to like visit mass tourist
destination. But since last decade, a category of urbantourist like to visit an
alternate destination like non-urban area. Tourism in village or rural belt is one
of such alternate destination. While visiting rural belt tourist enjoys rural
environment, rural culture, heritage, art crafts etc. Sustainability in tourism
sector is very important. Principles of sustainable tourism can be maintained by
rural tourism. In village, or rural belt host community receives income through
non-urban activities like village walk, farming, bird watching, cycling etc. As
local people involve in this tourism so overall rural development is possible
through rural tourism. In rural belt pollution level is comparatively low, so
conservation of environment is possible. Hence, activities through rural
tourism can contribute to improved economy, social development as well as
management of natural resources. This paper proposes to study the concept and
need of rural tourism in India to promote sustainable tourism. It also proposes
to Þnd out the new business opportunities through rural tourism.
Keywords- Rural tourism, Business, Sustainability.
Introduction- Tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing
sectors in India. Tourism is a multi-facet sector, which characterise physical,
social, cultural, socio-economic, political development of the society.
According to WTTC (World Travel and Tourism Council) tourism is the
world's largest industry and generating 12% of the global gross national
product and it employs around 200 million people (2001). There is no
universal accepted deÞnition of tourism. In general, “Tourism is the some of
the relation and services connected with a temporary and voluntary change of
residence for non-commercial or non-professional reasons. According to
WTO (World Tourism Organization) tourist is people who “travels and stay in
places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year
for leisure business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity
remunerated from within the place visited.”As tourism sector is growing
faster, and increasing trends of domestic as well as foreign tourists in India,
forced to think about the sustainability of the tourism sector.
Sustainable development of tourism implies the sensitive and
careful development of a region without degrading or depleting natural and
Associate Professor in Environmental Studies, Vivek College of Commerce
Goregaon (West) Mumbai, 400 104
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
23
human resources needed by present and future generations. Sustainable
tourism should be planned and managed in such a way which can protect
natural environment for the future generations. It should also be planned in
an integrated manner with other economic sectors and regular evaluation
needed for any negative effects. Hence, with sustainable tourism basic
emphasis should be on achieving equity and balance. Rural tourism is
deÞnitely has a huge scope in India where currently around 65% of the total
population are living in rural belt. Moreover, urban dwellers to get a rid of
hectic and stressful urban lifestyle prefer to spend some quality life far from
urban concrete.
Objectives- The main aim of the research paper is how rural tourism can
maintain the sustainability of tourism sector in India. The speciÞc objectives are1. To understand the concept and need for rural tourism in India.
2. To Þnd out new business opportunities in rural part of India.
Methodology- The present paper is mainly based on secondary sources,
information has been collected from various literature published as a form of
research papers, books, and articles. These helped to form a broader
perspective about rural tourism and its sustainability.Researcher reviewed
the published Govt. reports, Ministry of Tourism GOI, (Annual) to develop
the idea of new business opportunities in tourism sector, in rural part of India.
Concept ofRural Tourism- Rural tourism focuses on participating in rural
lifestyle. This tourism allows an alternative source of income in the nonagricultural sector for rural people. Rural tourism has many potential
beneÞts, including employment growth, social improvement, regeneration
of local arts and crafts. Rural tourism has a best opportunity for rural
development. Rural tourism mainly explains 'any form of tourism that
depicts rural life, heritage, art, culture at rural location and beneÞts the local
community in economically and socially and enabling interaction between
local and tourists for a better tourism experience. Rural tourism gives an
opportunity to experience varied activities like village walking, horse riding,
cycling, Þshing, boating, bird watching, conservation activities etc.
Sharpley and Sharpley (1997) described 'rural tourism is
increasingly being used for socio-economic generation and diversiÞcation'.
Telfer (2002) mentioned one of the advantages of rural tourism is that it is
based on local initiative, local management is rooted in local scenery and
local culture. According to Eurostat (2002), 'rural tourism as tourism where
nature and rural location are the main attraction. Sillignakis KE (2007) said
'rural tourism could be a plan for sustainable development for rural areas.
According toNitashree Mili (2012) 'rural tourism is a type of activities,
which takes place in non-urban areas and cover a wide range of temptation'.
According to Robert and Hall (2004) rural tourism should ideally meet the
important criteria like: i) should be located in rural areasii) should be in small
scale iii) should be traditional in character iv) should grow organically and
slowly v) should be managed by local people.
The promotion of the rural tourism projects in India should be
encouraged to achieve the goal of 'Atmanirbhar Bharat'. This tourism can be
used as apowerful opportunity to impact and change the mindset of tourists.
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
24
Growing interest and awareness towards rural tourism among Indian tourists
are noticeable. Since last one decade it is noticed a segment of tourists avoiding
mass tourism and showing their interest towards heritage, culture,
environmental consciousness for sustainability of tourism sector.Rural tourism
is gaining importance in India and it is estimated that Rs. 4300 crore additional
revenue can be generated through rural tourism (Vivek Sharma, 2017)
Following are some of the moderately successful rural tourism sites in India.
Table 01
Rural Tourism Sites in India
Sr.No
Name of the Site
District
State
Site is Famous for
1
Pochampalli
Nalgonda
Telengana
Cotton and Silk
Sarees
2
Konaseema
East Godavari
Andhra Pradesh
Eco-tourism
(Coastal
Development)
3
Chinchinada
East Godavari
Andhra Pradesh
Eco-tourism
(Coastal
Development)
4
Puttaparthipurthi
Ananathpur
Andhra Pradesh
Culture( Spiritual
Life)
5
Samode
Jaipur
Rajasthan
Paper & stone
painting, Lac
work
6
Orcha village
Tikamgarh
Madhya
Pradesh
Historical and
river rafting
7
Jyotisar
Kurukshetra
Haryana
History,
mythology
8
Jainti Majri
Mohali
Punjab
Temple, culture
9
Agora Dodital
village
Uttarkashi
Uttarakhand
Nature, adventure
10
Mottad Kharsali &
Thali bhutotra
village
Uttarkashi
Uttarakhand
Nature, adventure
11
Jageshwar
Almora
Uttrakhand
Spiritual
12
Adi kailash
Nainital
Uttarakhand
Adventure
13
Padampuri
Nainital
Uttarakhand
Adventure
14
Paragpur village
Kangra valley
Himachal
Pradesh
Himachal heritage
15
Khiching village
Mayurbhanj
Orissa
History, temple
16
Raghurajpur
Puri
Orissa
Stone craft and
Pattachitra
17
Mukutmanipur
Bankura
West Bengal
Sari Weaving
18
Kamarpukur
Hoogly
West Bengal
Spiritual and
Craft
19
Morachi Chincholi
Pune
Maharashtra
SuÞ tradition and
culture
20
Sulibhanjan
Aurangabad
Maharashtra
Nature-hill, pond
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
25
Source- Ministry of Tourism Annual Report & Evaluation Cum Impact Study
of Rural Tourism Projects, Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India, ACNielsen
ORG-MARG Pvt.Ltd. (Prepared list of Rural Tourism Sites in India based on
the two reports)
Need for Rural Tourism for the Sustainability of the tourismInfrastructure is a key component for the development of tourism, and rural
India face this problem, which can be solved by promoting rural tourism in
our country. Through this tourism local people can earn their daily living.
Key principles of rural tourism helps to maintain sustainability in the
tourism sector (Fig:1).
Fig. 01
Dimension of Rural Tourism and its Sustainability
Figure: 1 explains that through rural tourism not merely change the
circumstances of rural environment rather make a balanced socio, economic
and environmental develoment of the region. As a outcome profound
changes can be seen in host community and local entreprenures. In rural
tourism both host and tourists behave senibly towards the environment. In
this tourism, tourists always have an opportunity to direct involment in the
activities so they gain a real experience.
New Business Opportunities- It is a fact that rural tourism is still a minority
tourism market in India but can make a valuable contribution for rural
community and economy. It can create decent job scope in rural belt.
Promotion and marketing measures taken by the government for rural
tourism, it is expected that more number of tourist will visit rural belt. Rural
tourism helps to expand a complemenatry business avenue such as local
food, hospitality services, recreational activities local arts and crafts etc.
Opportunities for youth- career options are enhanced with the
opportunities for training and direct involvement in running tourism
business.
26
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Conservation of Rural Culrure and Heritage- Rural culture and heritage
can be maintained partly through the rural museum which may attract good
number of tourists. Museum may paly an important role to preserve culture
of a particular community or a region.
Sale of Arts and Crafts can be Increased- As India is multicultural
country, so different state has their own arts and culture. Through rural
tourism demand of arts and crafts are well observed. While visiting rural belt
tourist love to purchse rural arts and crfts like stone carving, bamboo craft,
pottery, paper painting, pattachitra, silk sarees etc. Many communities now
use arts and crafts festivals as amarketing mechanism to attract and
encourage tourist to come to their areas.
Opportunities of Digital Technologies- Digital technologies and platform
have become an new opportunity for rural entreprenure to improve their
market access and it helps to reduce geographical boundaries and other
marketing channels. Tourist prefer to book bulk items of arts and crafts
through digital mode which provides new business opportunities to the host
communities.
Environmental Improvements- Environment of the rural area will be
developed with proper infrastructure, sanitaion, sweage,
electricity,communication etc. These development can be assisted by
tourism revenues. With more tourist ßow host communities as well as
tourists will learn about preservation of natural habitats, bio diversity etc.
Conclusion- Rural tourism can be good option for sustainable development
in rural belt and if proper marketing is done for the tourism product,
deÞnitely the business will grow. Rural tourism has emerged as an important
element for sustainable human developement, economic growth,
employment generation, gender sensitization, social integration and
environmental conservation.
Local involmenent, inclusion of local people for policy making, sustainable
marketing, environmental mangement will help to grow rural site for
tourism in better way. It will also help to inßow of resources from urban to
rural area. Moreover migration from rural belt to urban belt can be reduced.
Hence, to maintain the the sustainability host community and
tourist should support : i) local econmies not at the cost of environmental
degradation. ii) need to promote traditional tourism products iii)
continuous improvemnt, qualiÞcation, and training for local people iv)
need to assess existing infrastructure and to identufy level of development
needed for transport, other infrastructure and amenities. v) as sustainablity
palys a very important role for the development of tourist site and tourism
business so enviornment paly a key role for that. Hence all stake holders in
rural tourism should take care about the management and protection of
environment.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
References1.
27
GOI, Ministry of Tourism (2021)'Draft National Strategy & Roadmap for
Rural Tourism in India'
2. GOI, Ministry of Tourism, Annual Report-2011-12, 2018-19, 2020-21, 202122.
3. Kuldeep,S, Arnab G, Goldi P, G.Anjeneya (2016) “ Rural Tourism: Need,
Scope and Challenges in Indian Context” Adhayan Publishers and
Distributors.
4. Nitashree Mili, Rural Tourism Development: An Overview of Tourism in the
Tipam Phakey Village of Naharkatia in Dibrugarh District, Assam (India),
International Journal of ScientiÞc and Research Publications,Volume 2, Issue
12, ISSN 2250-3153, Dec 2012
5. Roberts, Hall,D. (2004) “Consuming the Countryside: Marketing for Rural
Tourism, Journal of Vacating Marketing, Volume 10,Number 3, pp 253-263
6. Sharma R, (2016) “Potential of Rural Tourism in India: A Synoptic View”
International Journal of Travel and Tourism” vol,9,Issue 1 and 2.
7. Sharma Vivek (2017) Ed. “Rural Tourism: An Approach for Sustainable
Development of Rural Areas” Sustainable Tourism Development, Black
Prints, India, pp 159-173
8. Sharpley and Sharpley (1997) 'Rural Tourism:An Introduction', London,
International Thomas Business Press.
9. Sillignakis, KE, Rural Tourism: An opportunity for sustainable developmentof
rural areas, http://www.sillignakis.com/other_research.html, 2007
10. Telfer,D.J (2002), “Tourism and Regional Development” Tourism and
Development, Concept and Issues, Channel View Publications.
11. Verma S and Jain S (2018), “Rural Tourism In India: Issues Challenges and
Opportunities, IJCRT, vol-6, Issue,1,pp 20-29
28
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Pinky Sagar
Manisha Saini
Abstract- The sanctity and importance of the marriage has been recognized
among all the people of the world. In India, a list of offences against marriage
and punishment provided in the Indian penal code, 1860 which had passed
during the British era and at that time the social status of woman in Indian was
pitiable woman were not independent economically and were considered as an
object. The structure of society was different from what its today and several
social evils were prevalent during days, polygamy, child marriage and saÞ
system were common and since woman were observed as a property of men,
women were subjugated and exploited by men and this led to the framing of such
Laws.The investigator in this article will reviews the sanctity of the institution of
marriage which is very basic to Indian society, needs to be preserved at all cost,
by analyzing the various provisions of Indian penal code 1860, speciÞcally
deals with offences relating to marriage.
Keywords- Marriage, Punishment, Social status, Woman
Introduction- Marriage is a legitimate relationship between man and
women but there are certain offences like Bigamy, adultery, an mock marriages
that threaten this institution and the society. Section 493 to 498 – 498- A of the
Indian penal code deals with the offences ovulating to marriage.
Mock Marriage- As per the section, mock marriage means invalid
marriage. It is a cohabitation or sexual intercourse by a man, married or
unmarried with a woman of any age whom he induces to be his wife, but in
fact his concubine. This form of marriage depends upon the race or religion
to which the parties to the marriage belong to,if the parties to the marriage
belong to the same race or religion then they can change their religion.
Ingredients of section- To constitute the offence under section – 493 the
following system needs to be satisÞed;
The accused cohabited with the prosecutrix.
He was not legally married to her, Dr. Manisha Saini J.V Jain
College Saharanpur (U.P) Associate professor
She has consented to the cohabited to the cohabiting believing
that she had been lawfully married to him
Such belief in her was induced by deceit on the part of the
accused
Research Scholar, Assistant Professor, Bhagwati College Siwaga Meerut (U.P)
Associate Professor, J.V Jain Degree College, Saharanpur (U.P)
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
29
But the section [2] Seeks to punish Fraudulent or mock marriage. It
apples to those situations where a Fake ceremony is gone through
pretending it too be a valid marriage. As in the case of kailash Singh
v/s State of Rajasthan [3], the accused who was a married man
induced a girl saying that he was unmarried. The parents of the girls
also believed his words.
Offences relating of Marriage- Offences pertaining to marriage are
provided in section 493 to 498 of the Indian penal code 1860 (IPC) there
laws deal with the various aspcrting of a marriage, and their subsequent
felonies. The most illuminated of there is section 498 –A otherwise known as
the cruelty law. This law along with the domestic violence Act (Passed
2005)aims to provide substantial protection to female victims of cruelty and
domestic violence with the incrementally increasing cases of such nature it
was observed that such legislation was necessary to ensure that the
Fundamental Right to life and . Dignity, entrusted upon each citizen by the
constitution of Indian is complied with Furthermore cruelty was also made
to be a substantial ground for the dissolution of a marriage, too.
Other sections of Chapter XX includes Mock marriages (Section 493)
Bigamy section (Section 494 and 495)
Fraud Marriage (Section 496)
Adultery (Section 497)
Criminal Elopement (Section 498)
Section 50 of the evidence Act and section 198 (I) (C) of CRPC
Section 17 of the Hindu Marriage Act
Section 108 of the Evidence Act
Article 44 of the Indian Constitution
Uniform civil code
498 A offence against dowry death
Land ark Judgments Subhransu Sekhar v/s SamantrayThe state (2002)
Alamgir v/s State of Bihar (1958)
Mohd. Hoshan V/S State of A.P (2002)
Sushil Kumar Sharma V/S union of Indian other(2005)
Fraudulent conduction of wedding ceremony without a lawful, genuine
marriage- Section 496 provides for a jail term extending up to as long as
seven year's along with a Þne, for anyone who dishonesty, clubbed with a
fraudulent intention, goes through the wedding ceremony, despite knowing
that he is not these by lawfully married.
Adultery- Earlier, Section 497 gave way for Jail term up to Þve year's with
or without a Þne, to a person who had sexual intercourse with the wife of
another man without the consent or connivance of that man. If it was not rap,
the man would be guilty of the offence of adultery meanwhile, in such a case,
the wife would not be punishable as an abettor. It is important to note that this
30
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
law has since been decriminalised but continues to be strong grounds for
divorce.
Eriticing a married woma for illict sexual relations- Section 498 of the
IPC provides for a two year Jail term, with or without a Þne, for anyone
who takes, or conceals, or detains or entices away, any woman who is
and whom any woman who is and whom he knows or has reason to
believe to be the may of any other man, with the intent that she may have
illict intercourse with any person.
Essential ingredient are-Take or entices away.
1. Woman to be a married woman
2. The person enticing or taking away the married woman should have
knowledge that she is the wife of another man.
3. Taken from control of husband or person having care of here on
behalf of here husband,.
4. Intention to have illict intercourse
5. Conceals or detains any such woman
[Alamgir V/S Sate of Bihar AIR 1969 S.C 436]
[Sectioon 498-A Cruelty by husband or relatives of husband ]
Whoever being husband or relative of husband of a woman, subject such
woman to cruelty shall be punishment with imprisonment For term which
may extend to three years and shall also be liable to Þve.
[Inder Raj Malik v/s Sunita Malik 1896]
Held that word cruelty is deÞned in explanation which inter alia say
that harassment of a women with.
[meaning of cruelty ]Cruelty includes both physical and mental torture.
Willful conduct in explanation (a) to section 498- A IPC can be inferred from
direct and indirect evidence. The word cruelty in the explanations clause
attached to the section has been given a wider meaning.
It was held in (kaliya perumal v/s state of Tamil Nadu ) that cruelty is
a common essential in offences under both the section 304-B and 498 A of
IPC Section 304-B For the offence of dowry death can be convicted for an
offence under sec- 498 A of IPC. The meaning of cruelty is given in
explanation to section 498 A. Section 304 B does not contain its meaning but
the meaning of cruelty or harassment as given in section 498 A applies in
section 304 B as well.
Offences Outraging the Modesty of a woman- The offences of outraging
the modesty of a woman has been dealt with in the Indian penal code under
section 509 and section 354.
[Mrs Rupan Deol Bajaj & other v/s kanwar pal singh gill & anr]
The essential ingredients of the offence under this section – 354.
1. A woman was assaulted or criminal force was used against her.
2. The accused intended to outrage her modesty or knew that her
modesty was likely to be outraged.
3. Section 354-A Sexual Harassment
4. Section 354-B Section 354- C Voyeurism
5. Section 354- D stalking
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
31
Rape- “Rape is the highest in the class of all indignities, one which can
never be fully righted and that diminishes all humanity “ supreme court of
California in M V City of Los Angelss, Rap is a type of sexual assault
initiated by one against the other's consent with the purpose of forces sexual
intercourse. In India, rape has been the subject of deÞnition under section
375 of the Indian penal code with it's aggravated forms given under section
376 of the IPC. There sections were substantially amended on the
recommendations of the Justice J.S Verma committees that was setup in
wake of the 16 Dec 2012 gang rape case.
State of Punjab v/s Gurmeet Singh
Queen v/s Flattery
State of Maharastra v/s Prakash
Mathura Rape Case
Queen v/s Elbekkary
State of Himachal Pradesh v/s Raghubir Singh
Conclusion - Matrimonial ofÞces are multi-causal and Multi- Dimensional
in nature. It is impossible to justly address them with a strait jacked Method.
Among the various kind of offences against woman prevalent today are the
marital offences including bigamy. Adultery criminal elopement among
other and the one that is probable the most common offence is cruelty.
References1. Criminal Law, PSA Pillai,
2. Kenny's Outline of Criminal law
3. https//blog.ipleaders in/analysis
4. https//shodhgana inFiberet.ac.in
5. https//www.OXFordreference.com
6. bowen, N.K, AND G.I Bowen(1999). Effects of crime and violence
in Neighborhoods and schools or the school behavior and
performance of Adolescents
7. https//disitalcommons.uri.edu
8. https//www.drishti Ias.com
32
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Ashhad Ahmad
Abstract- India has seen a rigorous rise in hate crimes towards minority
communities in the last Þve years. Muslims and Dalits constituted a signiÞcant
share of the victims of religious hate crimes. Being a Secular, Democratic,
Republic, the responses from the state administration and machinery are
contradicting these constitutional safeguards. Apart from that, leaders of the
ruling political party and their afÞliated organizations have played a crucial
role in polarizing the country and further accelerating the hatred and violence.
Later on, the fairness and credibility of state apparatuses were questioned due
to its partial interventions in the hate crime cases. This article intends to analyse
the religious hate crimes in India, further focusing on the mob lynchings in the
last Þve years. The paper brings into limelight the discourse of hate and power
in the context of communalism in India.
Keywords- Hate Crimes, Mob Lynching, Communalism, Hate Speech , Ethenic
violence etc.
Introduction- The Indian subcontinent is witnessing a sudden rise in
the incidents of hate crimes in contemporary times. Incidents under this
generally involve violence against an individual or a group, of a particular
social group, by mobs, mainly on religious matters, which create turmoil in
the overall Social Structure. Motivated by hate and biased mindset, hate
crimes are often aimed at sending a message to a particular group of society to
instill in them fear and make a statement. Here in this article, we would be
dealing with the meaning, history, nature and consequences of Hate Crimes in
the Indian context.
What is Hate Crime? According to the Organization on Security and CoOperation in Europe (OSCE), Hate crimes are criminal acts committed with
a biased motive.1 Also known as a “bias-motivated crime” or “bias crime”
they are not deÞned as a legal offense but as a concept which occurs when a
perpetrator targets a victim of a particular social group.
Hate crime refers to criminal acts which are motivated by bias
against an individual or social group because of certain differences,
majorly in their religious practices and customs. In contemporary times its
meaning has proliferated beyond lynching, discrimination and offensive
speeches and now encompasses speech that is insulting, derogatory or
incites and violence. In totality, Hate Crimes could be deÞned as an attack
on a person's rights entrusted to him thereby affecting not only him but the
social structure as a whole which in many ways makes it more heinous than
many other Criminal Offences. Most common grounds of hate speech are
race, ethnicity, religion or class.2
Associate Professorof Law, Shibli National College Azamgarh
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
33
Hate crime refers to criminal acts which are motivated by bias
against an individual or social group because of certain differences, majorly
in their religious practices and customs. In contemporary times its meaning
has proliferated beyond lynching, discrimination and offensive speeches
and now encompasses speech that is insulting, derogatory or incites and
violence. All of this results in disturbing the harmony and order in society at
large. It affects its victims drastically which chillingly affects a victim both
mentally and physically, resulting in his/her mental and physical
dilapidation.
To determine whether a crime is a hate crime or bias crime, the
motivation behind the act is to be taken into consideration. A hate crime is
always motivated by bias or hatred of a person or social group against
another person or social group because of differences arising out of race,
religion, ethnicity, customs, practices and the like. It has a psychological and
emotional impact that extends far beyond the victim. Attacks motivated
based on such biases also undermine the person's rights given to him by
virtue of being born as an Indian Citizen.Thus, in totality Hate Crimes could
be deÞned as an attack on a person's rights entrusted to him thereby affecting
not only him but the social structure as a whole which in many ways makes it
more heinous than many other Criminal Offenses.
History of Hate Crimes- The concept of hate crime emerged in the United
States in the late 1970s, but such crimes even occurred before that, Roman
persecution of Christians and the Nazi slaughter of Jews being imminent
examples of the same. Cases of Hate crimes in the past were committed
against the members of oppressed groups which were motivated by biases
against the other community making it substantially different and more
dangerous than other kinds of crime.
Some of the most imminent examples of hate crimes include
lynching of Afro-Americans in South America, and Chinese in the West,
assaults on LGBTQ Community; xenophobic responses to a variety of
minority ethnic groups and the like. The concept got a distinct recognition in
2003 when the term “hate crimes” was Þrst used by the OSCE, the
Ministerial Council where the member states recognised it and made
commitments to make legislations to curb such crimes.
In India, Hate Crime is not a new concept. There were incidents
related to such crimes since the very formation of the nations which were
majorly based on religion. Apart from religion-biased crimes, there was also
the presence of Caste and Gender-based violence and an event marking the
inception of Hate Crimes in India cannot be pinpointed. As per a report by
NCRB, India has the majority of hate crimes based upon Caste and Religion,
followed by gender-biases which are increasing at an alarming rate. In India,
Hate crimes like lynching and Hate Speeches not only affect the victim but
also alienate entire communities.
As per the report of Hate Crime Watch as of April, 2019, there were
282 Hate Crimes which resulted in 100 deaths. Muslims were in a majority
of 57% incidents victims to such crimes followed by Christians in 15% cases
and then Hindus, in 13% cases. All of these data simply show the alarming
34
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
rate at which such crimes occur and how it has deep-rooted itself in society.
Nature and Characteristics of Hate Crime- Hate Crimes are not like any
other crime in India and have a sense of bias attached to the motive which is
not there with any other type of crime. There is a certain nature and
characteristic of hate crimes which makes it differentiable from any other
criminal offenses and they are as follows1. Hate Crimes though different in nature are always based on a crime
which is penal and therefore imposes some form of punishment.
This makes hate crime an offense under domestic criminal law and
enunciates its criminality.
2. A hate crime is always motivated by biases. It is only when there is a
bias that a criminal act forms into a hate crime. The factor to be
observed is the selection of a victim based on prejudice based upon
his religion, community, gender and the like.
3. Hate crimes are an extreme form of discrimination. It is committed
out of some big difference present in the community against the
other which makes the former discriminate against the latter and in
dire condition commit crimes against them because of their biases.
4. In the case of Hate crimes, the target is always an individual or a
group of individuals with common characteristics that are
noticeable and result in the differences and biases.
5. Hate crimes have a varying degree of occurrences which ranges
from vandalism to physical abuse and even sometimes homicide.
The gravity of hate crimes is based upon the brutality and cruelty to
which they amounted and its effect on the society as a whole.
Hate Crimes in India
1. Introduction
India witnessed over 200 suspected hate crimes, including cowrelated lynchings and honour killings in 2018.
For a demographically diverse country such as India, hate crimes including crimes of contempt - are a disaster.
2. Recent Incidents
Two Muslim men beaten by mobs in Jharkhand and Mumbai,
demanding they shout 'Jai Shri Ram', one so mercilessly that he died.
A tribal man was lynched in Tripura on suspicion of being a cattle
thief.
24 men accused of being cattle smugglers, beaten and made to shout
'Gau Mata ki Jai', in Rajasthan
3. Present Status
Studies of hate crimes in India show that they have steadily risen
over the past Þve years.
Amnesty International India documented 721 such incidents
between 2015 and 2018.
The more common hate crimes, they found, were honor killings and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
35
'cow-related violence', that was rare earlier but has become more
frequent over the past Þve years
According to Hate Crime Watch, crimes based on religious identity
were in single digits until 2014, when they surged from nine in 2013
to 92 in 2018
Rarely did bystanders attempt to stop the violence or police arrive on
time to do so
In both studies, Uttar Pradesh topped the list of States with the
largest number of hate crimes for the third year.
According to a study, there are at least 45 politicians in our newly
elected union legislature who have indulged in hate speech over the
past Þve years.
Human Rights Watch India pointed out that only some States had
complied with the Supreme Court's orders to designate a senior
police ofÞcer in every district to prevent incidents of mob violence.
There is also incitement to violence through social media.
4. Concerns / Challenges
There is a rising tide of concern, both domestically and
internationally.
Internationally, India has begun to feature prominently on a growing
list of countries marked by hate crime, including hate speech in
electoral campaigns.
We have a number of sections in the Indian Penal Code that can be
used to punish or even prevent hate crime, but they are disparate and
few policemen are aware of them.
Fear to use them in areas whose political leaders mobilize through
hate speech.
Worldwide data show that hate speech encourages or legitimizes
acts of violence
In religiously motivated hate crimes, the accused are often released
on bail, and the prosecution of suspects can take years
The true extent of hate crimes in India is unknown because the law –
with some exceptions – does not recognize hate crimes as speciÞc
offenses.
5. Court Directives
In 2018, the Supreme Court directed Central and State governments
to make it widely known that lynching and mob violence would
'invite serious consequence under the law’
6. International Practice
Germany amended its Criminal Procedure Code, dealing with
sentencing in violent crime,to say the sentence must be based on
consideration of 'the motives and aims of the offender, particularly
where they are of a racist or xenophobic nature.
36
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
France has a draft Bill to prohibit hate speech, and Germany has
already enacted one.
Types of Hate Crimes in India and Provisions Connected with Them
1. Lynching and Mob Violence- It is a form of violence in which a mob,
under the pretext of administering justice without trial, punishes and inßicts
torture on a presumed offender, sometimes even resulting in murders.In
2018, the Supreme Court described lynching as a “horrendous act of
mobocracy”. The Court exhorted the Centre and State governments to
frame laws speciÞcally to deal with the crime of lynching and laid down
certain guidelines to be incorporated in these laws including fast-track trials,
compensation to victims, and disciplinary action against lax law-enforcers.
In Tehseen S. Poonawalla v. Union of India3 Hon'ble Supreme
Court has deÞned Lynching as targeted violence which affects the human
body and is against private and public property. In India, these are incidents
where a group of people kill a person allegedly for an offense which is
usually based on some rumor. The belief and practice of one community
makes some other community dislodged of its emotions which often leads to
an unlawful act of mob violence. In a report of 2018, states like Uttar
Pradesh, Karnataka, Haryana, Gujrat, Delhi, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh
were the major for cases lynching and mob violence.
In the recent few years the spread of fake news, especially about
child-lifters on prowl, have caused panic and unrest across the country
leading to the death of many in various mob lynching episodes4.
According to the reports ,at least 27 people have been killed in the
country due to several fake media videos and messages containing similar
themes of outsiders stealing children in a span of one year.
While the data now has been stopped to collect by NCRB because
the data became unreliable as the crime was not deÞned.5 The Ministry of
Home Affairs (MHA) informed the Lok Sabha that the National Crime
Records Bureau (NCRB) discontinued data collection on mob lynching,
hate crimes and cow vigilantism. Earlier, NCRB collected data on mob
lynching, hate crimes and cow vigilantism in 2017.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
37
It was observed that the data was unreliable as these crimes etc. have
not been deÞned. The term 'anti-national' is not deÞned in law.The word
“anti-national has not been deÞned in statutes”.
● However, there is criminal legislation and various judicial
pronouncements to sternly deal with unlawful and subversive
activities which are detrimental to the unity and integrity of the
country.”
● Article 31D of the Constitution, which deÞned “anti-national
activity”, and was “inserted during Emergency”, was omitted
by a later amendment.
2. Hate Speech- 'Hate speech' is often posited against 'free speech', as if they
were complementary ideas. In truth, the concept of 'free speech' stems from
the idea of equality: from the democratic impulse; whereas the tendency
towards hate mongering is mired in the oldest, most archaic 'bullying for
power'. In that sense, 'hate speech' is almost a misnomer, for it isn't a speech
problem: it is a problem of systemic bullying with an eye towards
exclusivist, political power. The incitement is not always meant to lead to
physical violence; it is in itself violent in its persistent stigmatizing and calls
towards exclusion.'Hate speech' does not refer to offensive, or foul-mouthed
speech directed at a people, or even to vitriolic complaints directed at the
government. It is speech that can cause actual material harm through the
social, economic and political marginalization of a community.'Hate speech'
must be understood as linked to systemic discrimination and eventual
political marginalisation of a community. It's not just random vitriol: it feeds
into a broader context of discrimination.6
In its 267th Report, the Law Commission of India says: “Hate
speech generally is an incitement to hatred primarily against a group of
persons deÞned in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
religious belief and the like ... This, hate speech is any word written or
spoken, signs, visible representations within the hearing or sight of a person
with the intention to cause fear or alarm, or incitement to violence.”7
Hate speech is generally deÞned as a restriction on free speech that
aims to prevent or prohibit communication that exposes a person, a group, or
a segment of society to hatred, violence, ridicule, or indignity.
What does Indian law say about it?The major legal provisions that deal
with provocative speeches and expressions that seek to punish 'hate speech'
are widely taken to be Sections 153A and 505 of the Indian Penal Code.
Promotion of animosity between different groups on the basis of
religion, race, place of birth, residence, language, etc., and doing acts
harmful to the maintenance of harmony are both crimes punishable by three
years in prison under Section 153A.If it occurs at a place of worship, or an
assembly engaged in religious worship or religious ceremonies, it is
punishable by a Þve-year sentence. Furthermore, making "statements
conducive to public mischief" is punishable under Section 505 of the
IPC.The statement, publication, report, or rumor that is punishable under
Section 505(1) should be one that promotes armed forces mutiny, or causes
such fear or alarm that people are induced to commit an offense against the
38
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
state or public tranquility; or is intended to incite or incites one class or
community against another class or community.
This can result in a three-year prison sentence. Making remarks that create
or promote hostility, hatred, or ill-will between classes is illegal under
Section 505(2). If the same offense occurs at a house of worship or any
assembly engaged in religious worship or religious rites, it can result in a
Þve-year prison sentence under subsection (3).
What is the Law Commission's Recommendation?Instead of being
subsumed in the current sections covering inßammatory acts and speeches,
the Law Commission proposes that distinct crimes be added to the IPC to
criminalize hate speech more speciÞcally. It proposes the addition of two
new provisions, Section 153C and Section505A.
According to the draft, anyone who (a) uses gravely threatening
words, spoken or written, signs or visible representations, with the intent to
cause fear or alarm; or (b) advocates hatred that causes incitement to
violence, on grounds of religion, race, caste or community, sex, gender
identity, sexual orientation, place of birth, residence, language, disability, or
tribe, should be prosecuted. It suggests a two-year prison sentence and/or a
5,000 Þne, or both, for this offense.
Its draft for Section 505A proposes to criminalize words, or display
of writing or signs that are gravely threatening or derogatory, within the
hearing or sight of a person, causing fear or alarm or, with intent to provoke
the use of unlawful violence against that person or another”. It proposes a
prison term of up to one year and/or a Þne up to 5,000 or both.
The M.P. Bezbaruah Committee8and the T.K. Viswanathan
Committee9 both proposed adding sections to the IPC to punish acts and
statements that promote racial discrimination or amount to hate speech.
Currently, the Committee for Criminal Law Reforms, which is studying
more broad reforms to criminal law, is looking into establishing speciÞc
rules to deal with hate speech.
Judicial Pronouncements- The Supreme Court of India in the case of
Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v. Union of India(2014)has said as much when
it stated that 'the idea of discrimination lies at the heart of hate speech'. Its
impact is not measured by its abusive value alone, but rather by how
successfully and systematically it marginalizes a people:
“Hate speech is an effort to marginalize individuals based on their
membership in a group. Using expression that exposes the group to hatred,
hate speech seeks to delegitimize group members in the eyes of the majority,
reducing their social standing and acceptance within society.”
The Supreme Court in the case of Amish Devgan v. Union of India (2020)
has also recognised the principle of 'variable context' and held that
contextually “all speeches are not alike. This is not only because of group
afÞliations, but in the context of dominant group hate speech against a
vulnerable and discriminated group, and also the impact of hate speech
depends on the person who has uttered the words.”
Hate speech case: If said with smile, no criminality, says Delhi HC- The
court was hearing CPI(M) leader Brinda Karat's petition against a lower
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
39
court order in which the prayer for registration of FIR against Union
Minister Anurag Thakur and MP Parvesh Verma for their alleged hate speech
was declined.10
Initiatives to Combat Hate Crimes- Here are some following Point Plans
to Fight Hate Crimes ;
1. Recognize and condemn violent hate crimes whenever they occur.
Senior leaders must promptly, emphatically, publicly and
consistently send messages that violent crimes that appear to be
motivated by prejudice and fanaticism will be thoroughly
investigated and prosecuted with due severity.
2. Adopt laws that speciÞcally address hate crimes. Recognizing the
particular harm caused by violent hate crimes, governments should
enact laws codifying speciÞc crimes or establish stricter sanctions
for violent crimes based on race, religion, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, gender, gender identity, physical and mental identity of
the victim, disability or other similar state.
3. Strengthen law enforcement and the persecution of offenders.
40
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Governments should ensure that hate crime perpetrators are
accountable to the law, that the enforcement of hate crime laws is a
priority for the criminal justice system, and that records of their
enforcement are well documented and published.
4. Provide adequate guidance and resources to law enforcement.
Governments should ensure that police and investigators, as Þrst
responders in violent crime cases, receive speciÞc instructions and
have the procedures, resources and training necessary to identify,
investigate and record the causes of crime, distorted motives and
those that lead to legal proceedings action required for hate crimes.
5. Conducting parliamentary, inter-institutional or other special
inquiries on the problem of offenses motivated by prejudice. These
public and ofÞcial investigations should stimulate public debate,
seek ways to better respond to hate crimes, and seek creative ways to
address the roots of intolerance and discrimination through
education and other means.
6. Creation and strengthening of anti-discrimination organizations.
OfÞcial anti-discrimination and human rights organizations should
have the power to Þght hate crimes by monitoring, reporting and
supporting victims.
Conclusion- Change is constant and nature is always evolving. With the
changing requirements and circumstances we need to challenge the era of
Hate crimes because this causes a huge loss to life, resources and time. The
effective changes will emerge if these facets are taken care of. We need to
have strict law reforms as well as a good moral education system. Criminals
are studied with their behavior so that after knowing the cause we can
conclude the effective reforms and this could be done by focusing on all the
aspects and by raising the voice against it. Be it majority or minority the
violence is leading the humans nowhere and therefore as a recent example
Australia has allowed LGBT marriage nationwide and this is an example
how evolved mindset can bring change, peace and harmony and this is the
ultimate goal to attain the desired results. More accepting nature and
understanding the importance of adapted and revamped structure would
give society a good head start.
References1. OSCE Ministerial Council Decision No.9109,op.cit,Note1.
2. h tt p s : / / www. d r is h ti i as . co m /d ail y- u p d at es / d ai ly -n ews analysis/hate-crime
3. Tahseen S.Poonawala v. Union of India,(2018)6SC72.
4. https://www.oneindia.com/india,
5. https://www.thehindu.com,
6. https://thewire.in/law/hate-speech-what-it-,is-and-why-it-matters
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
41
7. https://www.indiatimes.com/explainers/news/how-india-lawdeals-with-hate-speech-558326.html
8. The Bezbaruah Committee, headed by M.P. Bezbaruah, Member,
North Eastern Council, was set up in February 2014 after the death
of Nido Taniam, a 19-year-old student from Arunachal Pradesh, who
died in Delhi on January 29, 2014
9. An expert committee headed by former Lok Sabha secretary general
TK Viswanathan to deal with cybercrimes, especially online hate
speech, has submitted its report to the Union Home Ministry. The
committee was formed after the Supreme Court struck down Section
66 A of the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 in Shreya
Singhal vs. Union of India.
10. https://indianexpress.com/
42
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Qazi Nadeem Alam
Abstract- Surrogate motherhood has both advocates and detractors, each with
strong arguments in favour of their respective thoughts. And it is also important
to discuss both sides of the argument to get, understand the actual picture of
surrogacy arrangements. It is very hard to visualize the child as the subject
matter of trade. Children are after all the fruit of an intimate experience of love,
not of money, which occurs far away from any commercial activity.
Keywords- Altruistic Surrogacy, Commercial Surrogacy.
Introduction- Though, poor parents across time and place have
viewed their children as possible economic assets, weighing their ultimate
economic contribution in rice Þelds or factories, against the costs of carrying
them through childhood.1In the same way, surrogacy has become a global
trade in countries like India, which has given rise to many queries leading to
continuous political debate for the last many years.The globalization of ARTs
has overwhelmingly transformed women's reproductive lives and
motherhood itself. ARTs have brought women's reproductive bodies into the
public techno-scientiÞc domain and bringing not only pregnancy and
delivery, but also conception under the preview of medical control, sexuality
and maternity are separated and motherhood becomes fragmented into
genetic, gestating, and nurturing segments.2
Considering all those factors, surrogacy has now become an
assemblage of numerous genuine social, legal and ethical challenges, which
is being closely examined by feminists, anthropologists, sociologists and
lawmakers alike.3
Moreover, feminists have denounced surrogacy as the ultimate
form of medicalization, commodiÞcation and technological immigration of
the female body and as prostitution and slavery resulting from economic and
patriarchal exploitation of women.4
Introduction- Surrogacy arrangements are termed as either commercial or
altruistic, considering the Þnancial involvement in the respective
arrangement. All opponents of surrogacy mainly prefer their contention on
surrogacy as an ethically disgusting practice, especially when it practices
like a commercial deal.Though, monetary transaction is the main criticism
associated with commercial surrogacy, which centred on 'buying' and
'selling' of the child. But, one cannot ignore the helpful action of altruistic
surrogacy, while it, in reality, opens the door to all kinds of possible abuse.
Associate Professor, Department of Law, Shibli National PG College,Azamgarh, U.P.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
43
Many of the opponents forwarded their views on religious grounds,
whereas others judge it using rational, legal or political criteria. It also
pleaded that surrogacy is tending towards a critical and complex childparent relationship that Þnally harms the tradition of the family.
On the other hand, some feminists oppose surrogacy because of its political
and economic context.
Hence, they disagree with the view that women liberally choose to
become surrogates. They argue that coercion at the societal level, rather than
the personal level, causes poor women to become surrogate mothers for the
rich.5
Some feminists also prefer to term surrogacy as reproductive
prostitution. Further, the antagonists of surrogacy practice consider that it is
a menace to the health of the surrogate, due to being unaware of the risk to
her health and also the kind-heartedness of giving away the child while
agreeing.
However, advocates in favour of surrogate motherhood propose it as
an empathetic solution to the problem of infertility. It is seen that infertility
affects about 10-15% of couples in the reproductive age group.6 They note
that infertility is common and affects almost one out of every six couples
who wish to have children to whom they are genetically related.7
Besides this, they assert commercial surrogacy contract is a contract
to bear a child, not to sell a child and payment to a surrogate is considered as a
fee for gestational services, just like Dr services. Surrogacy is also supported
on the ground that society is served best when the liberties of individuals are
maximized and also mention that in a successful surrogacy arrangement, all
parties concerned are beneÞted.8
Through which the intended parent(s) get a child and the surrogate
receives a monetary reward with the great satisfaction of helping someone
needy. One more argument is that though adoption is a means to have a child,
it does not adequately fulÞl the desired needs of infertile couples who wish to
have a genetically linked baby.
In favour of surrogacy arrangements, liberal feminists and their
supporters forward their views as a woman's right to use her body as she
chooses, and to prevent women from entering into surrogacy contracts
implies is to deny them both autonomy and reproductive self-determination.
Every country in the world has a different standpoint on surrogacy.
One thing is very clear that traditional surrogacy involves the union of the
sperm of the intended father and the egg of the surrogate mother and both the
intended father and the surrogate mother of the home country, the intended
father would be the surrogate child's legal father and the surrogate mother
would be the child's legal mother.
But the complex problems of parentage, custody, nationality etc.
arise while the gestational surrogacy arrangement involves gametes of the
donor, done through AI or IVF and parties concerned are from different
jurisdictions.
The Indian society and legal system differ from the rest of the world.
The concept of surrogate mothering in India raises a broad host of concerns
44
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
from both legal and social
standpoints in the practice among three stakeholders: the commissioning
parent, the surrogate mother, and the surrogate child.
Position of Altruistic and Commercial Surrogacy in Different NationsDomestic laws and policies of the states are different on Surrogacy. Some
states even prohibit surrogacy either altruistic or commercial.
Some others regulate surrogacy arrangements by speciÞc Laws. In
the current aspect surrogacy arrangements are in a state of ßux, because most
of the States are in process of making laws on Surrogacy or in the state of
amendment of existing laws or doing research for legalising or prohibiting
the surrogacy arrangements.
However, the overall situation on surrogacy arrangements can be
examined by classifying different countries of the world into three
categories1. States which prohibits surrogacy arrangements, or where surrogacy
arrangements are illegal such as Germany, France, Sweden, Spain,
Italy, Hungary, Belgium etc
2. States which expressly permit and regulate surrogacy, or where
surrogacy arrangements are legal such as Israel ( the Þrst country of
the world to legalise surrogacy under Surrogate Motherhood
Agreements Act 1996) and the United Kingdom, United
States(some States, California, Florida), India (law is in process of
making) South Africa, Russia, Korea, Iran, Greece, Canada,
Australia, Brazil, Hongkong, etc
3. Some countries are silent on the practice of surrogacy neither ban it
nor regulate the practice like China, Japan, New Zealand and
Thailand ( the law was recently made to prohibit commercial
surrogacy in Feb 2015).
Prohibiting Countries- There are certain countries where surrogacy
arrangements are prohibited by express legal provisions. These countries do
not only prohibit surrogacy arrangements but declare it a criminal act and
provide the punishment for any such activities. The prohibition in these
countries is on the ground that human beings are not subject to sale and
purchase and such arrangements are a violation of human dignity.
Germany- Surrogacy is prohibited in Germany. Surrogacy arrangements
are violative to the provision of the Constitution of Germany which provides
that human dignity is inviolable.9
The reason for prohibiting surrogacy is the violation of the child's
and the surrogate mother's human dignity, reducing both to objects of
(commercial) contracts.Furthermore, grave psychological damage might
occur to a child growing up with one mother who gave birth and another
from whom it originates genetically (split biological motherhood). In
contrast to adoption or sperm donation both also lead to 'split' parenthood,
the birth procedure creates not only a social but also a special biological
bond between child and birth mother. Both are thus considered as victims.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
45
The mutual bond, as well as a traditional picture of motherhood, has to be
protected.10 There is no distinction between altruistic and commercial
surrogacy in Germany.The Embryo Protection Act, 1990 (ESchG) and
Adoption Placement Act (AdVermiG) are two important legislation of
Germany that deals with the surrogacy arrangement speciÞcally.
France- France is a Prohibitory State. Surrogacy arrangements are
prohibited in all its forms. Though there is no speciÞc law on the subject, the
application of substantive law makes surrogacy arrangements
unenforceable and even punishable in France. Surrogacy arrangements are
against public policy and are void under civil law, and such practice is
punishable under criminal law.
Current Approach- A liberal approach to surrogacy is in demand in France
because a high number of French Couples are performing surrogacy abroad.
In 2008 the Senate Commission submitted a Report, recommending that
surrogacy should be allowed in speciÞc circumstances and strictly
regulated.11
The revision of the Bioethics Act took place in 2011, which provides
that prohibition on the establishment of maternity between the intending
mother and the child should be maintained while legal alternatives should be
found to facilitate family life without legal parentage between the intending
mother and the child. The revision of the Bioethics Act was adopted, but it
did not bring about any change regarding the prohibition on surrogacy.
Spain- In Spain Surrogacy is not recognised. The Parliament of Spain
adopted an anti surrogacy approach in 1980 via Human ART12 and made it
clear surrogacy has no legal effects in Spain. However, in recent concern,
confusion was created when the liberal approach was adopted by the
administrative authorities of Spain in the case of foreign surrogacy in the
establishment of parental relationships.
The lack of a speciÞc prohibition entails that the Spanish law also
lacks sanctions against those persons involved in the practice. Where the
surrogacy takes place in Spain there is no sanction other than the civil denial
of the intended effects. There are no consequences from the viewpoint of the
criminal law, at least if the practice is entered into openly.
If however, a woman pretends that she has given birth, and another
woman, who does give birth, hands over the child to the Þrst woman, both of
them would commit a criminal offence (Articles 220 and 221 of the Spanish
Civil Code).13
Japan- Surrogacy is legally prohibited in Japan In April 2008 the Science
Council of Japan recommended in principle legal prohibition of surrogate
birth.14
However, the Science Council acknowledged that even if law
prohibits surrogacy in Japan, parents may still arrange a surrogate birth
overseas, so the government needed to clarify the child's legal status.15 The
Science Council recommended that Japanese law should recognise the birth
mother as the legal mother and establish parenthood between the social
parents and child only by formal adoption.16
Due to the lack of any legal framework in Japan for Surrogacy
46
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
contracts, the practise of surrogacy is likely to be banned in Japan and
judicial interpretation of the Japanese Courts also does not support the
practice of surrogacy.
China- China takes an anti surrogacy approach. On 20 Feb 2001, The
Ministry of Public Health of the People's Republic of China issued
'Administrative Measures for Human Reproductive Technology.'17
This administrative rule bans all forms of trade in fertilised eggs and
embryos and prohibits medical institutions and medical staff from
performing any form of surrogacy procedure. It also stipulates that the use of
assisted reproductive technology shall conform to China's family planning
policy, ethical standards and laws.18
Moreover, it states that any medical institution which abets
surrogacy arrangements in violation of the Administrative measures shall be
warned and punished by a Þne of not more
then 30,000 yuan (RMB) and the relevant responsible personnel shall be
subject to administrative liabilities, and when committing a crime, shall be
prosecuted for criminal liabilities. 19 In order to complement the
Administrative measures, the Ministry of Public Health amended the Ethical
Principles of Assisted Human Reproductive Technology and Human Sperm
Bank on 23 June 2003.
As mentioned above China has not enacted any national law to
regulate surrogacy, the existing legal documents that regulate surrogacy
arrangements are the administrative rules made by the Ministry of Public
Health.
Under the Constitution and the Legislative Act of the People's
Republic of China, the ministry of public health, as a department directly
under the state council, has the power to enact the administrative rules within
the scope of its authority,20 However, the legal status of such administrative
rules is rather low within the Chinese Legislative system, insofar as they can
contravene neither the Constitution nor the national laws.
Regulating Countries- There are a group of countries where surrogacy
arrangements are legally permissible and regulated by speciÞc legislation.
Such as Britain, Australia, Israel, Ukraine, USA, Thailand, Russia etc. These
States further classiÞed the surrogacy arrangements into altruistic and
commercial surrogacy based on payment to the surrogate.
Countries Permits Only Altruistic Surrogacy- Altruistic surrogacy
means a surrogacy arrangement where intended parents pay the surrogate
nothing or, more usually, only for her “reasonable expenses” associated with
the surrogacy. No Þnancial remuneration beyond this is paid to the
surrogate.
This may be a gestational or a traditional surrogacy arrangement.
Such arrangements often (but not always) take place between intending
parents and someone they may already know i.e relative or friend.21 Britain,
Australia and Israel Canada are the countries that allowed surrogacy
arrangements in altruistic form only.
United Kingdom- Thus Surrogacy arrangements are not illegal in the UK,
but there are a range of legal restrictions contained in the Surrogacy
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
47
Arrangements Act 1985 which was enacted in response to widespread public
concerns about commercial surrogacy.
The 1985 Act prohibits the operation of commercial surrogacy
agencies, and any advertising for a surrogate or of willingness to become a
surrogate. It also makes clear that surrogacy arrangements are not legally
enforceable contracts.
A Report on Surrogacy Law Reform, Nov 201522 recommended a
careful formulation of new legislation on surrogacy which recognises the
value of surrogacy as a way of having children and helps to protect and
facilitate the altruistic and compulsory nature of surrogacy in the UK while
preventing commercialization and sharp practice. Its recommendations are
premised on the primary assumption that the welfare of the children born
through surrogacy is paramount.23
Australia- The Legal response to Australia is partial and chaotic. The
surrogacy legislation legalises altruistic surrogacy, subject to a number of
requirements. Commercial Surrogacy is widely prohibited, but this
prohibition appears to be ineffective in preventing Australian intended
parents from entering into commercial agreements abroad. It seems that the
Australian surrogacy legislation is therefore largely ineffective.
Intended parents have relied on other areas of law, especially federal
family law, to gain recognition of their parental responsibilities. The lack of
coordination between different areas of law creates uncertainty for the
parties and their layers, difÞculties for courts in dealing with cases involving
surrogacy.
All Australian territories prohibit commercial surrogacy agreements
and hold them as criminal offences except in the Northern Territory. In the
ACT, New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia, an
entry into a Commercial Surrogacy Agreement is an offence to all parties to
the Agreement.24
In Queens land, the making and receiving of payments in excess of
reimbursement of the surrogate mother's reasonable expenses are also
criminalised.25 In Victoria State mere entry in commercial surrogacy
agreement is not an offence but receipt of payment by the surrogate mother
for her services in excess of reimbursement is an offence.26
In Southern Australia commercial Surrogacy Agreement is itself
illegal and void under the Family Relationship Act 1974.27 Further third
party activities to the surrogacy arrangements are also prohibited as
procurement of surrogacy arrangements, advertisement related to surrogacy
and services to assist in achieving pregnancy in commercial surrogacy
agreements are also criminalised. ACT, Southern Australia, Tasmania, and
Western Australia criminalise
procuring and brokering surrogacy arrangements.28 Advertisement is
criminalised to all seven jurisdictions except NT.29 The surrogacy legislation
does not clearly or effectively address cross border surrogacy cases.30
Israel- The Israeli surrogacy law of 1996 made Israel the Þrst and only
country in the world where all surrogacy contracts are publicly legislated by
a government-appointed commission.
48
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
In March 1996, the Israeli government legalized gestational
surrogacy under the "Embryo Carrying Agreements Law." The legal
regulation of surrogacy in Israel is the effect of the ban on commercial
surrogacy in the Baby M case in 1988. The policy of Legalising surrogacy in
the country was affected by the three events. First, there is a pragmatic need
to reproduce and 'populate the nation'31 in the circumstances due to
permanent war. Secondly, in Nachmani v
Nachmani32 The Israeli Supreme Court held with the majority that the right
to be a parent is more important than a wish not to be a father.
Countries Permit Commercial Surrogacy- A surrogacy arrangement
where the intending parents pay the surrogate Þnancial remuneration which
goes beyond her reasonable expenses.
This may be termed “compensation” for pain and suffering” or simply the
fee which the surrogate mother charges for carrying the child. This may be a
gestational or traditional surrogacy arrangement.33
There are some countries where commercial surrogacy
arrangements are allowed and regulated by the speciÞc legislation such as
some of the States of United States of America (USA), Ukraine, and it is
allowed without any speciÞc regulation or even any regulation in
Thailand (which were prohibited since July 2015), and India (regulation
through the Legislation is proposed but the Bill is pending in Parliament).
Ukraine- Ukraine has a liberal approach to Surrogacy. Ukrainian
Legislators have proven to be more progressive towards surrogacy than
other neighbouring European countries. At present Ukraine is one of the
surrogacy friendly countries in Europe.
In contrast to other countries which limits surrogacy or either ban it,
in Ukraine from the very moment of conception the intended parents of the
child are considered to be the biological parent of the child and their name is
mentioned in the birth certiÞcate without any formality as it is and without
mentioning the name of a surrogate mother.34
Commercial Surrogacy is legal in Ukraine. Though there is no
speciÞc law in Ukraine for regulating commercial surrogacy, some of the
provisions of the Civil Code of Ukraine are concerned with commercial
surrogacy.
Ukraine signed the Convention of the Council of Europe on Human
Rights and Bio medicine without any reservations.
Article 21 of the convention provides that the human body and its
parts shall not, as such, give rise to Þnancial gain. Therefore, if the Convention
were to be ratiÞed by the Ukrainian Parliament and come into force in
Ukraine, becoming part of domestic legislation, it would be prohibited to pay
to use a surrogate mother's womb for carrying and delivering a child for
genetic parents. At the same time, the convention entering into force will not
prevent would-be parents from paying some sort of compensation to a
surrogate mother for the loss of earnings, medical care, etc.35 These provisions
lay down foundations for a vibrant commercial surrogacy market in Ukraine,
since they determine that commercial surrogacy which is not prohibited by
the Ukrainian legislation is thus completely legal.36
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
49
United States of America- The United States of America is a country from
which all debate over the surrogacy arrangements initiated in 1980 in the
famous Baby M case. Though the Country at that time adopted the restrictive
approach of the New Jersey Supreme Court towards the
surrogacyarrangements. But with the passage of time later judicial decisions
turned and permitted the surrogacy arrangements into legal ones in Johnson
v Calvert, Buzzanca v Buzzanca etc.
At present, though there is no federal law on surrogacy in the country
it is the most favourable country surrogacy arrangements. If we understand
the surrogacy law of America it is not an easy task because the United States
law on Surrogacy is very complicated as different states have different laws.
Only Arizona, the District of Columbia, Michigan and North Dakota
are the States which forbid Surrogacy. In the rest of the States, there is either
favourable statutes ( Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, New
Hampshire, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, and Washington) or Highest Court
has given favourable decisions (Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, California,
Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Lowa, Kansas,
Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada,
New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, New Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont,
Virginia, West Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming).37
Commercial Surrogacy Permitted without Regulation- India is the only
country in the world where commercial surrogacy is allowed without any
regulation. The only regulation to process is the guidelines issued by the
Indian Council of Medical Research in 2006.
India as a state is ill-equipped to enact appropriate legislation to regulate the
harmful social side effects of rapid change in advanced reproductive
technologies.
As its government is unable to ensure public safety for its citizens
who choose to become gestational surrogates, as its Government does not
enforce any particular ethical standards in dealing with the complexities in
the evolving medical Þeld of infertility.38 Commercial surrogacy is legal in
India though it is unregulated because there is no law regulating surrogacy
contracts.
Conclusion- The Laws concerned with the surrogacy arrangements of about
twelve countries are discussed hereunder three categories as those prohibit
surrogacy arrangements (France, Germany, Spain, Japan, China) those
regulate and permits only altruistic and prohibit commercial surrogacy
(Britain and Australia) and those where commercial surrogacy is permitted
either regulated or allowed without any restriction or regulations (some of
the States of USA, Israel, Ukraine, India).
Out of all these Countries, Israel provides a unique model for
addressing the legal implications of commercial surrogacy, provides a
balanced approach between deeply rooted cultural practise, religious
traditions and civic life, while respecting individual autonomy. In contrast
to Indian inactiveness, American reliance on the state's regulations,
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
50
European States' restrictive approach, Israel takes a bold and pragmatic
approach to create effective regulation of commercial surrogacy.
The ultimate result of this analysis is that where surrogacy
arrangements are prohibited, a liberal approach is required as the European
Union of Human Rights recommended in some cases.
Similarly where it is regulated and permits only altruistic surrogacy
regulations are proved insufÞcient as easily restrictive provisions of the
statutes can be overlooked.
Further where surrogacy arrangements are legal and commercial surrogacy
is allowed, there are issues of exploitation of surrogates, their health issues
and the welfare of the child requires immediate attention. Thus in conclusion
it can be said that either surrogacy arrangements need a uniform legal
approach all over the world with one required concern that is the welfare of
the child is paramount or its commercial form should be regulated in a
manner at least prohibits its commercialization.
References1.
Dr S.S. Das and P Mout, “Commercialization of Surrogacy in India: A Critical
Analysis” available at http://www.researchgate.net/publication/281710247
Accessed on 30/10/2021 at 8:33 (AM)
2. S Dasgupta and SD Dasgupta, “Business or Usual? The Violence of
Reproductive TrafÞcking in the Indian Context” in S Dasgupta and SD
Dasgupta (ed) Globalization and Transnational Surrogacy in India:
Outsourcing Life, Lexington Books 183 (2014).
3. Dr S. Bhat& S. R. Sastry, “Legal and Policy Challenges to Surrogacy in India”
in B.S. Bhat (ed), Reßections on Medical Law and Ethics in India, Eastern Law
House 82 (2016).
4. M Banode, “Critical Appraisal Of Legal Spectrum Regulating Surrogacy
Contract: A Comparative Study With Special Reference To India” 2 SAJMS 2
(201).
5. MK Sarkar, “ Surrogate Motherhood: Empowerment or Exploitation” 1 ASIOJASSI 2 (2015), available at http://www.albertscience.com (Accessed on
30/10/2021 at 8:38 AM)
6. GhenaVaishnavi and NavneetTakkar, Surrogacy: Medico-Legal Issues 21
(Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, New Delhi, 1st Ed. 2015).
7. Supra note 9
8. Ibid
9. Article 1, para, s 1 of the Grundgesetzfür die Bundesrepublik Deutschland,
GG, Basic Law of the federal Republic of the Germany.
10. Katarina Trimmings and Paul Beaumont 'International surrogacy
arrangements Legal Regulation at the International Level' Hart Publishing
2013 p132-133.
11. Rapport d' information de Mme Michèle André, MM alainMilon et Henri de
Richemont, fait au nom de la commission deslois et de la commission des
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
51
affaires sociales du sénat n 421(2007-2008—25 juin 2008).
12. Ley 35/1988 of 22, November, sobretécnicas de reproducciónhumanaasistida,
BoletínOÞcial del Estado no 282, 24 November 1988, From Patricia
OrejudoPrieto De Los Mozos, supra note 5 at p 346.
13. Article 220 and 221 of the Spanish Civil Code.
14. Science Council of Japan, Assisted Reproductive Technologies Review
Committee, Issues Related to the Assisted Reproductive Technologies Centred
on Surrogate Pregnancy: Toward a Social Consensus (2008) 39, available at
http://www.scj.go.jp/ja/info/kohyo/ Pdf/kohyo-20-t56-1e.pdf, (Accessed on
01/11/2021 at 8:51 AM)
15. Cass. Ass Pleniere, 32 May 1991 p. j 417.
16. Melissa Ahlefedt,' 'Less than Family: Surrogate Birth and Legal parent Child
relationships in Japan', ZJAPANR / J.JAPAN.L, Nr. / No. 32 (2011)S available
a t h t t p s : / / s y d n e y. e d u . a u / l a w / a n j e l / d o c u m e n t s / 2 0 1 2 / Z J a p a n
R32_12_Ahlefeldt_Endf3.pdf, (Accessed on 01/11/2021 at 8:58 AM)
17. Administrative measures for Assisted Human Reproductive Technology, order
of ministry of Public Health of the people's republic of China, No 14 of 2001,
22 Feb 2001()PRC, cited in ZhengxinHuo, edited by Katrinna Trimmings and
Paul Beaumont, International Surrogacy Arrangements, Legal regulations at
the International level' Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland, Oregon(2013) at
page no. 93.
18. Article 3 of the Administrative Measures.
19. Ibid article 22.
20. Ethical Principles of assisted Human reproductive technology and human
sperm bank, order of the Ministry of the public health of the People's Republic
of China, no 176 of 2003, chapter one, Section 3(5) cited supra note 5 at p94.
21. Glossary, of the Preliminary Report On The Issues Arising From International
Surrogacy Arrangements, Hague Conference On Private International Law
March 2012.available at /assets.hcch.net/docs/d4ff8ecd-f747-46da-86c361074e9b17fe.pdf, (Accessed on 01/11/2021 at 9:19 AM)
22. Re X and Y( foreign Surrogacy) [2008] EWHC 3030(Fam), [2009] 1 FLR 733.
23. Surrogacy in the UK: Myth Busting and Reform', Report of the surrogacy UK
working group on Surrogacy Law Reform Nov 2015, available at
https://www.kent.ac.uk/law/research/projects/current/surrogacy/Surrogacy%
20in%20the%20UK%2 0Report%20FINAL.pdf on, (Accessed on
01/11/2021 at 9:30 AM).
24. Sec 41 of Parentage Act 2004(Act), Sec 8 of Surrogacy Act 2010(NSW)Sec 56
of Surrogacy Act 2010(Qld), Sec 40 of Surrogacy Act 2012(Tas), Sec 8 of
Surrogacy Act2008(WA).
25. Sec 57 of the surrogacy Act 2010(Qld).
26. Sec 44(1) of Assisted Reproductive treatment Act 2008(Vic)
27. Sec 10 G of Family Relationship Act 1974.
28. Sec 42(1)and sec 42(2)of Parentage Act 2004(ACT), Sec 10H(a)Family
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
52
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Relationship Act 1975, Sec 41(2)of Surrogacy Act 2012(Tas), Sec 9(1)of
Surrogacy Act 2008(WA).
Sec 43(1)Parentage Act 2004(ACT), Sec 10(1)Surrogacy Act 2010(NSW),
Sec 55 of Surrogacy Act 2010(Qld), Sec 10H(c)of Family Relationship Act
1974(SA), Sec 41(2)Surrogacy Act 2012, Sec 45 of Assisted Reproductive
Treatment Act 2008(Vic), Surrogacy Act 2008(WA)
Mary Kanes, Supra note 22 at p47.
ElleyTema, 'The medicalization of 'nature' in the artiÞcial body: surrogate
Motherhood in Israel' Medical Anthropology Quarterly Mar 17(1):78-98.
Nachmani v Nachmani,50(4) PD 661(Isel), A childless couple agreed to
undergo IVF and enter into a contract with a surrogate in California because
the wife was neither gestating nor carrying the fetus to term. The wife went
through medical treatment for the extraction of eggs. Her egg was fertilized
with the sperm of the husband and frozen for future implantation. The Couple
then separated, the husband lived with another woman and had two children
with that relationship. The wife requested the clinic to release the embryo so
that she could arrange a surrogate mother. But the husband opposed the request
and the clinic refused the embryo. The couple was not signed with the clinic for
the disposition of the embryo. The wife Þled a suit to get the embryo. She was
successful in the District Court. The Supreme Court, with Þve benches,
reversed the decision of the trial court. Later the Supreme Court reheard the
case by the panel of eleven judges bench and held with the majority of 7—4
that harm to the wife in denying her the chance to be a biological mother was
greater than harm to the husband of becoming a parent against her wishes.
Supra note 26.
http://mother-surrogate.info/law-on-surrogacy-in-ukraine/ (Accessed on
01/11/2021 at 9:52 AM)
Supra note 26, page no. 359.
Ibid.
http://www.thesurrogacyexperience.com/surrogate-mothers/the-law/u-ssurrogacy-law-bystate/4\11\2015.
Ruby L.Lee 'New Trends in Global Outsourcing of Commercial Surrogacy: A
Call for Regulation', Hastings Women's Law Journal Vol 20 Issue 2(2009) p
276, available at http//repository.uchastings.edu/hwl/ (Accessed on
01/11/2021 at 10:12 AM)
53
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Shashank Shekhar Thakur
Sushma Mishra
Abstract- This was the topic of discussion for the skill development of women.
How the government participated, to analyze the challenges facing skill
development programmes in India, and to highlight the speciÞc needs for
improvement in favour of the large number of informal workers, especially
women. Women entrepreneurship is gaining importance in India in the wake of
economic liberalization and globalization. The policy and institutional
framework for developing entrepreneurial skills, providing vocation education
and training has widened the horizon for economic empowerment of women.
However, women constitute only one third of the economic enterprises. There
exist a plethora of successful business women entrepreneurs both in social and
economic Þelds in India. They are performing well. The women group should be
indulge with working group in India for better economy development; this
comes only through skill development programs & vocational education
system. Government of India has also introduced National Skill Development
Policy and National Skill Development Mission in 2009 in order to provide skill
training, vocational education and entrepreneurship development to the
emerging work force. However, entrepreneurship development and skill
training is not the only responsibility of Government and therefore other
stakeholders need to shoulder the responsibility. In Hindu scriptures, woman
has been described as the embodiment of Shakti. But in real life she is treated as
Abla. Women are leaving the workforce in droves in favour of being at home. Not
to be a homemaker, but as job-making entrepreneurs. The increasing presence
of women in the business Þeld as entrepreneurs has changed the demographic
characteristics of business and economic growth of the country. Women-owned
businesses enterprises are playing a more active role in society and the
economy, inspiring academics to focus on this interesting phenomenon. This
paper focuses on the problems, issues, challenges faced by women
entrepreneurs, how to overcome them with skill development policies of Indian
government for and problems faced by them while pursuing the same.
Keywords- Skill development for women, women-empowerment, womenentrepreneurship, Skill training, Vocational education
Introduction- A quiet revolution is taking shape right now among
women. Unlike the Quiet Revolution that began in the 1970s which saw
women leave the home and enter the workforce in droves, women today are
Associate Professor, Department of Sociology & Social Work, Barkatullaha
University, Bhopal (M.P.)
Department of Sociology & Social Work, Barkatullah University, Bhopal (M.P.)
54
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
leaving the workforce in droves in favour of being at home. But unlike
generations of women before, these women are opting to work in the home
not ashomemakers— but as job-making entrepreneurs. It is a general belief in
many cultures that the role of women is to build and maintain the homely
affairs like task of fetching water, cooking and rearing children. Since the turn
of the century, the status of women in India has been changing due to growing
industrialization, globalization, and social legislation. With the spread of
education and awareness, women have shifted from kitchen to higher level of
professional activities.
Entrepreneurship has been a male-dominated phenomenon from the
very early age, but time has changed the situation and brought women as
today's most memorable and inspirational entrepreneurs. In almost all the
developed countries in the world women are putting their steps at par with the
men in the Þeld of business. The role of Women entrepreneur in economic
development is inevitable. Now-a-days women enter not only in selected
professions but also in professions like trade, industry and engineering.
Women are also willing to take up business and contribute to the Nation's
growth. There role is also being recognized and steps are being taken to
promote women entrepreneurship. . Women entrepreneurship must be
molded properly with entrepreneurial traits and skills to meet the changes in
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
55
trends, challenges global markets and also be competent enough to sustain
and strive for excellence in the entrepreneurial arena. This was the topic of
discussion during the second Gender and Economic Policy Discussion
(GEPD) Forum, co-organized by Heinrich Boll Stiftung, New Delhi and
Institute of Social Studies Trust (ISST), New Delhi. Representatives from the
skill development sector and the government participated, to analyze the
challenges facing skill development programmes in India, and to highlight the
speciÞc needs for improvement in favour of the large number of informal
workers, especially women.. This brief paper is mainly aimed to encourage
further dialogue on the subject with a gender sensitive perspective.
Skill Development And Women's Empowerment - Majority of the
workforce in India is in the informal sector. Low income women workers in
the informal sector, due to the irregular nature of work and little bargaining
power, are amongst the most vulnerable groups in the Indian economy. The
National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015 envisions
skill development as a vehicle for women's empowerment. To impart skills to
women, the government has taken steps like the Skill Development Initiative
Schemes under Directorate General of Employment and Training developing
over 10,000 training providers under which 12.6 lakh woman have availed
beneÞts. There are 402 women ITIs and 1134 women wings in ITIs, which
provide training to 1,41,907 women annually (Lok Sabha Starred Question
226). Furthermore, vocational training schemes for women are being run by
10 Regional Vocational Training Institutes (RVTIs). The government has
proposed to open 8 more. Given below are some of the policy provisions for
skill development with a special focus on women.
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
56
Madhya Pradesh State Rural
Livelihoods Mission (Skills & Employment)
Year
2012-13
2013-14
2014-15
2015-16
2016-17
2017-18
2018-19
2019-20
2020-21
2021-22
Total
Self
Employment
(RSETI)
No. of Youth
19642
22998
27743
32203
34769
36179
35194
31521
19220
0
259469
Training &
Placement
(ILP)
39161
50364
20045
1193
2502
1504
1167
0
0
0
115936
Training &
Placement(DDU
GKY)
No of Youth
0
0
0
14023
11308
5556
9442
10433
6219
0
56981
No of
Job
Fairs
Job
offered (
Job fairs)
Total
268
448
599
625
661
632
603
804
817
5
5462
44549
83580
56315
61505
58923
56623
55517
48248
109591
217
575068
103352
156942
104103
94901
96194
94306
91878
79769
128811
217
950473
**Note: - Trainings are not being organized due to COVID curfew in the state.
Placement drives are being conducted for trained candidates under DDU GKY
(1216). 7 Virtual Jab fairs are also being conducted with the coordination of
employers.
Job Fairs are being organized at blocks & sub blocks level
Empanelment of Industries as training partners under DDU DKY
for captive placement.
All Courses (DDU DKY/ RSETIs) are NSQF
Monitoring though ERPs (Kaushal Pragati & Kaushal Panjee)
National Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015- The
National Policy on Skill Development highlights that in order to improve the
productivity of the economy,participation of women in the labour force
needs to be improved. Below are the major takeaways from the policy.
1. Improving access to skill development by creating more seats for
women
2. Gender mainstreaming of content & delivery of training.
3. Use of digital platform for women's empowerment.
The policy provides a roadmap for skill development, including the setting
up of Ministry of Skill Development and convergence of skill development
initiatives of other Ministries. It also outlines various interventions that the
government must take up to catalyze skill development for women. Some of
the proposed interventions are enlisted below.
The policy highlights the need to improve access to skill
development for women. According to the policy, additional
training and apprenticeship seats will be set up exclusively for
women. While the skill development infrastructure in India is vast,
we need to create facilities dedicated to women. This also includes
increasing the pool of women trainers. As per the policy,
mechanisms to provide certiÞcation to women trainers would be put
into place. New institutes for training of women trainers will also be
promoted.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
57
The policy mentions the need for gender mainstreaming of training.
Women participation in vocational education and training is low as
compared to men. In order to bridge the gap, the policy identiÞes the
need for special delivery mechanisms such as mobile training units,
ßexible afternoon batches along with on local needs based training.
The policy envisions incorporation of women related issues in the
guidelines for skill training procedures, such as issues of safe and
gender sensitive training environment, employment of women
trainers, equity in remuneration, and complaint redressal
mechanism.
While Digital India is gaining momentum, there is need to
incorporate ICT for providing skill development solutions as well.
The policy announces the promotion of an internet or mobile based
platform for women employment. The platform would connect
skilled women and employers. It would focus on women willing to
re-enter the workforce after a break and those affected by migration.
The government of India is implementing several schemes on skill
development. Given below are some of the schemes which have a
special focus on women's skill development.
Role Of Government To Develop Women Entrepreneurs In IndiaThe growth and development of women entrepreneurs required to
be accelerated because entrepreneurial development is not possible without
the participation of women. Therefore, a congenial environment is needed to
be created to enable women to participate actively in the entrepreneurial
activities. There is a need of Government, non- Government, promotional
and regulatory agencies to come forward and play the supportive role in
promoting the women entrepreneur in India. The Government of India has
also formulated various training and development cum employment
generations programs for the women to start their ventures. These
programmes are as follows: In the seventh Þve-year plan, a special chapter
on the ―Integration of women in development was introduced by
Government with following suggestion:
SpeciÞc target group: It was suggested to treat women as a speciÞc target
groups in all major development programs of the country.
Arranging training facilities- It is also suggested in the chapter to devise
and diversify vocational training facilities for women to suit their changing
needs and skills.
Developing new equipments- Efforts should be made to increase their
efÞciency and productivity through appropriate technologies, equipments
and practices.
Marketing assistance- It was suggested to provide the required assistance
for marketing the products produced by women entrepreneurs.
Decision-making process- It was also suggested to involve the women in
decision-making process. The Government of India devised special
58
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
programs to increases employment and income-generating activities for
women in rural areas. The following plans are lunched during the
Eight-Five Year Plan- Prime Minister Rojgar Yojana and EDPs were
introduced to develop entrepreneurial qualities among rural women.
Women in agriculture' scheme was introduced to train women farmers
having small and marginal holdings in agriculture and allied activities.
To generate more employment opportunities for women KVIC took
special measures in remote areas. Women co-operatives schemes were
formed to help women in agro-based industries like dairy farming, poultry,
animal husbandry, horticulture etc. with full Þnancial support from the
Government. Government of India has introduced the following schemes
during Ninth Five-Year Plan for promoting women entrepreneurship
because the future of small scale industries.
Depends upon the women-entrepreneurs- Trade Related Entrepreneurship
Assistance and Development (TREAD) scheme was launched by Ministry of
Small Industries to develop women entrepreneurs in rural, semi-urban and
urban areas by developing entrepreneurial qualities. Women Component
Plant, a special strategy adopted by Government to provide assistance to
women entrepreneurs.
DDUGKY On September 2014, under the aegis of its National Rural
Livelihood Mission, the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD)
announced the DDUGKY. The scheme targets rural families who fall below
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
59
the poverty line. Individuals from such families who are in the age range 15
to 35 areeligible for government sponsored training and post-training job
placement in positions that offer regular monthly wages.
The DDUGKY skilling ecosystem consists of The Ministry of Rural
Development (MoRD) or the National Mission Management Unit
(NMMU), State Missions, Project Implementing Agencies (PIA) and
Technical Support Agencies (TSA). The MoRD is responsible for framing
policy, monitoring the scheme and in collaboration with state governments,
responsible for providing funds.9 IdentiÞcation of courses to be offered is
based on skills gap assessment studies carried out by the National Skill
Development Corporation (NSDC) as well as inputs from state missions. On
the basis of these studies, DDUGKY invites tenders from private sector
partners who wish to provide training. State missions are responsible for
planning and implementing the program through the private sector PIA. The
PIA are responsible for identifying prospective applicants, providing
information on the training courses, delivering training and placing the
trained graduates. To elaborate, the PIA begins the implementation process
by embarking on a process of community mobilisation and awareness
building using different modes such as awareness camps, job fairs, placing
banners, distributing handbills and pamphlets and door to door counselling.
PIA also involves village self-help groups (SHG) and Gram Panchayats
(GP) in their efforts to reach out to eligible candidates. After mobilisation,
candidates who have indicated an interest in a training program are asked to
complete a Þeld registration form and are then invited for counselling.
During counselling, candidates and in some instances, their parents are
given information on the nature of work in the selected sector, availability of
jobs, growth prospects and the challenges. The counselling sessions are also
used to determine whether the applicants fulÞl eligibility conditions. After
counselling, the list of selected candidates is sent for approval to the state
missions and once approved, the candidates may join the training
programfulÞl eligibility conditions. After counselling, the list of selected
candidates is sent for approval to the state missions and once approved, the
candidates may join the training program.Each course offered through the
DDUGKY consists of two broad components. The Þrst component includes
training on soft skills, English and information technology and the second
component deals with sector speciÞc training. Depending on the course, the
duration of training may be for 3 (576 hours), 6 (1,152 hours), 9 (1,578
hours) or 12 months (2,304 hours).
The scheme provides for on-the-job training (OJT) ranging from a
maximum permissible 30 days for a 3 month course to 120 days for a one
year course. The training courses offered by the PIA have to be approved by
the National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) or Sector Skill
Councils (SSCs). These TSA also provide support in terms of
designing the curriculum and
Certifying the trained graduates Post-training, PIA are required to
place a minimum of 70 percent of trained individuals in jobs which offer
regular monthly wages at or above a minimum monthly wage of Rs.6000.
60
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Th e s c h em e h a s
provisions for postplacement Þnancial
support.To enhance
employment
sustainability all
trained/placed
candidates are
tracked for one year.
During this year
they are also entitled
to counselling and
guidance.The
scheme has special
focus on women and
outlines provision to
improve quality of
impact amongst
w o m e n
beneÞciaries Improving Coverage- The scheme mandates that 1/3rd of the seats
would be covered by women. Gram Panchayats will have to
undertake special efforts to improve participation of women under
the programme by conducting special counseling sessions. To
enhance coverage, the upper age limit for women has been revised
up to 45, as against 35 years.
Setting up of migration support centres (MSC)- MSCs would be
set up to look after the needs of the vulnerable population, specially
women. They will be set up both inside the state, as well as outside
the state in areas where a large number of DDUKVY trainees have
been placed. Funding for this is provided to the State Rural
Livelihoods Mission (SRLM) which may take it up on its own or
with the support of the PIA.
Training of trainers- The scheme has special focus on establishing
training centres with focus on women trainers. This is in line with the
National Policy of Skill Development, which aims to increase the
number of women trainers. Furthermore, wherever women trainers
are being trained, the scheme mandates at least one women manager.
Post placement support- It would be the responsibility of the PIAs
to conduct post placement counselling sessions for the candidates,
and specially for the women, to help them in adapting to new
environment.
Conclusion- Empowerment includes higher levels of literacy, educational
attainment, awareness of rights and responsibilities, active participation in
economic activities, better healthcare and equal access to productive
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
61
resources and improvement in the standard of living. Skills can be acquired in
many ways. Skill development takes place, through vocational courses run
by government and NGOs but real and sustainable growth of India depends
on positive socio-economic transformation with men and women as partners
in progress, reinforcing each other's effort in removing barriers to inclusive
growth, SELF HELP GROUPS are revolutionary tool in this regard.
References
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Training System, In Vocal, vol 7, 2008-09, pp 107-116.
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Vol. 13 Iss: 5 pp. 345 – 358.
Bennell, P (1999), Learning to Change: Skills Development among the
Economically Vulnerable and Socially Excluded in Developing Countries,
Employment and Training Papers, 43, Employment and Training Department,
International Labour OfÞce, Geneva Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha.
Chenoy, D (2012), Empowering Women through Skill Development :
Challenges and Opportunities, Power Point Presentation at the GEPD forum
II, Institute of Social Studies Trust and Heinrich Boll Foundation, at the India
Habitat Centre, 24 April 2012.
Comyn, P (2012), Skills Development & Gender, Power Point Presentation
at the GEPD forum II, Institute of Social Studies Trust and Heinrich Boll
Foundation, at the India Habitat Centre, 24 April 2012.
Hartl, M (2009), Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
and Skills Development for Poverty Reduction Do Rural Women BeneÞt?
Paper presented at the FAO-IFAD-ILO Workshop on Gaps, trends and current
research in gender dimensions of agricultural and rural employment:
differentiated pathways out of poverty, Rome, 31 March - 2 April 2009.
Hughes, P (2005), Why Access to TVET for All is Essential if Education for All
is to be Achieved, in Prospects, vol. XXXV, no. 3, September 2005.
King, K (2012), The Geopolitics and Meanings of India's Massive Skills
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Lyngdoh, B W B (2005), Skills for Work in the Future: A Youth Perspective,
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Ministry of Labour and Employment (2011), Second Annual Report to the
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Mukerji, S & Tripathi, P. Using Technological Interface in Vocational
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issue no 12, March 2012.
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62
Vishwanath, V (2012), Empowering Women through Skill Development :
Challenges and Opportunities, Power Point Presentation at the GEPD forum
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63
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Indira Barman
Abstract- The focus of this paper is to highlight the issues, obstacles and
challenges of the women empowerment in Kashmir in J&K. In Jammu and
Kashmir, woman is the most defenseless and nastiest hit section of the society
particularly under circumstances of violence caused by political and social
conßicts. They not only undergoextrememortiÞcation and harassment but also
suffer traumatic occurrences with protracted depression leading them
towards gigantic mentally sickness. However, the troubling situation
prevalent in Jammu and Kashmir has hit the Kashmiri women hardest and
such unrests has also affected their working skills and desires up to a huge
extreme. Thousands of women who turned widows have to tolerate the entire
responsibility of bringing up their offspring and managing the domestic
expenses. Despite being highly hand skilled and professional oriented they are
hardly being offered any vent to their talents as the unrest in the valley has
curbed it all under horrifying situations like militancy and non involvement of
government policies towards them. The outcomes highlight that the women in
Kashmir are still facing enormous relentless issues and challenges related to
health, economy, education, politics, domestic violence, declining sex ratio,
female feticide and infanticide, state violence, dowry harassment, eve teasing,
unequal wages and child labour leaving the empowerment like modern
concept only a joke to their lives. Hence, the central government, state
government, NGO's and local bodies should work together for the
empowerment of women in Jammu and Kashmir.
Keywords- Women, Violence, Empowerment, Challenges, Jammu and
Kashmir
Introduction- Jammu & Kashmir is the disputed territory between
Indian and Pakistan, and unarguably the most beautiful State. Surrounded by
the Himalayas and many other mountain ranges, the State is sanctiÞed with
deep valleys and breathtaking sceneries. It is also well known as paradise on
the earth. Geography condition of the J&K comes in the way of rising
adequate infrastructure and is further compounded by militancy and armed
conßict that have taken a heavy toll of life and public property besides
throwing normal life out of gear. The State has been the focus of interest over
more than a decade and has drawn the attention of the world. A gradual rise in
terms of gender discrimination especially during the last two decades due to
the prevailing social, economic and political turmoil has become prominently
displayed. Women's participation in the socioeconomic and political
Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, IEHE Bhopal
64
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
processes has taken a back seat. The effect of such a development results in an
erosion of their freedom of speech, freedom to get education and
enhancement of employment opportunities. The role of women has been
marginalized affecting adversely the processes of human development and
well-being. Their lives have witnessed sweeping changes compelling them to
be a silent spectator amidst the fast changing socioeconomic scenario. So
much so, that the changes have developed signs of exclusiveness resulting in
an identity crisis. So we can say that women are the most vulnerable and worst
hit section of the society in J&K especially under situations of violence
caused by militancy and armed conßict. They don't only suffer from intense
humiliation and harassment, but also undergo traumatic experiences with
prolonged depression, making them mentally and emotionally sick. Like
many other places woman's role in Jammu and Kashmir has been central in
the upbringing of children and managing domestic affairs.
Domestic Violence against Women- Among all forms of violence faced by
the women, Domestic violence is one of the emerging crimes against women
which is linked to their disadvantageous position in the society. Domestic
violence is any act of physical, sexual, or psychological abuse, or the threat
of such abuse, inßicted against a woman by a person intimately connected to
her through marriage, family relation, or acquaintanceship is universal and
has its root in the socio-cultural set up of the society. The perpetrators of
domestic violence have often been found to be the males and the victims,
their sexual partners. it is always the women who have to be in the tight rope,
subject to inequality and looked down as an inferior sex. Staring from
childhood to the end of her life she has to be under the control of father or
husband or the son. The subordinate status of women combined with socio
cultural norms that are inclined towards patriarchy and masculinity can be
considered as an important factor determining the domestic violence.
Internationally, one in three women have been beaten, coerced into sex or
abused in their lifetime by a member of her own family.
Domestic Violence in Kashmir- It is the traditional set-up of Kashmiri
society, whereby a man is believed to be the responsible person for the
nourishment of the family, in economic terms. Due to this cultural belief,
men try for jobs, and women, who are dependent on men, try to marry that
man who has a job and economic stability. Domestic violence against
women is on the rise in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Even the ones who
are educated and the economically independent are at the receiving end.
Police Þgures show an increase in domestic violence cases, mostly relating
to matrimonial disputes and family squabbles. Harassment for dowry too is
one of the most common complaints lodged with the police, data shows.In
2008, 772 complaints were received. Out of which 62 were registered, 121
reached the trial stage and 381 were settled by mutual agreement and 108 are
still pending. In 2009, the number of cases nearly doubled with 1272, and in
2010 in just three months 191 complaints were recorded(Sharma: 2010). In
order to intervene effectively, into the issue, more scholarly inquiry needs to
address the theoretical parameters of domestic violence. In light of this, the
present work acknowledges the prevalence of domestic violence is rooted in
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
65
the traditional setup of societies and exists beyond the parameters of nature
and development of societies while also suggesting that enhancing the status
and dignity of a woman within and beyond families can be helpful in not
only understanding family violence, but in giving direction for intervention
at the family level.
Women and Unemployment: A perseveringconcern- In Jammu and
Kashmir, women face a lot of challenges that stop them from entering the
workforce as compared to their male counterparts or even their female
counterparts in the rest of the country, leading to the percentage of
unemployment in women being alarmingly higher than the women of
neighbouring states. Ghulam Sarwer (2017) points to Sharma's study (2015)
that reported that the rate of unemployment in the then state of Jammu and
Kashmir was 20.2%, much higher than its neighbours Punjab (5.6%),
Haryana (4.8%), Delhi (4.3%) and Himachal Pradesh (2.2%). It is also a lot
higher, as Sarwer rightly points out, than the national average of 3.7 percent.
Not only is the UT facing a female unemployment scenario far worse than
many other states in India, but there is also the troubling trend of an
increasing unemployment rate among women in J&K. A study pointed out
that while 2011 data showed unemployment among women in urban J&K at
19% and rural J&K at 3%, in 2015-16, the Fifth Annual Unemployment
Survey by the Ministry of Labour showed that women above the age of 15 in
J&K had an unemployment rate of 25%, clearly indicating that “fewer
women had jobs”. This high rate of unemployment can be explained by a
number of factors that sometimes are interconnected. The chief issue in this
regard is the lack of educational opportunities. According to the census
report of 2011, only 58.01% of women in J&K are literate as opposed to
78.26% male literacy. Moreover, it has to be acknowledged that literacy is
far from enough to secure anyone any job in this day and age. Completing
graduation or at the least school-level education is required for getting a
decent job. This low rate of literacy and lack of educational empowerment is
due to a lot of factors that may be interconnected in some cases.
Women, Entrepreneurs in J&K, Online Space and Covid-19- By 2015,
42% of women in the urban areas of Jammu and Kashmir were selfemployed. Naturally, women entrepreneurs in the region constitute a vital
part of the narrative of working women. While getting jobs alone is a
challenge in J&K, it is natural to assume that the situation faced by women
striving to create and build their own businesses in the conßict-ridden region
is even more challenging. A study by Muneer Ahmad Khan and Dr. Nisar
Ahmad Wani (2017) showed that apart from the problems of lack of
education, the structural marginalization by a male-dominated society and
conßict that haunt working women in general, they face additional
blockades. The various challenges, especially the issue of lacking a
signiÞcant source of capital, have made the online space more attractive to
up-and-coming women entrepreneurs. Omaira Khayoom, a school teacher
and co-owner of Craft World Kashmir, acknowledged that the internet is not
only a lucrative Þeld but also a safe space for women entrepreneurs in J&K.
She and Binish Basheer Khan turned their passion into a profession by
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
founding Craft World Kashmir where they use Instagram to publicize and
sell crochet and ßoral jewellery. Their business had grown exponentially
from humble beginnings and they had taken 16 female employees under
their wing. At one time, they earned 2000 dollars per month in a region
where most peoples' annual income was close to 1300 dollars. However, the
internet clampdown that came with the abrogation of J&K's special status
(August 5, 2019) resulted in business coming to a grinding halt as the
principal means to advertise and contact potential clients was suddenly
gone. When restrictions were Þnally lifted in March 2020, the Covidinduced nationwide lockdown put the breaks on the hopes of recovery.
Omaira and Binish have continued to pay the 16 employees because they
know that for many of them that is the sole source of income. Portrait artist
Sana Mir who was selling portraits online by advertising through Instagram
has also lost her source of income and empowerment.The recent restoration
of 4G connectivity to the Valley was a new ray of hope for women
entrepreneurs in the region, but as the second wave of Covid-19 is ravaging
the country and the people facing another lockdown, the future of promising
entrepreneurs like Khayoom, Basheer and Mir remains uncertain.
The pandemic has also affected the women employed in organised labour.
By December 2020, 13% fewer women had jobs or were looking for jobs, as
compared to 2% fewer men, clearly showing that in India, women are more
likely to lose jobs during the pandemic than men. There is no reason to
believe that this is not the pattern in J&K as well.
Empowerment of Women in J&K- Empowerment of women, being a
worldwide slogan and one of the Millennium Development Goals, aims at
empowering of women in different spheres of life. Women groups, nongovernmental development organizations, activists, politicians,
governments & international agencies refer to empowerment as one of their
goals. The phrase is used in two broad senses i.e. general and speciÞc. In a
general sense, it refers to empowering women to be self-dependent by
providing them access to all the freedoms and opportunities, which they
were denied in the past only because of their being women. In a speciÞc
sense, women empowerment refers to enhancing their position in the power
structure of the society. The word women empowerment essentially means
that the women have the power or capacity to regulate their day-to-day lives
in the social, political and economic terms- a power which enables them to
move from the periphery to the centre stage. The Central Act, Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act, was passed in 2005. It took half a
decade for the state government to pass a similar act in the state. Keeping in
view the growing incidents of domestic violence, the state government
passed the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) in
2010. Since the Act was passed, little or negligible efforts were made for the
proper implementation of the Act, though the domestic violence against
women is rising in Jammu and Kashmir. Economic empowerment has been
recognized as the dominant one because it exerts a strong inßuence on all
other components of empowerment. It is a reality that if women gain
economic strength they will gain visibility and voice at home, workplace and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
67
the community. Thus it is imperative for women to know their economic role
and increase their power and command on material resources. The following
are Schemes for Women's Empowerment in J&K.
All though in rural areas, women being the biggest segment are the
back bone of the Indian economy. They are the centre of rural development
in terms of alleviation of rural poverty with economic growth and stability.
But they face extreme violence and discrimination in all walks of life. They
are neglected at family, community and societal levels and living as an
oppressed class. Rural women persist with low levels of income, sparse
access to education and health services, limited job security as well as
limited land and inheritance rights. In addition to the entrenched pattern of
discrimination, unsustainable development practices, climate change and
violence against rural women intensify the burden placed on women and
their families. Lack of access to services and infrastructures takes away time
from education and other opportunities and this gap in access
disproportionately affects women and girls. According to food and
agriculture organization (FAO), rural women spend more than twice what
men do on the same tasks. UN women sports the leadership and participation
of rural women in shaping laws, strategies, policies and programmes on all
issues that affect their lives, including improved food and nutrition security
and better rural livelihoods. Rural empowerment of women is being
regarded these days as a sine-quo-non of progress for a country; hence the
issue of rural women empowerment is of paramount importance to political
thinkers, social scientists and reformers. The self help groups, MNREGA,
Education, various schemes, govt. laws and provisions, NGOs and also self
realization have paved the way for rural empowerment of women. Through
that, they can become independent and get employment themselves and
provide opportunities to others.
I. Umeed- the hope, a Government of India funded ßagship project to
empower women in conßict ridden Kashmir, was launched by Congress
scion Rahul Gandhi in June 2013. The scheme was made possible only after
a group of students from Kashmir University visited Ameeti (UP) to study
the model and its successful implementation. Umeed scheme is aimed to
empower women in Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of India. The
project is aimed at encouraging rural women to make small savings so that
their SHGs will eventually become bankable at reduced rate of interest.
II. National Backward Classes Finance & Development Corporation
(NBCFDC)- Women belonging to backward & other classes as prescribed
under State SRO 126 are being Þnanced under this scheme at a very low rate
of interest 4% p.a up to Rs 50,000/- & 6% p.a up to Rs.1.00 lakhs for which
the repayment period is 5 years.
III. National Handicapped Finance & Development Corporation
(NHFDC)- Handicapped Women with 40% disability. Are being Þnanced
under this scheme at a very low rate of interest 3% up to Rs. 50,000/- and 4%
p.a up to Rs. 1.00 lakh which is to be liquidated within a period of 7 years.
IV. National Minorities Development & Finance Corporation
(NMDFC)- Women belonging to Minority Community viz. Muslims,
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Buddhists, Sikhs, Christians and Zoroastrians are being Þnanced under this
scheme at a nominal rate of interest 6% p.a simple to be liquidated within a
period of 5 years. Maximum loan amount for an individual beneÞciary is Rs.
1.00 lakh.
Educational Loan: Education loan is also provided to the women
beneÞciaries under each of the above mentioned schemes for
professional/ technical trainings.
Micro Credit loan: Micro Credit facilities are also provided to Self
Help Groups (SHGs) at the rate of 5% for which repayment period is
3 years.
V. Sher-i-Kashmir Employment and Welfare Programme (SKEWP)In addition to the above mentioned centrally sponsored schemes the social
walfare department is also implemented “Empowering Skilled Young
Women, 2009” scheme taking a lead role in the implementation of Sher-IKashmir Employment and Welfare Programme (SKEWP) envisaged by
the Government to create self- employment avenues for educated
unemployed youth. The nominal interest of 6% charged on the credit
being provided to prospective entrepreneurs is well taken by the
unemployed youth women and in fact the Corporation is getting
encouraging response in all parts of the state.
Challenges of Women Empowerment in J&K- The State government is
taking some concrete steps in empowering women by helping women to
help themselves and their families. A huge population of women in J&K is
unemployed and another signiÞcant section consists of widows and halfwidows, the importance of women's economic independence for their
overall dignity and even survival is brought out by the fact that there is a
linkage between the physical survival of women and their entry into the
workforce. But are these programs sufÞcient? Are they brining about a
change in the attitude of a patriarchic society? Here are some important
challenges of women empowerment Violence against women is on leaps and bounds in J&K.
Illiteracy or ignorance of people also a constraint in the
empowerment of women.
Many girls in many districts of J&K still get married at an early age,
which affect their overall development to a greater extent.
Lack of decision-making authority
Many customs and cultural practices hinder the empowerment of
women.
For examples many parents do not send their daughters to schools
when they attain puberty.
Lack of women's participation in political affairs poor and low status
of women.
High level of illiteracy among women. Lack of awareness.
Inadequate & unorganized health care delivery system
Under/unemployment leading to poverty
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
69
As we see, the challenges we face in empowering women are far
away from the prospects of development programs initiated by our
government. Though some of the recent steps taken by the government seem
to indicate that these are the right steps to take, but what State really needs
right now are sizable leaps! As we progress from a developing nation
towards a developed nation, every care must be taken to compositely
develop and empower women along the way to stand true to what our great
Jawaharlal Nehru said “You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at
the status of its women”!
Conclusion- Empowerment of Women in J&K requires a strong and
sustained commitment by governments and other stakeholders, a favorable
policy environment, and well-targeted resources. Long-term improvements
in education and awareness opportunities will play a positive role in the
overall development of women. In the short term, signiÞcant progress can be
achieved by strengthening and expanding essential awareness among
masses about gender equality, improving policies, and promoting favorable
atmosphere for women. The development of women in Kashmir, no doubt,
has been a part of the development planning process right from inception of
Five Year Plans. Despite of these attempts, women in Kashmir are still left
with lot many issues and challenges related to health, economy, education,
politics, domestic violence, declining sex ratio, female feticide and
infanticide, late marriage, state violence, dowry harassment, eve teasing,
unequal wages, child sexual abuse, child labour and sexual harassment at
work. To reduce the domestic violence overall society need to take initiative
against social evils like dowry, drug addiction, early marriage etc.
Counselling at various spheres like in Masjids, Mohalla Committees
meetings, at peer groups should take place regarding domestic violence.
Government and Non-government agencies should take positive steps for
reducing domestic violence, wherein government can strength their law
enforcing agencies, Non-governmental agencies can setup counselling
cells, organize community programs, form social groups for reducing
violence through group work process.
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Subhash Kumar
Rameshwar Singh
Abstract- Destitution is a social peculiarity wherein a part of society can't
satisfy even its fundamental necessities of life.Legislature of India sent off a
few neediness destruction projects to make resources that beneÞt poor people
and by raising the efÞciency of the poor through training, general wellbeing
and other human asset related measures. This paper looks at the outlines of
destitution annihilation programs executed in India. From the review,
obviously the Government have been endeavoring the destruction of the
destitution through complex methodologies. Indeedhowever the Government
assumes a signiÞcant part the execution of the projects the achievement yet
vests with people in general conÞdential association where the job and
responsibility of the conÞdential recipients without whom the undertakings
wouldn't victory. As of late the NGO's and different types of the facilitators are
assuming signiÞcant part in planning the projects through arrangement of
Shg's. Still the best approach is long and accomplishments to be made are
massive. Further incorporation of different undertakings is fundamental
alongside the decentralization of the powers. The plans are executed by the
Government Civil servants which should be changed to the hands of recipient
associations to reap the greatest potential advantages to the weak segment of
the general public. Legitimate execution of projects is vital to accomplish the
explicit set goals as opposed to the numbers and immense monetary
distribution in the current period of Þnancial turn of events.
Keywords- Development, Poor People, Society
Introduction- Destitution is a social peculiarity wherein a part of
society can't satisfy even its fundamental necessities. The underdeveloped
nations show the presence of mass destitution, despite the fact that neediness
additionally exists even in the created nations in Europe and America. The
idea of destitution is related with hardship of a base prerequisite of living or
utilization that is least necessities for food, clothing, lodging, wellbeing, and
so on. As per the FAO (2003), the quantity of individuals experiencing
ongoing appetite overall had expanded to 848 million, addressing an
increment of 6,000,000 over the base period gauges (1990-92). Be that as it
may, the extent of yearning during 2003-05 came down to around 16%. The
effect of expansion in food costs in 2007 has reßected in an expansion in the
Research Scholar, Department of Commerce & Business Management, Veer Kunwar
Singh University Ara, Bihar
Department of Commerce & Business Management, Veer Kunwar Singh University
Ara, Bihar
72
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
extent of craving to 17 percent. It has driven an extra 41 million individuals to
underneath hunger edge in Asia and 24 million in Sub-Saharan Africa (FAO,
2008).
As per the information uncovered by the World Bank showed that
India has cut down the quantity of individuals living underneath $1 pay a day
by 2 rate highlight 24.3 percent in three years between 2005 to 2008. It
happened due to the way that Asia's third biggest economy advanced to
seven percent in addition to development in those years. World Bank
additionally cited the view that India has upwardly changed the cost for
many everyday items among agricultural countries to$ 1.25 each day against
$ 1 every day. Washington - based International Food Policy Research
Institute (IFPRI) in its most recent report entitled. " The world's Most
denied: Characteristics and Causes of Extreme Poverty and Hunger"
uncovered that In Global Hunger Index (GHI) India has been positioned at
96th spot among 119 emerging nations. This Index uncovered that India did
genuinely well in Þghting appetite between 1997 to 2003.
India represents one-6th of the worldwide populace and is
developing at quicker rate that not long from now it will end up being the
most crowded country on the planet. The tension ashore is expanding step by
step, while horticultural efÞciency isn't staying up with the populace
development. By and by, 72% of India's populace and 75 percent of the
country's poor are in provincial regions. Almost two-third of the Indian
populace actually relies upon farming for its work (Acharya, 2009).
Consequently, rural improvement is a precondition for monetary
improvement in an emerging nation like India. There has been a
longstanding interest in Þguring out the connection between farming
development, provincial turn of events and neediness decrease. Many
examinations that have endeavored to dissect the elements answerable for
the rustic destitution in India, mostly centered around the rural development
streaming down to poor people through its backhanded consequences for
money and business open doors (Fan et al., 1999). However horticultural
development assumes a urgent part in easing neediness, development in the
provincial non-ranch economy, and government consumption on food
endowment and business age have likewise become signiÞcant.
Government consumption has been urgent since it contributed not
exclusively to horticultural development yet in addition straightforwardly
made provincial non-ranch occupations and higher wages. Land and water
assets improvement works are embraced in the designated business plan to
straightforwardly affect neediness lightening notwithstanding expanded
agrarian efÞciency through asset protection. The meaning of government's
formative use is that more advantages are probably going to stream down the
poor in the development, which frequently diminishes neediness
exclusively by expanding mean utilization; government use lessens
destitution both by expanding pay and working on the circulation of pay
(Sen, 1997). As a matter of fact, the neediness situated programs try to
further develop the resource base of poor people, make work and increment
their admittance to fundamental requirements.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
73
Destitution in India- In India, destitution has declined signiÞcantly in
ongoing many years. As per the most recent NSSO information for the year
2004-05 , destitution level in India has boiled down to 21.8 % when
contrasted with 36% in 1993-94. In metropolitan regions, the level tumbled
from 23.6 percent in 1999-2000 to 21.7 percent in 2004-05 while in rustic
regions, the neediness level descended from 27.1 percent to 21.8 percent
during a similar period. Kerala keeps on being at the highest point of
different markers showing an excellent of life. Tamil Nadu, Maharastra and
Rajasthan are among those gaining great headway over the period. The least
fortunate states are Orissa, Bihar, Chatisgarh and Madya Pradesh with
destitution proportion of 46.4 percent, 41.4 percent, 40.9 percent and38.3
percent separately.
The consistent decrease in neediness from the mid-1990's to the
mid 1980's was emphatically connected with horticultural development,
especially the Green Revolution, which prompted a sharp expansion in the
pace of rural development (Ahluwalia 1978 and 1985). The occurrence of
provincial neediness declined especially in those districts that were most
proÞted from the Green Revolution. The critical element of this later
period is that the agrarian compensation rate, despite the fact that
deteriorated until the mid-1970's, showed resulting expansion in many
pieces of India, which is the main consideration that decreased country
neediness (Tendulkar et al., 1993; Sen, 1997; Ravallion and Datt, 1995).
Be that as it may, the foundations for the decay appear to be more mind
boggling, non-ranch wages and work assume a signiÞcant part in
diminishing neediness. Further, Government spending on rustic neediness
and work programs have expanded considerably as of late that have direct
advantage to the provincial poor.
Government spending might affect destitution. The immediate
impacts are the advantages that the poor gets from consumptions on business
and government assistance projects, for example, the Integrated Rural
Development Program (IRDP) and from different country work plans
during dry season years. The roundabout impacts emerge when government
interests in rustic foundation, horticultural examination, and the wellbeing
and schooling of country individuals animate farming and non rural
development, prompting more prominent work and pay procuring valuable
open doors for poor people and to work with less expensive food.
Government drives to diminish neediness in India- Various projects have
been required up after fourth long term plan for neediness lightening.
Improvement of the objective gathering of the rustic poor is the essential
target of these projects. It falls into three general classiÞcations: (I) group of
business creation (independent work) programs (ii) work concentrated
public works plans and (iii) pay moves with regards to kind. The destitution
annihilation programs are utilized to make resources that beneÞt poor people
and by raising the efÞciency of the poor through schooling, general
wellbeing and other human asset related measures. Probably the main
projects for destitution lightening in the provincial regions are recorded
underneath (Mamoria and Tripathi, 2007).
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Swarnajayanthi gram swarozgar yojana (SGSY)- The extent of
neediness and variations that existed between the different gatherings
required arranged state intercession to give aid and help especially to the
burdened and minimized gatherings like SC/ST, ladies and so on. Keeping
this in view and having see to the positive perspectives as well as lacks, the
prior independent work programs like TRYSEM, SITRA, GKY, DWCRA,
IRDP and MWS were blended and another independent work program viz.,
SGSY was sent off during1999.
The primary target of the program is to bring the current unfortunate
families over the neediness line. The consumption under SGSY is shared by
the Center and the States in the proportion of 75:25. Sponsorship will be
given at 30% of the venture cost subject to a limit of Rs. 7,500 and 50 percent
for SC/ST subject to a limit of Rs. 10,000. For gatherings, the endowment is
50% subject to a roof of Rs. 1.25 lakhs.
Sampoorna grameen rozgar yojana (SGRY)- Jawahar Gram Swarozgar
Yojana (JGSY) and EmploymentConÞrmation Scheme (EAS) were
combined and another plan in particular SGRY was sent off from Þfteenth
August 2001. The fundamental target of the new program is to give extra pay
work in the provincial regions as food security by production of strong local
area social and Þnancial resources and foundation improvement in country
regions. Towards this end the SGRY visualizes appropriation of food grains
@ 5 kg for every manday to the specialists as part compensation. While the
money part will be shared by the Center and States in the proportion of
75:25, the Central Government will supply the food grains liberated from
cost to the States.
Rashtriya sam vikas yojana (RSVY)- During Tenth Plan another plan viz,
Rashtriya Sam Vikas Yojana (RSVY)- Development and Reform Facility
will be sent off by Government of India. The superb target of RSVY is to
resolve the issues of pockets of high neediness, low development, low
agrarian efÞciency, joblessness and unfortunate administration by setting up
projects and approaches, which would eliminate obstructions to
development and speed up the advancement interaction. A measure of Rs. 15
crores each year will be given to execution of different formative projects,
for example, dry spell sealing (soil preservation, afforestation, social ranger
service, no man's land advancement and minor water system), agribusiness,
agriculture and so on framework (street and power), social area (wellbeing
and training) and work support (pay producing exercises, for example,
handloom, data innovation, agrarian handling and so on.).
Jawahar rozgar yojana (JRY)- A Program needs to give work to the
country poor was started in 1989. Public Rural Employment Program
(NREP), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Program (RLEGP) were
converged into this program. The consumption under the program was
shared by the Center and the States on 80 : 20 premise. (Division of Rural
Development, 1989). The essential target of the program was age of extra
beneÞcial work for the jobless and underemployed people all kinds of
people in the country regions.
Little ranchers agri business consortium (SFAC)- Was started in 1994.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
75
Expanded creation and efÞciency, esteem expansion and effective linkages
among makers and purchasers were high need objectives of the Consortium
(Directorate of Extension, 1994).
Incorporated rustic improvement program (IRDP)- This program was
sent off in 1987 with the principal objective of setting out maintainable work
open doors for provincial poor. The objective gatherings under IRDP
comprised of little and negligible ranchers, farming workers and country
craftsmans living beneath destitution line. The program was converged into
Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana in 1999.
Business conÞrmation conspire (EAS)- It was sent off in 1993. It pointed
toward giving guaranteed work of 100 days for poor people and incompetent
worker. The plan is available to all people of rustic regions who are over 18
years and under 60 years. It has been universalised and presently the plan
covers all the local area improvement blocks of the country.
Top state leader's rozgar yojana (PMRY)- It was sent off during 1993 for
giving independent work to instructed jobless youth. It was intended to give
work to in excess of 1,000,000 people by setting up seven lakh miniature
endeavors in Eighth long term plan. The plan was gone on in Ninth
arrangement moreover.
Public social help program (NSAP)- It was begun on 1995 as a 100 percent
midway supported conspire for social help advantages to unfortunate
families impacted by advanced age, demise of essential bread worker and
maternity care. The program has three parts viz. Public Old Age Pension
Scheme, National Maternity BeneÞt Scheme and National Family BeneÞt
Scheme.
Jawahar gram samridhi yojana (JGSY)- It was presented in 1999 by
rebuilding the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana. It is being executed as a midway
supported plot on an expense sharing proportion of 75:25 among focus and
States. The goals of the program are to make strong useful local area
resources and age of pay work for the rustic jobless poor.
Pradhan mantri gramodaya yojana (PMGY)- It was sent off in 2000-01
with the target of zeroing in on town level advancement in Þve basic region
viz. wellbeing, essential training, drinking water, lodging and provincial
streets. It has the general target of working on the personal satisfaction in the
provincial regions.
Bharat nirman- It is time headed strategy for activity in country framework
over the long term period (2005-09). This plan covers the areas of water
system, rustic streets, provincial lodging, country water supply, provincial
jolt and country telecom network.
Public country work ensure plot (NREGS)- The Food for Work Program
(FWP) began in 1977 for making work by using the excess load of food
grains was rebuilt, renamed as National Rural Employment Guarantee
Program (NREGP) and being carried out from 2005. The Act covered 200
most in reverse locale in the nation in its most memorable year. Hundred
additional areas were included the subsequent year, and from 2008 the Act
would cover all locale of the country. It expects to improve the occupation
security of individuals in provincial regions by ensuring hundred days of pay
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
76
work in a monetary year to a rustic family whose individuals volunteer to
accomplish untalented manual work (Chakraborty, 2007). The subtleties of
use on different projects are given in Appendix I. It shows that as of late the
public authority is focusing on the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act (NREGA). During the 2006-2008, at Tamil Nadu and All-India level,
19.70 lakhs and 602.63 lakhs families were utilized and the aggregate sum of
compensation dispensed was Rs.744.08 corers and Rs.19771.41 centers
individually.
Public circulation framework (PDS)- Public Distribution System is the
essential social government assistance and antipoverty program of
Government of India. It is seen to be the principal wellbeing net to
safeguard the poor from short-run, cost instigated, antagonistic impacts
(Mooij, 1998). Redone Public Distribution System (RPDS) has been
started by Government of India from the year 1992 to serve and give
fundamental wares to individuals living in remote, in reverse and uneven
regions. The Government had presented Targeted Public Distribution
System (TPDS) in the year 1997. It focuses on poor people and conveys the
fundamental wares in view of pay. Both Central and State Governments
have been effectively engaged with guiding the tasks for the outcome of the
PDS (Reddy et al., 1992).
Conclusion- Neediness is a social peculiarity wherein a part of society can't
satisfy even its fundamental necessities of life. Legislature of India sent off a
few destitution destruction projects to make resources that beneÞt poor
people and by raising the efÞciency of the poor through instruction, general
wellbeing and other human asset related measures. From the review
obviously the Government have been endeavoring the annihilation of the
neediness through multi-faceted methodologies. Despite the fact that the
Government assumes a signiÞcant part the execution of the projects the
achievement yet vests with the public conÞdential organization where the
job and responsibility of the conÞdential recipients without whom the
undertakings wouldn't achievement. As of late the NGO's and different types
of the facilitators are assuming signiÞcant part in planning the projects
through arrangement of Shg's. Still the best approach is long and
accomplishments to be made are tremendous. Further joining of different
undertakings is fundamental alongside the decentralization of the powers.
The plans are executed by the Government Bureaucrats which should be
changed to the hands of recipient associations to collect the most extreme
possible advantages to the weak segment of the general public. Appropriate
execution of projects is essential to accomplish the particular set targets as
opposed to the numbers and colossal monetary portions in the current time of
Þnancial turn of events.
References
Acharya, S. S. 2009. “Food security and Indian Agriculture : Policies,
Production Performance and Marketing Environment”, Agricultural
Economics Research Review, 22:pp.1-19.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
77
Ahluvalia, M.S. 1978. “Rural poverty and Agricultural Performance inIndia”,
Journal of Development Studies,14(3):298-323.
Chakra borthy, P. 2007. “Implementation of Employment Guarantee:
Aprimary Appraisal”, Economic and Political Weekly,42(7):548-551.
Fan, S., Hazell, P. and Throat, S. 1999. “Linkages between Government
Spending, Growth and Poverty in Rural India”, Research ReportNo110,
IFPRI, Washington, D. C.
Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2003.“WTO Agreementon Agriculture
The Implementation Experience – Developing country Case studies: India”,
Commodity Policy and Projections Service, Commodities and Trade
Division. FAO, Rome.
78
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Ritika Chowdhary
Paras Jain
Abstract- Historically, erratic communicable disease outbreaks have had
signiÞcant and long-term socio-economic impacts over any economy and its
populace around the world. Over time, India has overcome deadly diseases
such as cholera, dengue, smallpox, measles throughout the history of
unprecedented global pandemics. The recent and ongoing global pandemic of
Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), that started out as an infectious airborne
virus (SARS-CoV-2) causing a serious acute respiratory problem to all living
beings, has not only caused massive number of deaths throughout its
incursion, but has hit the developing Indian economy like a truck. India, with
its high population density, omnipresent poverty and malnutrition, high
concentration of lower middle-class people and a defective healthcare sector
infrastructure, had its economy setup for an ultimate setback. Since March
2020, India has seen two major national lockdowns, consistently declining
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), sky-high unemployment and growing
inßation across all sectors of the economy and other worsening economic
indicator statistics. But, over the past two years (2019-2021) encouraging
steps such as the widespread vaccination drive all across the nation and
Government policies being introduced to get the economy back on track, has
got everyone hoping for the economy to make its way back onto the trend of
positive economic growth and bounce back eventually with time. While the
Government is hopeful for a fast overall recovery, the economists all over the
world don't have the most optimistic opinion for India's recovery. Will it be a
K-shaped recovery or a V-shaped recovery? This paper tries to discover the
possible recovery patterns, the reasons why and a possible way forward to fast
track the recovery of the Indian Economy in a Post-Covid 19 world.
Keywords- Covid- 19, Economic Growth, Unemployment, Inßation, Economic
recovery.
Introduction-The ongoing Covid- 19 Pandemic hasn't only led to the
loss of an innumerable number of lives but also has consumed the global
economy, sliding into an era of economic distress.1Coronavirus (COVID- 19),
a stealth virus which rapidly became one of the deadliest viruses wiping out
populace worldwide. On 30 January, 2020, an infected individual from
Wuhan, China whohad travelled to India, was believed to have started the
Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Janardan Rai Nagar Rajasthan Vidyapeeth
(Deemed to be University), Udaipur
Head, Department of Economics, Janardan Rai Nagar Rajasthan Vidyapeeth (Deemed
to be University), Udaipur
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
79
spread of the virus in India. The death rate in India wasreported to be one of
the highest in the whole worldwith probable massive underreporting, due to a
poor healthcare system and not enough resources to cope with the after math
of such a sudden healthcare crisis of this scale. The sudden emergence of the
Covid-19 pandemic shook the roots of the Indian economy, sabotaging it
completely. Theunforeseen crisis that Covid-19 has presented to the world
and how it has ignited one of the worst jobs crises since the Great Depression.
Global institutions and renowned world economists have slashed the
economic growth rate projections of many countries to historic lows,
including India.3Growth over the two-year period 2020-2022 was expected to
be merely zero percent or negative as this pandemic had followed an
economic slowdown, three years preceding it. In post-Independencetime era,
India's GDP has dropped only four times prior to 2020 in 1958, 1966, 1973
and 1980; with the largest decline being to 5.2% in 1980.4Historically, this
implies 2020-21 was the worst period in terms ofeconomic contraction and
much worse than the overall contraction in the world. Deaton and Ferreira
conclude that the 2021 contraction was solely responsible for reversing the
trend of otherwise decreasing global inequality.The out-and-out health crisis
entirelysubverted the country's existing medical infrastructure,
leavingitscitizens on the desperate daily outlook for hospital beds and oxygen
tanks. Soon after, the national economic activity also started to feel the
pinch.5With the investments and trade performance of the economysuffering a
bigblow during the incursion of the virus, the Indian economy was relying
mainly on consumption, which the Þrst and second waves of the pandemic
affected adversely due to rising uncertaintysince people altered their
consumption patterns and most were in favour of savings due to fear and
anticipation of being able to meet current and futureconsumptionneeds.6 In
2020, when the Þrst stringentlockdown happened around April and May,
individual income has dropped by nearly 40%.7All sectors of the economy
deteriorated sharply growth wise due to reduced consumer and business
conÞdence.With lesser overall personal and private consumption, aggregate
demand was curtailed, impacting Þrms' production process; both the demand
as well as supply side were disturbed. Facing labour shortage, capacity underutilisation, a liquidity crunch, raw material shortage and supply chain
disruptions, the production volume was declined rapidly. For Þrms and
businesses, trying to remain operational and aßoat due to falling turnover and
revenue, many had to shut down or cut down on employment.The pandemic
wreaked havoc on India, speciÞcally during the virus's second wave of 2021
in India. Even though a promised vaccination drive was in the works, the
billion people were still suffering with the aftermath of the last pandemic year
and the new worse delta variant of the virus.A CESP survey said, that around
80 percent people had put off any plans of buying expensive electronic
durables or changing to new furniture or buy any other expensive nonessential goods, e-retail sector saw recession with many of the shops and
outlets seeing sales dropping by nearly 50% and some closing down
completely, some Þnding it hard to pay off loans or debts, individuals started
to reduce borrowings to buy a house, paused all investments as the future
2
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
80
looked unreliable. This caused a further drop in sales of housing and
impacted the real estate sector badly. With a stressed banking sector and its
growing non-performing assets, India's growing government debt to GDP
ratio, government Þnances beingburdened by the costs of the ongoing
COVID-19 vaccination drive; the two covid waves aggravated them and with
more virus peaks on the way, the further downfall can be on its way. As a result
of a chain of such economic reactions, India plunged into recession for the
Þrst time in nearly a quarter of a which world economists warn will struggle to
recover from the recession. The public restrictions in mobility and extended
lockdowns, mostly everyone was compelled to stay at home, leading to a
deteriorating labour market situation.9 The three main performance indicators
in an economy: Gross domestic Product, Unemployment Rate and the
Inßation rate in India depict the tragedy the covid years entailed.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- GDP is the “aggregate or gross value of
all Þnal goods and services produced in the domestic boundary of an
economy or a country during a speciÞc time period”.10 GD Pincludes all
consumer expenditure(C), Investment expenditure (I),Government
spending(G), the spending on exports by foreign sector(X) and the domestic
spending on imports by households(M), Þrms and the government sector.
GDP = C+I+G +NX
--- (1)
where NX = Net exports = (X-M)
As implied by equation (1), a change in any of these components
would change the level of GDP for an economy. Both the covid waves of
March 2020 and April 2021, year after year, caused the economic system to
halt and slip into a recession, demand and supply chains got disrupted both
during and after the lockdown. CMIE's 'Consumer Pyramids Household
Survey' (CPHS), show that per capita consumption spending fell by more
than GDP, and could not return to the pre-lockdown levels during consistent
periods of social distancing.11 India's GDP had fallen by 24.4 percent from
April to June, 2020. India's rate of overall economic contraction was around
7.3 percent for the entire Þscal year 2020/21.Many economists also believe
that the contraction of gross domestic product (GDP) was severely
underestimated by -23.9% as data collection efforts were affected due to the
lockdowns. The situation has still not entirely improved, as evidenced
through the latest data of the Þrst quarter of FY'22 released by MOSPI,
which shows the private Þnal consumption expenditure of INR 17,83,611
crore, a level much lower than that of the pre-Covid levels.12 India had
become the second-worst country, after the United States in terms of GDP
contraction among major economies. Driving the economy off the rails, the
recovery from this GDP contraction would be a long and distressed given the
limited resources, fair to say the economy won't be back to its pre-pandemic
growth levels anytime soon.
Unemployment Rate- Millions of people who lost their jobs over AprilMay 2020 due to Covid-19, and are still very much struggling to Þnd good
jobs, after months of an unlocked India. Most sectors of the labour market
took a huge hit by the virus wave, mostly displacing the migrant workers,
who are already a vulnerable section of the society. According to the Centre
8
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
81
for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) data, the labour force participation
rate fell to a low of 27 per cent in April 2020. Just as the economic wheels
started to rotate again in 2021 January, the second wave again pulled the
participation down to 36 per cent in April-May 2021.The Centre for
Economic Data and Analysis (CEDA), based upon the ILOSTAT data base
of International Labour Organization (ILO), stated India's unemployment
rate had gone from 5.27 percent in 2019 to 7.11 percent in 2020, the highest it
had been since 1991.India had been witnessing a tough job environment for
the past few years and the situation only exacerbated after the covid
outbreak. Though after the Þrst wave, economic activity was improving
steadily, the Indian job market was still very much struggling. While some
service sector workers moved to their farms again for their survival, salaried
workers were in despair unable to meet their daily needs. Companies
moderated the number of hired employees, but also cut down on the number
of vacancies and job roles, permanently. Creating new jobs in a recession hit
economy will be one of the toughest challenges for the Indian economy in
the upcoming years.
Inßation Rate- After the pandemic disrupted India's economy and led to
increased unemployment and slashed wages, a sustained period of higher
inßation, particularly food inßation, had pushed millions of families to cut
back on food expenditure, with possible a spell of nutritional poverty and
malnutrition. China is one of the largest exporters of many of the inputs and
raw materials to India. Shutting down of factories has damaged the supply
chain resulting in a drastic surge in the prices of raw materials. Some of the
other goods that have seen a rise in their prices were gold, masks, sanitizers,
smartphones, medicines, consumer durables, etc.In October (2020), food
inßation surged to 11%, but it came down only marginally in November to
9.43%.13 Even as food inßation has remained high in the months after the
lockdown, unfortunately it coincided with rising unemployment and
depressed rural-urban wages. As households dip into their savings because
of either stagnating or no running incomes, economists warn that India's
gross household savings could decline, thereby denting future consumption
and compromising the economic recovery.
Recovery of The Indian Economy- 'Economic Cycle' or the 'Trade Cycle'
shows the upward or downward movement in the economic activity of a
country over time. It shows possible ßuctuations in the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and its growth rate. A business cycle, has four main phases:
Peak, Contraction, Trough & Expansion.
During to COVID-19 outbreak, there was an extraordinary
slowdown in the economic activity breaking the usual cycle like pattern.
The world economy was already in contraction because of ceasing
business activity owing to national lockdowns. Most countries were in a
state of constant economic panic and had declared negative GDP growth
rates for 2020 and 2021 as well. Consecutive path to recovery, was not
going to be easy.
Though India's economic recovery hasn't been all smooth since
2020, India seems to have gotten the situation under control in 2022, majorly
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due to the national vaccination drive, strict public precautionary measures
and other government support policies for the Indian populace. The
economic panic was avoided and a steadiness was brought in quickly by the
national authorities imposing these standard measures.
Recovery Patterns- The recovery from the pandemic is tricky for the
authorities to handle and it can also have different patterns for different
economies around the world. Historically, the common patterns of economic
recovery are: V, U, W and L shaped;14 L-shaped being the least desirable
andV-shaped being the most desirable path for economic recovery.15
The recovery from the Þrst covid year 2020, To counter this
economic doom and gloom, the Indian government pushed the idea that the
Indian economy will bounce back rapidly. A “V-shaped recovery,” was
predicted according to the Þnance minister Nirmala Sitharaman. The
Government of India's policy to improve logistics infrastructure,
encouraging schemes for private investment, increased Þnancial and
technical support to states in order to expand capital investment to boost
infrastructure spending will spur economic growth. Private consumption
was also expected to pick up as labour market conditions continued to
improve, after opening up nationwide restrictions. Forecasts were based on a
normal monsoon and rising wheat prices which would improve agriculture
output and farmers' income.16
The IMF also, predicted that the recovery period would be three
years till the end of 2022, and that GDP per capita will be back to pre-Covid19 levels.17 The massive vaccination drive(with nearly 1.4 billion population
is fully vaccinated in India)18 and introduction tax incentives to boost the
manufacturing sector; support to these sectors promised a signiÞcant
recovery in manufacturing and construction were to accrue to their growth in
2021-22. FY 2021-22, there was onset of the Omicron variant which was
highly transmissible but less severe as compared to previous covid variants;
so due to increasing vaccination rates, herd immunity19, Government had
hopeful expectations for Þscal years 2021-22, expecting a pick-up in amount
of government spending, increase in consumer demand and a resumption of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
83
most economic activities over time that were abridged by the pandemic. In
the annual national budget for the 2022-23 Þscal year, the economic survey
put forward the forecast that India's economy will experience a 9.2 percent
growth in the 2022-23 Þnancial year.
But in India,V-shaped recovery in hindsight, doesn't take into
account the that a contraction in any economy has a very long-term
cascading effect downstream for many years given the nature of
compounding growth. Opportunity costs of national measures and policies
have to be looked at, and taking account of all the pros and cons, economists
have declared that even in the most optimistic scenarios, the economic loss is
immense to recover rapidly from.20
Though government ofÞcials claim post-pandemic recovery to be Vshaped, critics and economics argue to be otherwise. Several economists
suggest that India's economic recovery will be K-shaped as it has recovered
only partially, contrary to the government's claims. V-shaped recovery is
when the economy rapidly recovers at the same rate at which it went down.
"This had happened to India during the Þrst lockdown of Covid".
Understanding what K-shaped recovery, "There are some sections of the
economy that have recovered very well whereas there are certain sections
that have not recovered well”.21K-shaped recovery happens after a nation
suffers a recession.22A K-shaped recovery branches into two different
directions. Large companies and public sector enterprises recover rapidly
while small and medium-sized companies, are left out of the recovery
process.In this recovery, one segment of the economy begins to climb back
upward while another segment continues to suffer. Schumpeter, said that a K
shaped recovery causes creative destruction as an economy as novel
technology and industries take place of the oldones.23
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The richer top of the pyramid secure their incomes and savings rates
forced up during the pandemic which drives future consumption whilst the
poorer households at the bottom faces continuous setbacks.24 Covid
triggered transfer of effective income from the poor class to the rich,
impedes consumption demand, as the poor class have a higher marginal
propensity to consume (they consume more out of their income than they
save), as opposed to the rich class. Covid-19 has created inequality in
income distribution as well as job opportunities, which could further alter
and impede growth in developing economies like India.25
Sectors like IT(Information technology), the Tech sector companies
and or online stores or e-commerce platforms services have seen
tremendous growth in the Covid period. People in the sectors of tourism,
travel, hospitality and even education(administration), fared badly despite
the fact that classes were held through the online mode, but catered to a
limited or a more privileged stratum. The focus must be on employment
generation, economists say, that will help curb the economic problem.26
RBI's Report on Currency and Finance in 2021-22, burst the bubble
around India's quick V-shaped recovery from the pandemic crisis. RBI
report states that only if all goes on well, India would take another 13 years,
to possibly recover from the economic loss; if the GDP grows at a annual
average pace of 7.5%. If the FY23 growth is less than an optimistic 7.2%,
with the high inßation across most sectors and the ongoing Russia-Ukraine
war, even 13 years might not be enough.27
The data also indicates Indian Informal economy is still in distress.
There is a recovery in the organized sectors to some extent, but not as well in
the unorganized sector as they are vacating their spaces, unable to maintain
their business or activity. This recovery is then creating more inequality in
the country.28
Raghuram Rajan, former Reserve Bank of India Governor and a
well-reputed economist, said that “the Indian economy has some bright
spots and a number of very dark stains”.The bright spots being the health
and success of larger Þrms, the roaring IT and IT-enabled sectors,
prevalence of new strong online platforms and stronger subparts of the
Þnancial sector,” he said recently. The “dark stains,”are problems of
widespread unemployment, low purchasing power, poorer lower middleclass, the Þnancially troubled small and medium-sized Þrms. Even though
the economy has picked up, multiple waves of outbreaks have battered the
country's large informal sector and contact-intensive services like
restaurants, hotels, retailing and tourism.29
India similar to USA, has recovered in a manner where some sectors
have caught up faster, while the other are really lagging behind. This type of
recovery is known as 'K-Shaped' recovery is shown in the below graph:30
(Sectors in the diagram are divided into two: Upward K in blue
colour (seeing positive growth): Technology, Retail, Software services.
Downward K in orange colour (seeing negative growth): Travel,
Entertainment and Hospitality industry).Rajan said, government ought to
focus on its spending "cautiously" so there are no colossal damages. A K-
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
85
shaped recovery alludes to a circumstance where innovation and huge
capital Þrms recuperate at a quicker speed than small and medium size
companies and businesses, that have been hit especially hard by the COVID-
19 pandemic.31
Research group, Oxford Economics, forecasts India's struggle with
low growth will continue up to 2025 whereas; S. Kar, National Institute of
Public Finance and Policy (Reserve Bank of India Chair),predicts 2033 to be
the year for India could be getting back onto the pre-Covid growth path,
assuming GDP grows at a very high growth of 7% for the next 13 years, for a
signiÞcant recovery.32
N.Kamath, co-founder of Zerodha and TrueBeacon, says that
recovery path would ultimately come down to the actions of Governments
and the individuals. The Government has resorted to expansionary Þscal
policy in order to stimulate spending and consumption in the economy.
Sooner or later, continuing the expansionary measures will have
consequences like low-interest rates, tax cuts and issuing of more transfer
grants. India requires more of an inclusive and equitable approach for
overall recovery. Thus, economic growth needs a balanced approach
including both monetary and Þscal policies measures, meaning the RBI has
to reverse its accommodative approach, and specially focus on price
stabilization mechanism (inßation control strategy) and the government will
have to cut down its Þscal stimulus (expenditure on capital and other policy
incentives).33
Way Forward For India- A K-shaped recovery is when different parts of
the economy recover at different magnitudes and within time spans. For a
K-shaped recession recovery, the structure of the economy society gets
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
altered. The focus shifts to the new “pandemic poor”, increasing the
subsidies, new employment generation policies, more rural development
and other social sector programs become of prime importance. The
vaccination costs of our overly populated country, will not bring relief either.
The government has to laser focus upon its capital spending and try to
contain any further damage to potential economic growth.34 The possible
steps for a faster recovery may include1. Direct Cash packages to thenon- salaried and middle class- A
direct cash transfer by the government, to the non-salaried, middleclass people and households, in the form of a “Tax Holiday” as
income support, for a speciÞc time period could stimulate the
macroeconomic aggregate demand and help contribute to a positive
GDP growth as many lost their jobs or had to switch to lower salaried
jobs. The Government could increase the progressive (direct) taxes
and cut back the regressive (indirect) taxes lower-income
households to ease their Þnancial burden for a while. It is necessary
to give priority to aggregate spending (by the middle and lowermiddle-class, who are more likely to spend more and contribute to
growth).35
2. Increase in government spending on public infrastructure- It is a
key stepin the revival of the economic demand engine. 36
Infrastructure has also been a key issue in the inability to attract
sizeable amount of foreign direct investment. This crisis time may
have created an opportunity to bridge that long-standing gap.
Aggressive public investment on infrastructure for a year will also
have a positive inßuence on future exports. Building infrastructure
creates immediate employment and purchasing power, infusing
demand into the system. Through multiplier effect, it can then feed
into the future investment cycle as well. In the short to medium term,
India has to rely on debt Þnancing to boost public investment in
order to revive the economy.Strengthening and augmenting health
infra, urban planning, roads, rural infra and digital infrastructure are
going to be the key drivers even in the long run.37
3. Tax the rich- Some of the increased spending will be automatically
Þnanced by the increased tax revenues from the increase in
economic activity over time. Revenue can be Þnanced by
introducing new wealth taxes on the super-rich, who have gained
considerably over the pandemic. It is true that forcing higher taxes
on big Þrms could possibly jeopardize any attempts to attract foreign
investments. However, economists say that a more serious worry for
the government would be falling household savings that would
discourage investments in the economy. The government should
decide on a policy Þx to balance the income distribution scenario in
the economy.38
4. Improving the labour market- Ensuring that there are adequate
jobs in the economy, for the people who were not the part of labour
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
87
force before the pandemic and who still are actively striving for a
job, is the Þrst notch that could help alter the both employers and
employees towards the labour market.Government would have to
play an active role in subsidising Þrms, creating more public and
informal sector work positions. More employment opportunities
could be created under Rural as well as Urban MNREGA, which
would assist the most vulnerable people. Introduction and
implementation in labour-centric policies: Introduction and
stringent implementation of labour-centric policies that restrict
Þrms from cutting a Þxed proportion of salaries during
contingencies, or from Þring more than a Þxed proportion of people,
could help get that sense of security back. Getting people to want to
look for work is the Þrst step, and a rather critical one in the country's
labour-intensive endowment. By bolstering labour protection
through provision of social security and unemployment beneÞts to
the labour force and increased uniform minimum wages for low
paying jobs, it could reduce risk and fear of people and inßuence
them to participate actively in the labour and consumption market,
both of which would help improve production conditions.39
5. Provide input tax relief to producers in selected sectors- A K
shaped recovery can only be turned around, if growth of sectors that
are facing a downward growth spiral, are supported through this
period of instability. This can be in form of tax concessions on inputs
of production or reducing or even abolishing input taxes for some
time. While the government cannot provide input subsidies to all the
sectors, it could start with the major manufacturing industries (with
respect to economic contribution): metals, chemicals, oil,
automobile and packaged food. Once some of the initial beneÞciary
sectors are able to revive themselves, they can be replaced by other
industries like machinery & equipment, electrical equipment and
also textiles. It would have to be a well-structured step wise plan
which both the economists and Government could agree upon.40
Conclusion- V-shaped economic recovery implies the economy recovered
at the same pace at which it went down growth wise, which is what happened
to India during the Þrst lockdown. This pattern did make the Government
hopeful, for a brighter future after the ruthless slowdown. But after the
unseen disastrous consecutive wave in April 2021, the economists
concluded that the economy is going to see a K-shaped recovery; certain
sectors will do well and certain sectors would likely remain stressed for a
while and may or may not be able to come back to their original pre-covid
revenue levels. If growth has to go smooth and even, India's need of the hour
is an equitable recovery; equitable inclusive growth will promote demand
and consumption in the economy to get it up and running fast. However,
maximum focus should be strictly on employment generation, because there
are many people who were and still are rendered jobless due to the national
lockdowns, industrial job cuts or cyclical unemployment due to
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
88
improvement of technology and the economic recession. Unemployment is
being seen as the biggest economic problem, bigger than inßation. Although
the increase in rural activity bodes well for the economy, the government
needs to encourage more savings and hence investments in the core
employment sectors or concentrate on direct policy measures upend demand
across various sectors. Besides other stimulus measures, Indian economy
has to overcome a lot of challenges and may still experience years of slow
growth, but hopefully a consistently positive one.
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92
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Kumar Ravi Ranjan
Abstract- The fundamental reason for this study is to examine if the Covid is
pushing individuals to do web based shopping and will they keep doing
internet shopping when this plague is Þnished. The information for this paper
has been gathered by circling poll on the virtual entertainment as the
circumstance is inadmissible to go for actual studies. The poll is involved six
distinct inquiries 549 individuals were drawn nearer for criticisms on the
survey and 205 individuals answered. This proportion isn't terrible as online
review ordinarily give reactions around this number. This report is exhaustive
in knowing whether Covid is setting off individuals to do web based shopping,
or they are as yet Þguring out how to truly purchase items. Examination has
welcomed on the end that individuals are not doing more web based shopping
during Covid and individuals likewise differ that they will be keeping on doing
internet shopping with a similar rate in future when this pandemic is Þnished.
Keywords- Coronavirus, Physical business sectors, Online Shopping
Web based shopping is a strategy for purchasing items through
electronic gadgets, for example, portable or PCs by utilizing web . Individuals
generally lean toward purchasing items by going truly in business sectors as
opposed to purchasing on the web it is a result of different reasons and the
unmistakable explanation from them is worries of nature of items that
individuals purchase online this demand them purchasing physically. In spite
of the fact that there are a few beneÞts of web based shopping like more
affordable, efÞcient and so forth however they are quality cognizant . The
world is confronting one of the most horrendously terrible catastrophes in the
set of experiences . As the world is in the overwhelming circumstance and
nations have been put under lockdown, limitations have been forced on
leaving homes, orchestrating swarmed occasions, going in business sectors,
pretty much every business has been closed down on the planet right after
COVID-19 and individuals are focused on to remain in homes. subsequently
individuals can't go in business sectors for purchasing items, so this is most
likely pushing individuals to do web based shopping . Web based shopping
permits individuals to satisfy their necessities remaining at home and without
going business sectors . This exploration plans to examine on the off chance
that Covid is pushing individuals do web based shopping and it is additionally
engaged in this review to be aware assuming individuals will keep doing
shopping on the web with similar rate as they are doing now when the
business sectors are shut and they are likewise stringently banished from
going in business sectors.
Research Scholar, Department of Commerce & Business Management, Veer Kunwar Singh
University Ara, Bihar
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
93
Goals- The point of this report is to be aware if the Covid is pushing
individuals to do web based shopping other than this, it is additionally
analyzed in this study that assuming individuals will keep purchasing items
online with a similar rate in future when Covid is Þnished.
Strategy- For assortment of information, A survey is created which contains
of six unique inquiries. The poll has been coursed via web-based
entertainment for gathering reactions from individuals 549 individuals were
sent the survey and 205 individuals answered.
Measurable Analysis- All the accumulated data of this study has been
displayed in various diagrams and charts. Rate examination has additionally
been utilized for this review.
Results and Discussions- The results of this assessment are kept in the
accompanying Diagrams.
Figure01
People buyonline products
People buyonline produ
cts
8
%
mayb
e
31
%
n
61
%
0
%
10
%
20
%
30
%
40
%
50
%
60
%
70
%
Thispictureshowsthat61%peoplebuyonlineproductsand31%avoidit
and7%arenotsureaboutbothcases.
Figure 02
Buying more products online than physically during corona virus
Buying more products online than physically during coronav
irus
8%
31%
61%
yes
no
maybe
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
94
In this chart, 37% people said that they are buying more online products in
corona virus and 56% peoplesaidtherearewhereas7% people are uncertain.
Figure03
Online shopping is comfortable
comparing to physical shopping during corona virus
Online shopping iscomfortable comparing to
physicalshopping during coronavirus
maybe
13%
no
50%
yes
37%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
In this picture, almost 37% people said buying products online is
comfortable comparing to physical shopping during COVID-19 and 50%
people said it is not and rest of the people are unsure.
Figure04
Continue Online shopping after COVID-19 with the samerate
Con nue Online shopping a er COVID -19with the same rate
60%
55.40%
50%
40%
21%
20%
23.00%
10%
0%
yes
Series1
no
maybe
This chart says that, 21% people will continue doing online
shopping after COVID-19. 55% peoplerespondedthattheywillnotand23%
people are unsure.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
95
Figure05
Online shopping Satisfy asmuc has physical shopping
OnlineshoppingSa sfyasmuchasphysicalshopping
60%
50%
40%
30%
55.40%
20%
23.00%
10%21%
0%
YES
NO
MAYBE
According to this chart, 29% are agreed that buying online products
is as much satisfying as buyingphysically in markets and 50% people said it
is not such a case whereas rest of them are unsureaboutit.
Figure06
Peoples'recommendationofonlineshopping duringCOVID-19
Peoples ’
recomm endation
60%
of
online
shopping
duringCOVID
-
19.
55.40%
50%
40%
30%
23.00%
21%
20%
10%
0%
yes
no
maybe
In this graph, 53% respondents said they will recommend online
shopping to their family members, friends, and other people whereas 31%
respondents said they will not while 15% are uncertain about it.
Conclusion- The end for this overview has been made that individuals are
not doing more web based shopping during Covid-90 as half individuals
answered that they are not accepting more items internet during Covid-90
while simply 37% individuals said they are.
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
96
References1.
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H.H.(2020).TheImpactofCoronavirus(Covid-19)onE-Business in Malaysia.
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Javed, M. K., Bukht, N., &Javaid, S.(2020).COVID-19EFFECT ONPOOR.
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97
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Nawab Akram
Abstract- Today the primary concern of green marketing is customer
engagement. Smart marketers are focused not only on whether customers view
their message, but to what extent they engage with it. The motive of green
marketing campaigns is to inßuence customer attitude and behaviour by
communicating the beneÞts of engaging in environmentally responsible
behaviour, such as recycling, conserving energy, purchasing locally or
regionally grown/raised food, etc. A growing number of customers expect the
companies they buy their products from, must have a positive impact on the
environment and society. They demand products that generate less waste, and
look for the ways to make their own social and environmental contribution.
These concerns are the major inßuencing factors to engage the customer for
green marketing.This paper focuses on the success of green marketing efforts
put by marketers through different ways of customer engagement. It further
reviews how the different tools of customer engagement bring better customer
experience and inßuence them to feel connected with green marketing
practices.
Keywords- Green marketing, Customer engagements, Environment.
Introduction to Green Marketing- Green Marketing is also referred
as Environmental Marketing or Ecological Marketing. The term green
marketing came into prominence in the late 1980s and the early 1990s. The
American Marketing Association held the Þrst workshop on ecological
marketing in 1975. The proceedings of this workshop resulted into one of the
Þrst book on green marketing, titled Ecological Marketing.
Today there is a widespread concern about protecting the
environment over the world. Trees are being cut and replaced by concrete
jungles; more automobiles are playing on the roads than ever before and
emitting carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide that cause air pollution. With
increasing industrialization, urbanization, and purchasing power, more and
more household can afford Air conditioners and Refrigerators. Most of these
Air conditioners and Refrigerators, especially in developing countries like
us are not CFC free. Many factories let their unwanted chemicals run into
nearby water resources without processing them and thereby causing water
pollution and posing threat to aqua life in it. All These factors affecting the
environment balance, leading to serious problem such as global warming,
air and water pollutions, respiratory diseases, and many other social as well
as health issues.
Visiting Faculty, L. N. Mishra Institute of Economic Development & Social Change, Patna
2nd. Floor, Above Bank of Baroda, Tayaba Manzil, Exhibition Road, Patna-800001
98
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Evolution of Green Marketing- Environmentally responsible or "green"
marketing refers to the satisfaction of customer needs, wants, and desires in
conjunction with the preservation and conservation of the natural
environment. The evolution of green marketing can be divided in three
phases1. The Þrst phase was termed "Ecological" green marketing. During
this period all marketing activities were concerned to solve
environment problems and provide remedies for such problems.
2. The second phase was "Environmental" green marketing and the
focus shifted to clean technology that involved designing of
innovative new products, which takes care of pollution and waste
issues.
3. The third phase was "Sustainable" green marketing. It came into
prominence in the late 1990s and early 2000.
Customer Engagement- The concept of customer engagement (CE) has
emerged from the body of knowledge on the phenomenon of the customer
active presence in value co-creation process which is a component of
relationship marketing.
What Is Customer Engagement? Many attempts have been made to
deÞne customer engagement. However, taken together all of the deÞnitions
seem to suggest that customer engagement is comprised of two critical
elementsAfÞnity- means feelings of liking or attraction towards a brand.
Activation- is related to customer repurchase and recommendation of the
brand to others because of emotional attachment towards a brand.
Beyond repurchase and recommendation, customer can do posting
on various social media, can form and organise or participate in brand based
communities or even can participate in brand sponsored public or charitable
events.
Effects of AfÞnity and Activation: In effect, afÞnity is what holds
customer attention and keeps focused on a brand. Activation takes the form
of continued transactions and interactions with a brand, as well as attempts
to get and keep other current/potential engaged with that brand.
Objectives of the study1. To understand the effect of corporate commitment to engage
customer for green marketing activities.
2. To understand the effect of customer education program to engage
customer for green marketing activities.
3. To understand the effect of customer involvement and contribution
on customer engagement for successful implementation of green
marketing practices.
Successful Green Marketing through Customer engagement- Now
corporations are adopting sustainable purposes in order to guide all of their
activities, bonding with today's customers and growing their commercial
success. Without customer engagement, corporate sustainability
programmes fail.
Corporate Commitment- Walmart has been highly vocal in pledges to the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
99
environment since 2005, addressing impacts such as renewable energy use
and emissions in its supply chain. Such public commitments hold the
company accountable to the public, while cementing a brand image that
customers can feel good about supporting.
Google has publicly committed to sourcing 100% of its energy
needs from renewable sources, demonstrating a commitment through heavy
investment ($1 billion+) in renewables research and development since
2010.
SC Johnson's Greenlist is a ranking system that guides the
company's product sustainability towards continuous improvement over
time. The system, which was initiated in 2001, classiÞes ingredients for SC
Johnson household products based on their impact on human health and the
environment. In addition to facilitating sustainable purchasing choices, the
system ensures that the lowest-impact ingredients will be used in developing
new products or in improving existing ones.
From the above examples it is quite clear that, the corporate
commitment is the demonstration to stimulate customer engagement in
green marketing practices.
Customer Education- Customer education initiatives and programs is
another way which makes the customer ready to engage themselves for
green marketing orientation.
After conducting an audit on the lifecycle of jeans, Levi's found that
customer care habits account for nearly half the energy and water used by
jeans in its lifetime can be curbed. In an effort to curb these impacts, Levi's
launched a customer education campaign through a new care instruction tag
on all its jeans. The Care Tag campaign, which calls for cold water, linedrying the jeans, and donating them to Goodwill, informs customers that
their participation is a vital part of Levi's sustainability platform.
To counter the higher calorie content of its products, Coca-Cola
encourages physical activity and a balanced lifestyle through its
sustainability platform Live Positively. Customers can get involved in
Coke-sponsored events and activities around healthy living and learn about
calorie counts in products as well as what drives obesity and how it may be
prevented. The success of these two events shows that informing and
educating customer can lead to better customer engagement to practice
green marketing effectively.
Customer Involvement- Successful companies are able to frame their
green marketing efforts in terms of what consumers are able to contribute.
Collaborative themes and language spur customers to action as an integral
part of the company's sustainability strategy.
Starbucks: My Starbucks Idea – Starbucks maintains an open forum on
mystarbucksidea.com where consumers can submit their ideas on anything
from social responsibility to products to community engagement. Through
this forum, Starbucks has implemented several consumer-driven changes
towards more sustainable business.
Patagonia: Worn Wear and 'Don't Buy This Jacket' – In 2011,
Patagonia launched an ad campaign with the tagline 'Don't Buy This Jacket'
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
100
in an effort to bring attention to today's overuse of limited resources. The
result was hugely successful, and the campaign quickly went viral on social
media.
Building on the success of this campaign, Patagonia used YouTube
to introduce its Worn Wear initiative, accompanied by Twitter and Facebook
hashtags #WornWear and #AntiBlackFriday. Through Worn Wear,
consumers will participate in Patagonia's Responsible Economy by
repairing and reusing existing Patagonia gear.
"Worn Wear is a set of tools to help our customer partner with
Patagonia to take mutual responsibility to extend the life of the products
Patagonia makes and customers purchase. The program provides signiÞcant
resources for responsible care, repair, reuse and resale, and recycling at the
end of a garment's life."
The above examples enforce that customer contribution
/involvement lead to customer engagement Þr the purpose of green
marketing.
Conclusion- This study investigates about Successful Green Marketing
through Customer engagement. Customer engagement is now the primary
focus of green marketing. Aspirational are receptive, best practices are
established, and now commercial success depends on creatively engaging
with them. Aspirational are receptive i.e. readiness (knowledge, liking,
preferences, conviction) of the customer for green marketing is moving to an
upward stage. Best practices are established – Customer engagement tool
has contributed a lot in policy formulation of green marketing practices.
Corporate commitment towards green marketing is prerequisite for
customer engagement. Successful green marketing practices are the
outcome of customer education and involvement that lead to customer
engagement. Future of Green marketing is associated with the creative
application of customer engagement tool.
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102
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Sunil Kumar Bharti
Abstract- Many countries implemented various private-sector-inspired
management practices to improve the performance of publicly funded health
systems in response to increasing pressure on public budgets. The signiÞcance
grows even more in the context of events related to the coronavirus disease
outbreak in 2020, which will present new challenges for hospital performance
management. A national contextual examination of hospital management and
knowledge-sharing is then a more appropriate approach to assisting
practitioners in their search for the most appropriate mix of management
practices. A mixed methodological approach was used in this study to examine
individual aspects of performance management from the perspective of
hospital management in order to identify areas of potential efÞciency gains.
The primary research phase included on-site visits to three private hospitals
that began in September 2019 and included respondents from various
management levels as well as clinicians and non-clinicians.The discoveries
were comparative among all inspected foundations and generally consistent
with comparably natured contemplates. While the exhibition estimation
appeared to mirror the clinical presentation better than the authoritative one,
it is likewise seen as insufÞcient to the intricacy of administration. The
administration appeared to consider execution by the executives for
functional purposes instead of being motivator arranged or exploratory, in
accordance with the apparent absence of association between the presentation
estimation and the authoritative system. Joined with helpless correspondence
of execution the executive standards, this discrepancy seems to add to the
likely strain between the emergency clinic and clinical administration in
setting needs between the Þnancial presentation and the quality of care.
Generally, these discoveries ought to give understanding into viewpoints
impacting execution of the board utilized in open emergency clinics and
present the proof for the conversation of potential productivity gains.
Keywords- Performance management; performance measurement; healthcare
management.
Introduction- The pursuit of gains in Medicare virtualization
productivity became more pressing in view of the number of incidents in 2020
pandemic, when hospitals faced an increased need for capacity management
as patient arrival soared due to the corona virus disease outbreak. As indicated
by the aftereffects of a yearly overview asking nature of medical care in Bihar,
Research Scholar, Department of Management, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya
2nd. Floor, Rukmani Niwas, L-2/26, Opposite S. K. Puri Park, Boring Road, Patna-800001
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
103
emergency clinic chiefs, a lot of respondents believed Bihar as the wellbeing
framework to be of acceptable quality. Simultaneously, more than 3/3 of
respondents recognized the requirement for development in the proÞciency of
the executives in their organization. Inside such a climate the subject of
medical care execution, the executives are exceptionally applicable, similarly
just like the recognizable proof of conceivable outcomes that may volatility
efÞciency increase in order to balanced a good level of administration in the
long run.
Although, writing gives helpful information with respect to the
hypothetical way to deal with execution the board by and large, there are still
a lot of opportunities for the exploration of execution the executives in the
different logical settings.The assessment of execution the executives with
regards to private emergency clinics presents one such examination hole,
where the normal issues identiÞed with performance the board practice in
open foundations join with the intricacy of the medical services climate.
Such a climate is trying for any exploration exertion, which may disclose to
date shortage of any connected writing, yet additionally present a potential
for extra information gains.
To bridge that gap, the purpose of this review is to submit evidence
on the existing iteration of institutional board execution, as well as discuss
the logical angles inßuencing executive presentations in order to recognize
potential productivity gains and add to the information available to
practitioners and policymakers.
Since the examination objective of this investigation is to inspect the
performance system of the executives in private medical clinics, it is
important to initially explain the extent of understanding the exhibition and
the presentation the board, given the conceivable equivocalness in the
comprehension of these ideas. Performance is perceived as what the
authoritative action means for the clinic yield as measured by monetary and
non-monetary indicators, owing to its multidimensional and multipurpose
nature (Mettler and Rohner 2009; Veillard et al. 2005).Therefore, to improve
the situation in these actions (for example monetary position, case-blend
yield, patient criticism) would address an improvement in performance. The
Performance management system addresses the movement of estimation
and assessment that outcomes in the fathomable show of performing data.
The exhibition the board in this setting remembers the administration of
execution for both functional and key levels, driving towards the satisfaction
of hierarchical technique in regards to the medical clinic yield and the
supporting parts of these exercises (for example data advancements
supporting Performance Management System). Notwithstanding, as this
theme is fairly tremendous, the particular focal point of this paper lies with
the recognizable proof of spaces of potential effectiveness gains in medical
clinic execution management by inspecting singular parts of execution the
board according to the viewpoint of private medical clinic executives.
Aspects of performance management that have been identiÞed- The
recognized issues going with the presentation of Performance
Management System and the variables inßuencing execution the board are
104
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
speciÞcally comparative for public clinics paying little heed to the
distinctive medical care settings and the assortment of nations in the
referenced investigations. The subjects of arrangement of Performance
Management System Clients' Necessities and Performance Management
System plan with its proposed use, of appropriate comprehension of the
movement yield change system, of close collaboration with clinicians in
the reception of execution, the executives rehearses, or of the capacity to
break down hierarchical methodology on the functional level, give hints
supporting to control the course of execution, the board in open clinics bit
by bit towards the theoretical best practice. Understanding these regions
has all the earmarks of being the empowering element of authoritative
mastering in execution the executives, which could prompt further
developed execution, and hence these perspectives are a subject of
examination for this situation study.
ID
A
Individual aspects of
performancemanagement
Scope of measuring the ability to reßect the
performance ofmedical centers
Relatedsources
SpekléandVerbeeten201
d
an dPettersen200
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
The dependability of performance data and its
importance in decision-making
The relationship between performance measures
and operational strategyand performance
Data collection and evaluation process quality
IT assistance with Performance Management
System processes
Use of performance data and Performance
Management System orientation (operational,
exploratory, incentive-oriented)
Personnel performance information should be
communicated to them.
The impact of the legislative structure and
consumer preferences on performance
management
3
;M annion an
Braithwaite 2012; Nyland
3
NylandandPettersen2003
MettlerandRohner2009
McConnell et al. 2013; Mettler
andRohner2009
Bardhan and Thouin 2013; Angst et
al.2011;Mettler and Rohner2009
van Elten et al. 2019; Schwartz
andDeber2016;SpekléandVerbeeten201
3
JääskeläinenandRoitto2015;Wettsteinan
dKueng 2002
McConnell et al. 2013; Mettler
andRohner2009
Research Methodology- This examination utilizes a consolidated
methodological methodology as it points not exclusively to give quantiÞable
proof to respond to the characterized research question yet in addition to
improve its educational worth by getting the logical reasoning behind the
appropriate responses. The on-location research stage Þnished up the eye to
eye meet for every respondent with information gathered utilizing the pretalk with poll and post-survey talk with notes. The post-information
assortment insightful stage concluded the measurable examination of study
results and their understanding to settle the characterized research
assignment of catching the connection between the exhibition management
viewpoints and medical clinic execution the board.
The cross-sectional plan was received in a fairly standard manner for the
exploration in administration bookkeeping because the reason for the review
was somewhat spellbinding, as it zeroed in on catching the current status and
thus giving the premise to additional learning The written survey had an
organised plan that included the inspected factors, their written portrayal,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
105
and the seven-point standard Likert-type scale, with respondents expected to
in how much they agreed with the introduced statements.
ID
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Statement
The monetary exhibition measures reßect emergency clinic execution.
The non-monetary exhibition measures reßect medical clinic execution.
The monetary exhibition measures reßect clinical execution.
The non-monetary exhibition measures reßect clinical execution.
The exhibition estimation framework gives dependable data about
execution.
The extent of the exhibition estimation framework upholds dynamic.
The connection of monetary execution measures to functional execution is
conceivably characterized.
The connection of non-monetary execution measures to functional execution is
fathomably characterized.
The connection of monetary execution measures to authoritative technique
is fathomably characterized.
The connection of non-monetary execution measures to hierarchical procedure
is intelligibly characterized.
The exhibition information assortment measure is computerized (no manual
information assortment is required).
The exhibition information assessment measure is computerized (for
example robotized normalized reports, on-request perception).
The exhibition estimation framework is enough upheld by data innovations in
the information assortment measure.
The exhibition estimation framework is enough upheld by data innovations in
the information assessment measure.
The exhibition data is utilized for spending control and functional arranging
(functional use).
The exhibition data is utilized for the presentation evaluation of workers.
The exhibition data is utilized for the presentation evaluation of supervisors.
The exhibition data is utilized for compensating workers (motivator situated use).
20 The exhibition data is utilized for compensating supervisors (motivator situated
use).
21 The exhibition data is examined with authoritative individuals to recognize their
motivation (exploratory use).
22 The exhibition data is imparted to the work force.
23 The exhibition the executives is impacted by the administrative structure (for
example Repayment Decree).
24 The exhibition the board is affected by market elements (for example contest).
25 The clinical directors are engaged with execution the executives.
26 The non-clinical directors are engaged with execution the executives.
Data Analysis:Sample Institute detailse
Clinic/
Sub TotalEmploy
Assets Expenses
Hospital Department
ees
A
26
2.3
3.3
2508
B
28
3.6
9
3811
C
30
2.3
3
2253
TotalBeds TotalRespondents
1113
1537
1063
32
28
27
Information from the survey were broke down utilizing apparatuses
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
106
of clear insights and connection examination. For every one of the assertions
the mean and standard deviation was determined to decide the respondents'
assessment with respect to singular expressmen's' substance. Each mean
worth was tried for importance utilizing a two-followed t-test to test the
meaning of results against the base speculation of respondents being
irresolute (mean = 3) on a certainty level of 99 %. Expressive measurements
were additionally assessed and tried independently for every one of the
analyzed foundations to look at the comparability of results between the
various organizations. A relationship investigation was performed to look at
the chance of a critical association between the appraisals of individual
explanations. Relationship coefÞcients above 0.5 and underneath– 0.5 were
additionally broke down, accepting their relationship not being irregular.
Every one of the coefÞcients was additionally tried for importance utilizing
a two-followed t-test performed against the base speculation of no huge
relationship between the reactions for the analyzed pair of explanations on
the certainty level of 99 %.
Table 01
Measurement scope and ability
to reßect clinical and hospital performance
Statement
ID
Subjects
All
All
A
B
C
Standard
Deviation
All
1
87
3.289
*
3.719*
3.213
3.381
1.119
0.0001
2
87
5.219*
3.363
3.889*
1.087
0
none
3
87
3.593*
1.033
0
none
4
87
5.307*
0.862
0
none
N
Total Mean
3.873
*
3.805
*
5.231
*
3.833*
5.313*
3.963
*
5.000
*
Extracted
p-value
All
correlating
variables
(r)
All
B2 (0.51*),
C3
(0.51*)
Table 02
Reliability of performance
information and its value for decision-making
Statement
ID
N
Subjects
All
5
6
Total Mean
All
A
B
C
87 5.195* 5.313* 3.963* 5.296*
87 3.529* 3.750*
3.363
3.333
Standard Extracted
Deviation p-value
Subjects
All
0.95
1.218
0
0.0001
correlating
variables (r)
All
B2 (0.59*), E2
(0.53*)
A1 (0.51*), B1
(0.59*)
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
107
Table 03
Relation of performance measures
to operational performance and strategy
Statement
ID
N
Subjects
7
8
9
10
All
87
87
87
87
Standard Extracted
Deviation
p-value
C
Subjects
All
5.222*
0.958
0
3.593*
1.033
0
3.519
1.257
0.865
3.926
1.369
0.0002
Total Mean
All
A
5.033* 3.833*
3.655* 3.938*
3.977
3.338
3.325* 3.369
B
5.071*
3.393
3.893
2.893*
correlating
variables
(r)
All
None
None
A1 (0.51*)
None
Table 04
Data collection
and evaluation process quality
Statement
ID
N
Subjects
All
All
A
12
87
3.126
3.906
3.107 3.307
1.098
0.2856
13
87
3.633* 5.093* 3.321 3.333
0.927
0
Total Mean
B
C
Standard Extracted
Deviation p-value
Subjects
All
correlating
variables (r)
All
E1 (0.67*), E2
(0.53*)
None
Table 05
SupportofperformancemeasurementsystemprocessesbyIT
Statement
ID
N
Subjects
All
All
A
B
14
87
3.737*
3.281
15
87
3.920*
3.781*
Standard
Deviation
Extracted
p-value
C
All
All
3.821*
5.222*
1.07
0
3.786*
5.222*
0.918
0
Mean
SigniÞcantly
correlating
variables (r)
All
D1 (0.67*),
E2 (0.61*)
B1 (0.53*),
D1 (0.53*),
E1 (0.61*),
F6 (0.70*),
I2 (0.55*)
Table 06
The use of performance data and the orientation of the PMS
Statement
ID
Subjects
16
17
N
Mean
All
All
87 5.931*
87 3.310*
18
87
3.183
19
87
3.586*
20
87
3.873
21
87
3.931
Standard Extracted SigniÞcantly
Deviation
p-value
correlating
variables (r)
A
B
C
All
All
All
6.093* 5.786* 5.889*
0.728
0
None
3.875 2.963* 3.000*
1.288
0
F3 (0.60*),
F3 (0.67*)
3.563
3.133 3.778
1.167
0.1351
F2 (0.60*),
F5 (0.53*)
3.063 3.071* 3.556
1.196
0.0018
F2 (0.67*),
F5 (0.70*)
3.063
3.679 3.852
1.033
0.2615
F3 (0.53*),
F3 (0.70*)
3.969
3.679
3.138
1.265
0.6123
E2 (0.70*),
I2 (0.53*)
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
108
Table0 7
Personnel performance
communicated information
Statement
ID
Subjects
22
N
Mean
Standard Extracted SigniÞcantly
Deviation p-value
correlating
variables (r)
All
All
A
B
C
All
All
All
87 5.253* 5.375* 5.179* 5.185*
0.766
0
None
Table 08
The impact of the regulatory framework
and market dynamics on performance management
Statement
ID
Subjects
23
24
N
Mean
Standard Extracted SigniÞcantly
Deviation p-value
correlating
variables (r)
All All
A
B
C
All
All
All
87 3.023 3.125 3.179 3.731
1.201
0.8587
None
87 3.69 3.531 3.786 3.778
1.35
0.0338
None
Table 09
Clinical managers are
involved in performance management.
Statement
ID
Subjects
25
26
N
Mean
Standard Extracted SigniÞcantly
Deviation p-value
correlating
variables (r)
All
All
A
B
C
All
All
All
87 5.080* 5.333* 3.929* 3.926*
0.892
0
None
87 5.036* 5.125* 3.633 5.370*
0.975
0
E2 (0.55*),
F6 (0.53*)
Findings- Due to the similarities of replies across the mutilated subjects, the
Þndings support the continuation of disclosures and ideas. Whereas the
show assessment appears to give appropriate result and to highlight the
clinical presentation better than the various leveled display, the
insufÞciency of assessment to the complexity of organization limits the
informational worth of execution information for the administration. The
issue of assessment harshness isn't phenomenal in clinical consideration
and along these lines presents an opportunity for progressive learning.With
the improvement of assessment would outÞt the organization with
overhauled execution in-line. The probably justiÞcation powerless
assessment might lie with the insufÞcient correspondence of execution the
chiefs' norms to the general staff.
This explanation, gotten together with the vague thought of the
association between the various leveled methodology and execution the
leaders, adds to the likely pressing factors between the clinical center and
clinical organization in setting needs in regards to the monetary display and
the idea of care. Subsequently, the Performance Management System has
every one of the reserves of being used rather practically and not to its most
extreme limit, like the case in execution assessment structures as reviewed.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
109
The improvement in the correspondence of execution the leaders' principles
in like manner presents another test for center the board that might yield
gains in organization ampleness, to the plan of which the exploratory use of
Performance Management System might contribute, as the composing. The
presentation information doesn't appear to expect a basic part with respect to
specialist evaluation due to the by and by seen absence of clinical staff
(HICR 2020), yet any equivalent Þnishes should consider that improvement
in execution information may really incite the progression of crisis facility
works out, which subsequently may mitigate the strain on existing clinical
workforce.
The current status of help of Performance Management System by
informational advancement gives other opening for improvement. As the
informational development essentially enables effective execution the
board (Bardhan and Thouin 2013; Angst et al. 2011), the utilization of more
reÞned creative gadgets followed by suitable tutoring in their use should
additionally foster the information regard got from the Performance
Management System. While the segments of market components and the
clinical beneÞts managerial packaging work may impact the determination
of execution the chiefs (Mettler and Rohner 2009), the results give minimal
conÞrmation of any effect on the current status of execution the board. The
results hence suggest a shortfall of an external improvement for extra
headway of execution the board practice, with the justiÞcation this maybe
being the rigid idea of the regulatory cooperation, very much like the case in
various countries (Dubas-Jakóbczyk et al. 2020).
The respondents generally perceived the necessity for advancement
in execution the chiefs, yet it in like manner had all the earmarks of being
that there was a general assessment of negativity concerning any
conceivable change towards progress. Further discussions with the
respondents proposed the explanation being the introduction of some halfgauges already, which might have responded to the need of the leaders by
then anyway were not piece of any total thought of execution the board. This
thought, and a to some degree purposeful reason of any show the board
practice subsequently, potentially builds up an environment dissuading
from the introduction of any many-sided thought consolidating all spaces of
execution the chiefs, which could offer the response for the issue of the
board amazing ness. Given the current status of market components, joining
the show the board principles into the authoritative design might be one
response for streak off the vital progress in execution the chiefs practice in
open clinical centers.
Conclusion- Clinical consideration is seen as of good quality in Bihar, the
events of 2020 have raised the prerequisite for the board to have the
alternative to deftly respond to the components of the prosperity situation in
the general population. In this particular circumstance, the capability of
private facility load up is a higher priority than some other time, with
execution framework the leaders having a critical effect in organization's
work to achieve adequacy. Regardless, feasible execution the leaders require
trustworthy and precise execution information relevant to the unique
110
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
activity of the board. This examination used a mixed methodological
approach to manage take a gander at various pieces of execution the board in
three private centers to give conÞrmation on the current status of execution
the chiefs practice on an institutional level and to recognize unequivocal
spaces of potential efÞciency gains.
The results suggest that the show assessment structures used in the
broke down subjects reßect the clinical show better compared to the
afÞliation al execution, while furthermore being too designed in their
assessment and rather not adequate to the multifaceted nature of
organization. The presentation information gained from these systems is
used for utilitarian organization rather than work on the appreciation of the
intentional cycles or for the appraisal of specialist execution. The conÞned
use of execution information got together with lacking correspondence of
execution the chiefs principles makes the appreciation of execution the
board goals and their association with progressive strategy for the general
work power irksome. While these troublesome outcomes add to the normal
strains between the facility and clinical organization in setting prior ties
between the money related show and the idea of care, they are moreover
typical for the assessed environment, as shown by similar examinations. The
normal ness of recognized hardships presents an opportunity for legitimate
learning and upgrades in current execution the board practice if sufÞciently
tended to by chiefs. These difÞculties furthermore present an opportunity for
extra assessment. It could take a gander at the feasibility of various
organization responses to this issue in different associations and upgrade the
available data base.
The critical revelations concerning the show the board practice
were comparable across the reviewed establishments and all things
considered as per the disclosures of various examinations taking a gander
at the individual issues in prosperity systems of different countries, deexhibit disdain for the constraints of this assessment. Yet the requirements
of the examination approach were possibly directed by methodological
triangulation and organized documentation of theory, the limitations given
by the model decision procedure ought to be seen as when making any
conclusions. Henceforth the results of the outline should be carefully seen
as veriÞcation on the current status of key spaces of execution the leaders
in open crisis facilities in patna and Þll in as a justiÞcation the discussion of
spaces of potential capability gains in the broke down clinical beneÞts
system. On the other hand, a point-by-point depiction of the used
methodology al-lows the tolerably clear replication of this assessment
later on, likewise making a justiÞcation extra cross-sectional relative
examinations or seeing of the improvement of applied execution practice
on time.
Revelations are primarily applicable by specialists in execution the
leaders in open facilities as they raise the critical pieces of system setup,
redesigning the institutional capacities to affect the real show. Focus
perspectives lie with setting up clear and complete crucial targets Þt to be
disintegrated to unequivocal practical objections and the arrangement of an
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
111
assessment system Þt for reßecting the achievement of these goals at all
levels of the organization. In addition, the execution of the assessment
system should be the eventual outcome of investment b/w clinical
organization and center association to protect the Þnancial and clinical
multifaceted nature of clinical consideration organization enough. Insatisfactorily keeping an eye on these perspectives might achieve the
unpleasant arrangement of the estimation system fail to reßect the basic
pieces of execution, appropriately not Þlling its need and accounting of the
potential strains b/w different levels of the chiefs. This state controls a
deÞnitive environment, possibly impeding the use of more recent execution
the board strategies and the organization's tendency to stick to the
fundamental demonstration of expenditure reach.
All things considered, the genuine situation in clinical beneÞts
extended the prerequisite for development in the organization of crisis
center cutoff points similarly as the interest for quality execution
information, which possibly addresses a really important lift for extra
improvement of execution the board practice in open crisis facilities.
However, the show the chiefs might have been considered good beforehand,
it gives perilous execution data in the current time span, as depicted by
unsteadiness in the general population's prosperity situation and by a long
stretch monetary squeezing factor.
The certiÞcation of the prerequisite for advancement in the viability
of the board by clinical facility bosses also centers to the current interest for
extra improvement of at present used execution the leader's training. The
authentic cognizance of the relationship between the arrangement of
execution the leaders, dynamic development, and facility execution is major
for any such turn of events. Regardless, the data base as for execution the
board is wide, and the crisis facility bosses should in a perfect world have the
alternative to Þnd inspiration to Þx the deÞciencies of execution the leaders
recognized in this examination.
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Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Priyamvada Anksuh Sawant
Abstract- As the country aims to enhance its role in world systems, makes its
presence felt in international arena and deÞnes its attitude towards the lesser
advantageous nations, India will have to deliberate a policy of engaging
women in decision making at every level to enable their participation at the
domestic and international level. The struggle is to challenge the institutions
of patriarchy and exclusion. We cannot wait decades; we need to see a much
faster pace of change!
Keywords- Leadership, Participation, Women.
Introduction- The United Nations (UN) is the world's largest and
the most inßuential inter-state organization. Borne out of the concerns for
future peace and stability as the world witnessed the World War II (19391945), the UN Charter aimed to “save succeeding generations from the
scourge of war”. Dag Hammarskjöld, the second Secretary-General,
famously said about the organisation: “The UN was not created to take
mankind to heaven, but to save humanity from hell.” The UN furthered the
cause of peace for all nations and declared to uphold equal rights of men
and women. Involving women and ensuring their equal and active
participation at all levels for integrating a gendered perspective into UN
policies and programmes has been a goal of the UN.
The Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR) stipulate that there can be no distinction or
discrimination on the basis of gender. As early as 1986, the UN General
Assembly had set numerical targets on the representation of women. Beijing
Platform for Actionof 1995 established a goal of 50:50 gender balance to be
achieved by 2000 and ensure full participation of women in decisionmaking and power at all levels and in all forums. The 2017 theme for 8
March, International Women's Day, focused on “Women in the Changing
World of Work: Planet 50-50 by 2030”.
India has actively participated and cooperated in upholding and
promoting the aims and objectives of the UN. In the last seven decades India
has made enormous contribution to the UN through Governmental efforts,
work of scholars, soldiers and international civil servants. However, very
few women from India have positioned themselves on posts of signiÞcance
in this organization. The shining example was Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit who
became the Þrst woman President of the UN General Assembly in 1953.
Associate Professor, H. R. College of Commerce and Economics University of
Mumbai Mumbai.
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Since then very few women from India have made a mark on UN bodies and
agencies. The paper aims to focus on the participation and contribution of
Indian women to the UN as policy and decision makers while exploring
future possibilities for the same.
India's role in the UN- When the UN charter was being drafted, India was
still a colony. Sir Arcot Ramaswamy Mudaliar an Indian lawyer with proliÞc
career in international relations had led numerous Indian delegations to the
UN including the one for signing of the Declaration by United Nations at
Washington on 1 January 1942 and the United Nations Charter, on behalf of
India during the United Nations Conference on International Organization
held in United States, 1945.
On 25th October, 1946 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, led the Indian
delegation, the Þrst woman to head a delegation at the United Nations
General Assembly.
Jawaharlal Nehru conveyed through this Indian delegation to the
UNGA in 1946, “towards the United Nations India's attitude is wholehearted cooperation and unreserved adherence both in spirit and letter to the
Charter governing it- to that end India will participate fully in its varied
activities and endeavor and assume that role in its councils to which her
geographical position, population and contribution towards peaceful
progress entitle her – in particular the Indian delegation will make it clear
that India stands for independence of all colonial and dependent peoples and
their full right to self-determination.”
Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit had added, “India does not yet play a
sufÞcient part in this assembly. She desires and intends to do so. As a major
country, geographically in a strategic position in the Indian Ocean, with
signiÞcant relations and cultural ties with her neighbors in Asia, the
contribution she has made in resistance to aggression and the cause of human
freedom and her role in world economy entitle her to a place in the important
organs of United Nations Organization.”
Since then independent India has fully subscribed to the principles
enshrined in the UN charter and as one of the founding members of UN it has
“consistently supported the purposes and principles of the UN and has made
signiÞcant contributions to implementing the goals of the UN Charter”.
In the last seven decades of India's contribution to the UN on various
fronts only a handful of women from India have been appointed to various
UN bodies and agencies. It would be worthy to look at the contribution so far.
The Illustrious career of Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (1900-1990)- The
shining example in independent India's participation in the UN on an
eminent position was Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandithad a
notable diplomatic career, and had led the Indian delegation to the United
Nations twice in 1946–48, and later in 1952–53. She also served as India's
ambassador to Moscow, from 1947 to 1949 and to Washington and Mexico,
from 1949 to 1951. In 1953 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit was elected as the
President of the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly
(UNGA) elected by 37 votes against 22. She achieved the post for which
“there are no nominations and no campaign.” She was the Þrst woman
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
117
President to the United Nations General Assembly. Her election she said was
“in recognition of the part women will play in furthering the UN,” though in
a later interview she had mentioned that she was “never conscious of being a
woman president”. India since then has not had anyone elected to the UNGA
though the scope is less probable and so far only two women are elected
since then.
Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit served as Indian high commissioner in
London and she was also the ambassador to Dublin. She served as governor
of the state of Maharashtra from 1962 to 1964, and from 1964 to 1968 she
was a member of the Indian Lok Sabha. In 1978 she was appointed the Indian
representative to the UN Human Rights Commission. As the President of
UNGA her task was “of interpreting complex, ambiguous rules of procedure
of the Assembly- on the able performance of which depends not merely the
expedition of business, but amicable handling of all the many problems
before the House”.
Hansa Jivraj Mehta (1897-1995)- Hansa Mehta a freedom Þghter,
politician, academician and an ardent human rights supporter had won a seat
at the Bombay Legislative council election in 1937. She was also elected to
the Constituent Assembly and served in the Indian Constituent Assembly
from 1946-49 where she argued in favour of women's rights. She was a
member of the fundamental Rights Sub-Committee, the Advisory
Committee and the Provincial Constitutional Committee. On 15 August
1947, a few minutes after midnight, Mehta, on behalf of the “women of
India”, presented the national ßag to the assembly that was the Þrst ßag to ßy
over independent India.
Hansa Mehta was involved with the All India Women's
Conference as an active member. The Conference had started in the mid1920s with a suggestion for educational reforms for women and quickly
moved to social reforms with the realization that one will be worthless
without the other. Sarojini Naidu, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Urmila Mehta
and many others across various political party lines were actively involved
in the AIWC. In 1946 Hansa Mehta became the President of AIWC. During
her presidency, she drafted the Indian Women's Charter of Rights and
Duties, which demanded gender equality and civil rights for women.
Around this time she also served as a member of the United Nations subcommittee on the status of women.
She was eventually appointed to the UN's Human Rights Council.
With Vijaylakshmi Pandit she worked on women's equality and human
rights in the UN. She served as a member of the United Nations subcommittee on the status of women, which was established under the
commission of Human Rights, right from the Þrst session. She was also the
vice chair, with Eleanor Roosevelt on the United Nations Universal
Declaration of Human Rights committee. An active feminist, in 1946, she
articulated the need for a charter of rights on women that established 'the
freedom of women and her equality with man, equality of identity'. She
looked to already formulated Indian models, including the 1931 resolution
of the Indian National Congress (INC). Some aspects for the Commission on
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the Status of Women (CSW) were adopted verbatim from a charter she had
co-drafted for the AIWC. She had actively participated in all the three
sessions of Human Rights Commission that drafted the Universal
Declarations of Human Rights, 1948 and adorned the chair of the
subcommittee of working group on Implementation of Human Rights.
Begum Shareefah Hamid Ali- She was a pioneer in the Þeld of women's
emancipation in India. She belonged to a broad minded progressive family.
Her participation in the Indian freedom struggle provided her the
opportunity to connect with the all India women's movement and her Þrm
belief in improving the status of women was an impetus to her activism that
resulted in heading national conferences to participation in international
committees for women's rights. She represented the All India Women's
Conference at the Istanbul Congress of the International Alliance of Women
in 1935. She was elected President of All India Women's Conference for the
year 1940-41.
Soon after the founding of the United Nations in 1945 the United
Nations Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) was formed and which
held its Þrst meeting in 1947. The Commission aims to promote gender
equality and engage women in all aspects of human rights. Begum Shareefa
Hamid Ali represented India on the UN Commission on the Status of Women
and was the original member of the 15-member committee which prepared
recommendations and reports to the United Nations Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC) on promoting women's rights in political, civil, social
and educational Þelds. The commission had contributed in introducing new,
more inclusive language for the UDHR.
Women representatives for the All India Women's Conference
(AIWC) participated in the various sessions of CSW. For e. g. Lakshmi
Menon, one of the pillars of AIWC, and the principal of the Patna Women's
Training College represented India in 1949 third Session of CSW. Susheela
Dayal attended the Þfth session in 1951 on behalf of All-India Women's
Conference. Parimal Das attended the sixth session 1952 as representatives
of specialized agencies for United Nations Educational, ScientiÞc and
Cultural Organization. Putul Banerji was representative of World Federation
of UN Associations (founded in 1946) that raised awareness about the aims
of UN in the areas of peace, human rights and sustainability.
Hannah Sen (1894–l957)- Hannah Sen an educationist and activist was the
daughter of a Baghdadi mother and a prominent Hindu lawyer who
converted to Judaism. She earned a Teacher's Diploma from the University
of London, where she got an opportunity to be associated with some
prominent women's organizations. She eloquently expressed the condition
of women in India.
She was instrumental in the founding of the Lady Irwin College of
Home Science in New Delhi, and served as Principal of the same till l947.
Hannah Sen was the President of the All India Women's Conference in 195152. She represented India at international conferences of non-governmental
organizations, UNESCO, and the United Nations Commission on the Status
of Women. Hannah Sen served as the head of AIWC, 1951-1953 and was
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
119
representative at the fourth and Þfth session of the United Nations
Commission on the Status of Women in 1950 and 1951. She was the sole
female member of India's Þrst delegation to the PRC in 1951, representing
the AIWC.
Guided Tours- The American Association for the UN began a guided tour
service at the United Nations headquarters on 20th October 1952 with 10 girl
guides. Kailas Damania and Leela Lakshman Rao from India were a part of
the guiding team.
Neeru Chadha- Neeru Chadha is the Þrst Indian woman to be appointed as a
member judge of International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS),
UN's top judicial body which adjudicates cases related to the international
law of the seas. She won the election to the ITLOS for a nine-year term.The
Tribunal “is composed of 21 independent members who are elected from
among persons enjoying the highest reputation for fairness and integrity and
of recognised competence in the Þeld of the law of the sea."Neeru Chadha is
the Member of the Tribunal since 1 October 2017; President of the Seabed
Disputes Chamber since October 2020; Member of the Special Chamber
formed to deal with the “Dispute concerning delimitation of the maritime
boundary between Mauritius and Maldives in the Indian
Ocean”.International law expert Neeru Chadha as an eminent lawyer was
the Þrst woman in India to become the chief legal adviser in the Ministry of
External Affairs. It is decades after Vjaya Lakshmi Pandit, that an Indian
(woman) is positioned on an important UN body.
UN International Female Police Peacekeepers Network- The UN
Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) was the Þrst resolution adopted by
the 15-member Security Council to address the disproportionate and unique
impact of armed conßict on women and guaranteed their protection and full
participation in peace agreements. The resolution aimed to make women
active participants as peacemakers, peacebuilders and negotiators in conßict
situatons. The idea of women peacekeepers is fairly new to the UN. India
has contributed nearly 180,000 troops to UN peacekeeping missions. In
2017 India took a lead in contributing 103-strong Indian female police unit
in the UN mission in Liberia.
Indian policewomen Þrst arrived in Liberia in 2007. The Indian
Formed Police Unit (FPU) is also the world's Þrst all-women contingent to
have successfully served the UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) since 2007
representing nearly a decade of Indian women's contributions to building the
peace in Liberia. India, sends the second largest number of women police
ofÞcers annually to the United Nations Peace Keeping Force.
While lauding the contributions of the peacemakers at their farewell
ceremony, the Liberian president Ellen Johnson Sirleaf said: "The
contribution you have made in inspiring Liberian women, imparting in them
the spirit of professionalism and encouraging them to join operations that
protect the nation; for that we will always be grateful, "our security service
now has 17 per cent women – we owe all that to you, because it was not even
one percent a few years ago. And these women want to emulate you in the
way you've served this country."
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Inspector Shakti Devi of the Jammu and Kashmir Police, was deployed in
the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), as the Police Advisor
for Afghanistan Democratic Policing Project (ADPP) and was awarded the
International Female Police Peacekeeper Award 2014 for her "exceptional
achievements" in leading the establishment of Women Police Councils in
several parts of Afghanistan, and for her efforts towards helping victims of
sexual and gender-based violence. She had served as a part of UN Peace
Assistance Missions-Þrst in Timor-Leste in 2012 and then in Afghanistan.
From the above examples one can surmise that Indian women have
made a signiÞcant contribution to the peace processes of the UN and
formulate design for human rights. They were more concerned and
committed to the functioning and success of this organization. The glorious
achievements however are far and few. Prominent women from Indian
socio-political arena were involved in the work of the UN and its various
bodies in the early decades of both India's independence and the formation
of the UN. Over the years has this commitment waned in comparison? Post
globalization, India is consistently recognized as a fastest growing
economic power that aims to make a mark in the international arena. In view
of this the numbers and the contributions of women to the UN appear far less.
The pessimism is not unfounded considering India's earlier contribution in
spite of lesser literacy rates and limited exposure to world affairs.
In this context some introspection is required while few points can be raised
to explore the causes on domestic and international level.
Points for reßection- Education, health, exposure and opportunities are
determinants for higher contribution of women in socio-political-economic
arena. India's overall literacy rates have risen since independence from
around 18 percent in the 1950s to 74 percent in the 2011 census. According
to Census 2021, the male literacy rate is 82.14% and female literacy rate,
65.46% rising from 8.86% in 1951. Though India's average literacy rate has
increased since independence, however in comparison with the rest of the
world, the female literacy rate is considerably low in India at around 65
percent, which is 22 percentage points below the world average. Percentage
of women enrolment in India in higher education was 44.29 in the year 201112 which increased to 45.91 in the year 2015-16. Apart from these sociocultural barriers and superstitions continue to impact the full-ßedged
participation of women beyond household chores.
The world's largest democracy but has few women in active politics
though it has a history of powerful women leaders in pre and independent
India. As per the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) women hold only 23.4 per
cent of Parliament seats across the world. Yet, according to a 2019 report by
the Association of Democratic Reforms (ADR) the percentage of women in
Parliament in India is less than that of even most South Asian nations. India
slipped 28 places to rank 140th among 156 countries in the World Economic
Forum's Global Gender Gap Report in 2021, becoming the third-worst
performer in South Asia. According to the UN Women input to OHCHR
draft guidelines on effective implementation of the right to participation in
public affairs submitted in February 2018, Women are still underrepresented
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
121
at all levels of decision-making worldwide “…..as a result of discriminatory
laws, practices, attitudes and gender stereotypes, low levels of education,
lack of access to health care and the disproportionate effect of poverty on
women.” In India low participation of women in Indian politics and
governance is glaring. India was ranked low at 148th position in
representation of women in executive government. Considering that women
have low participation in public affairs and have structural and institutional
hurdles to cross one cannot rule out the possibility of low awareness of UN
bodies and international organizations for them to be considered as
signiÞcant.
On the international front, UN has often been disregarded
particularly by those who believe that with unilateral attacks sponsored by
the veto powers without sanctions from the global body and the UNSC has
undermined the signiÞcance of the peace body and allowed little or no role
for less powerful or smaller countries. Could this by itself become a reason
for lack of consideration for UN positions?
Increased participation- Apart from improving levels of female literacy
and girl education it is demanded to encourage women participation in
policy making and political positions. Gender mainstreaming is necessary
to make programmes and policies gender-responsive. It is important to
make every governmental/non-governmental organization, political party
'accountable for its own performance on gender equality while clarifying
lines of responsibility and accountability'. Apart from improving the
status of the institutions and organizations equal focus is required for
women and girls.
An enhanced awareness of UN, UN Charter, various UN agencies
and programmes is a necessary step in the direction of informed
communities. In one of the surveys conducted by Cluster Innovation Center
at the University of Delhi, it was found that most youngsters did not know
about the Sustainable Development Goals as discussed by the UN General
Assembly. Education simulation programmes as Model United Nations
(MUN) go a long way in imparting understanding more about International
Relations, diplomacy and UN itself among the young men and women.
Conclusion- As the country aims to enhance its role in world systems,
makes its presence felt in international arena and deÞnes its attitude towards
the lesser advantageous nations, India will have to deliberate a policy of
engaging women in decision making at every level to enable their
participation at the domestic and international level. The struggle is to
challenge the institutions of patriarchy and exclusion. We cannot wait
decades; we need to see a much faster pace of change!
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Union (IPU) and UN Women.
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125
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Priyanka Raj
Yogambar Singh Farswan
Devideen Patel
Abstract- In the present paper,we have carried out an overview of the
taphonomical study of archaeological faunal remains. Taphonomy in
archaeology studies the physical, chemical, and biological processes that
produce changes in organic remains, as well as the evidence (clues) that may
be used to identify these processes. The fact that archaeological bones differ
from the bones of live animals is one of their most evident characteristics.
Individual bones and assemblages of bones go through a lot of changes from
the moment an animal dies until the remains are collected for research. It is
observable that "bones are not always buried where an animal dies, and they
are even less likely to be buried where the animal lives," (Behrensmeyer, 1975)
according to another feature that may be less evident but no less essential.
Individual species seldom become fossils, but taphonomic studies have
revealed a lot about the conditions that allow rich examples of ancient life to be
preserved. The study of taphonomy strives to comprehend all types of physical,
chemical, and biological phenomena of the changed faunal remains produced
through digenesis and biostratinomy.
Keywords- Taphonomy, Archaeological Faunal Remains, Diagenesis,
Biostratinomy
Introduction- The study of how organic remains migrate from the
biosphere to the lithosphere, including processes impacting remnants from
the moment of an organism's death (or the waste of shed components) to
decomposition, burial, and preservation as mineralized fossils or other
stable biomaterials, is termed taphonomy. First, it was initially described
by Efremov in 1940 as "the study of the transfer (in all of its aspects) of
animal remains from the biosphere into the lithosphere," deÞning a topic
that is more broadly deÞned as "the study of preservation mechanisms and
how they impact information in the fossil record(Behrensmeyer, 2000)".
Research Scholar (UGC), Department of History, Ancient Indian History, Culture and
Archaeology, Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University (A Centarl University)
Srinagar Garhwal-246174 Uttarakhand, India
Professor in Environmental Archaeology, Department of History, Ancient Indian History
Culture and ArchaeologyHemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University (A Centarl
University), Srinagar Garhwal-246174 Uttarakhand, India
Professor in Environmental Archaeology, Department of History, Ancient Indian History
Culture and ArchaeologyHemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University (A Centarl
University), Srinagar Garhwal-246174 Uttarakhand, India
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
But the Þeld of archaeology, or to be more speciÞc,
"archaeozoology", mainly studies the changes brought to the archaeological
faunal remains via animals and human beings, especially during
biostratinomy, though it does not exclude the physical, chemical, and
biological processes that produce changes in the remains, as well as the
evidence that may be used to identify these processes, or in simple words,
the formation of the fossils. Processes which operate between death and
Þnal burial are biostratinomic processes, and those affecting organism
remains after burial falls under diagenesis.
Taphonomy could be examined in a wide range of taxa, including
microorganisms, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates, from protists to
sophisticated eukaryotes. Although taphonomy mainly focuses on the
organism's material remnants only, in the Þeld of archaeology it can also
include biomolecules and traces like trackways, burrows, and faeces as it
could provide information about humans as well as animal activities in the
past. It helps in knowing the reason behind the very small percentage of
preservation of the species that have ever lived on the planet as fossils for
some, yet certain biological remnants are rather common, while others are
uncommon or non-existent. It's crucial for deciphering what the fossil
record's restricted sampling of ancient life signiÞes, including biases
produced by the sorts of animals and ecosystems that are and aren't
represented. Keeping because of the importance of the subject we have
carried out this study and a diagrammatic representation of the same is
Illustration below-
History of Taphonomy- The word "taphonomy" was established by
Russian palaeontologist I.A. Efremov to describe the science of embedding
laws, or "the study of the transfer (in all its complexity) of animal remains
from the biosphere into the lithosphere." Only animal remains were included
in the original deÞnition. The term's derivation is derived from the Greek
terms taphos, which means burial, and nomos, which means laws(Cadée,
1991). This "new branch of palaeontology," according to Efremov,
encompasses all research aimed at "analysing the processes of embedding.”
Taphonomy as a term for a speciÞc Þeld of study originated and
evolved in palaeontology, where it was originally conceived as involving
two stages, the Þrst occurring between an organism's death and its Þnal
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
127
burial (recognising that it could be buried, exposed, and reburied multiple
times), or biostratinomy, and the second occurring between Þnal burial and
recovery of the remains or diagenesis. The divergence was introduced to
eminent and keepthe separation between those of pre-burial and mostly
biological (biostratinomic) processes that impacted remains and from those
of post-burial geological and chemical (diagenetic) processes that
inßuenced remains(Lawrence, 1979).
By the middle of the 1980s, paleobiologists Anna Behrensmeyer and
Susan Kidwell (1950) had established taphonomic research as "the study of
processes of decomposition and the study of preservation mechanisms.”
The lengthy journey in the history of taphonomy was a natural
progression of the term from indicating solely processes that somehow bias
a collection of organisms' remains to realising that some of those processes
may be of interest in their own right.
History of taphonomy in archaeology- The entrance through
which taphonomy initially entered archaeological inquiry explicitly was
multidisciplinary research linked with understanding early hominid
evolution(Behrensmeyer, 1975; Hill, 1976). Increased archaeological
inquiries regarding the differences between naturally transformed bones and
those modiÞed by hominids aided the introduction(Shipman & Phillips,
1976; Shipman & Phillips-Conroy, 1977). The term taphonomy originally
related to the study of the processes to which preserved organic remains had
been treated and was distinguished by its frequent omission from
dictionaries (even ones that ordinarily contain essential concepts). As a
result, palaeontology was the word's Þrst use, but even there, the notion has
only been actively addressed since the 1960s.
Efremov coined the phrase in an attempt to codify the procedures
connected to bone burial into a uniÞed framework. Over the ensuing
decades, palaeontologists progressively adopted this essentially scientiÞc
approach to the examination of fossil remains(Behrensmeyer 1975; 1978;
Gifford 1981; Hill 1976, 1979).
Use of taphonomy in archaeology- Archaeologists discovered in the 1980s
that the fundamental ideas extended to their Þeld as well, notably the
biological components of site development processes. After Þrst limiting
their use to faunal remains, several people realised that the principle might
be applied to a wider range of things. In Australia Hiscock (1985) discovered
that the basic ideas could be applied to stone tools, rock art, pottery, charcoal,
and other archaeological artefacts as well.Today, the term taphonomy in
archaeology is a bit of a misnomer: tapho is Greek for "grave," and nomy
denotes knowledge systematization. It refers to the study of the transition of
materials into the "archaeological record" in archaeology(Bahn, 1992). It
has become clear that even this broadened deÞnition may not be sufÞcient
and that taphonomy of paleoart, including rock art, imposes more stringent
requirements on practitioners. But, to understand this, it is helpful to look at
how techonomic ideas are used in archaeology to see what can be learned
from them. The fact that these experiences may be used in archaeology and
rock art studies demonstrates how effective techonomic logic is as an
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UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
epistemic instrument(Bednarik, 1990–91, 1992, 1993, 1994).
The study of preservation mechanisms and how they impact the
information contained in the fossil record is the main aim of taphonomy in
archaeology. The processes remove as well as add information, such as
chewing marks on bones that indicate predator identiÞcation. It aims to
comprehend mechanisms [that have altered organic remains] so that data
from the fossil record may be properly analysed and used to solve
palaeobiological and palaeoecological problems in the Þeld of archaeology
(Marchetti et.al. 2019).
Diagenesis of bones and tooth- In archaeology, bone remains are an
essential source of knowledge about the past. They do, however, change
with time. From the macroscopic to the nanoscopic scales, there is change.
The evaluation of information collected from the chemical and isotopic
composition of palaeo-diets, ages, and palaeoclimates necessitates the
investigation of diagenetic alterations using a variety of complementary
analytical approaches. Bone histology, porosity, protein content, the
crystallinity of bone apatite, carbonate content, and enrichment and leaching
of chemical species, in general, are digenetic criteria that quantify the postmortem change of bone (Von Endt and Ortner, 1984). Complementary
elemental and structural analyses (Particle-Induced X-ray Emission,
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive Xray (EDX), Electron Microprobe, X-ray Diffraction, Infrared Spectroscopy,
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) with (EDX), Microscopic
Observations (Optical, SEM, TEM), and porosity measurements can all be
used to investigate (Reiche, et.al., 2003)
The pace and type of post-mortem changes to bones and teeth are
inßuenced by the porosity of mineralized tissues (Hedges and Millard,
1995). The ease with which water, bacteria, and dissolved ions enter and
exit the tissue is determined by the diameter and interconnection of the
different pores.
Diagenesis of hard tissue (i.e. bone and teeth) is a complicated and sitespeciÞc process. Temperature, the presence of oxygen, soil composition
(e.g., pH, ßora and fauna), soil pressure and drainage capacities,
groundwater chemistry and hydrological movement, microbial assault, and
particle transport are all factors that affect the burial environment. All of
these variables, which are frequently intertwined, are responsible for the
chemical degradation of the bone's protein and mineral components, as well
as its bioerosion, or microbial modiÞcation of bone produced by bacteria,
cyanobacteria, and fungus.
Chemical hydrolysis or microbial assault can cause the organic
component of the bone to degrade. While the pace of collagen hydrolysis is
affected by time, temperature, and soil PH, microbial bioerosion can begin
as soon as a person dies. For example, Jans discovered that intact burial
bones are more likely to be degraded by germs than fragmented bones after
dismemberment or butchering (e.g., faunal remains). This suggests that
bacterial bone degradation is linked to putrefaction and early phases of
bodily decomposition. There may be an increase in bone porosity after
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
129
collagen breakdown, which enables microbial assaults and subsequent
apatite dissolution and/or recrystallization, especially under certain
environmental circumstances (e.g., the presence of groundwater). The early
chemical breakdown of bone apatite might expose the bone to microbial
assault, which could lead to protein degradation.
The histological study of bone integrity, alone or in combination with other
parameters, has been widely used not only to assess diagenetic changes but
also as a pre-screening tool to infer the degree of biomolecular or
paleopathological preservation among the four diagenetic parameters
deÞned by Hedges to measure bone destruction (i.e., crystallinity changes,
porosity, and protein content).
The rate of change has remained consistent across time, indicating
that major outcomes are the consequence of the accumulation of many small
changes, rather than a single catastrophic event.
Biostratinomy in archaeology- Animal bones discovered during
excavations have a lengthy history of taphonomic alterations, beginning
when they were Þrst deposited and continuing until they were recovered.
Such changes can change the physical and chemical composition of bone
tissue, as well as cause bone mobility(Albarella, 2016). This can take several
forms, including horizontal transit of the bones from one part of the site to
another, vertical movement through the archaeological strata, or a
combination of these.
The period between death and burial is important in archaeology because it
involves both animal and human-induced changes to the bones (gnawing,
butchering, cooking, etc.) that are archaeologically signiÞcant and are
frequently referred to as' biostratinomy' (Gifford, 1981; Albarella, 2016).
Physical, mechanical, and sedimentary processes such as disarticulation,
abrasion, transit, dispersion, sorting, and re-sedimentation are examples of
biostratinomic alterations.
The following phrases might be used to describe the biostratinomy of
archaeological bones:
Re-deposited bone: discovered at a location other than where the
bone was originally buried.
Residual bone: A bone discovered in a phase other than the one to
which it originally belonged.
Intrusive bone: A bone that was discovered in a stratigraphic stratum
that accumulated earlier than the one to which it originally
belonged.
Contaminant bone: A bone discovered in a phase other than the one
to which it originally belonged(Albarella, 2016).
Importance of taphonomy in archaeology- The fossil record has a wealth
of biological and ecological data, but the quality of this data is inconsistent
and incomplete. The same may be stated for many forms of neo-biological
data, but in these circumstances, archaeologists impose sample biases,
which are explicable as part of a research strategy. Natural processes have
already done the sampling and generated the biases in fossils before research
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begins. Taphonomy aims to comprehend these processes to properly analyse
and apply data from the fossil record to paleobiological and paleoecological
concerns from the archaeological point of view.
One of the primary objectives of the discipline since the 1980s has
been the investigation of postmortem bias in paleobiologic data, although
taphonomy has always been and continues to be a multi-tasking science.
Because organisms not only produce potential fossils but also are high in
live/dead interactions and feedback, states of preservation of biotic remains
are not only indicators of how faithfully biological history has been
recorded (issues of paleobiologic data Þdelity and resolution), but also
testaments to environmental conditions and evidence of important aspects
of biological evolution (skeletal and biochemical novelties, live/dead
interactions and feedback). The logical limits of taphonomy are deÞned by
its focus on processes and patterns of fossil preservation, but in practice,
taphonomy stimulates research on all types of biases affecting
paleontological information, such as those introduced by collecting,
publication, and curation methods on the one hand, and stratigraphic
incompleteness on the other.
The Pleistocene cave bear (Ursus spelaeus; Rosenmüller and
Heinroth) got its name from the fact that nearly all of its bones were
discovered in caves(Bednarik, 1993). They have been discovered in large
numbers in cave lair deposits, up to tens of thousands of individuals in
certain caves. In Austria, for example, 250 tonnes of cave bear bones were
discovered in the Drachenhöhle. As a result, the distribution pattern of these
remnants suggests that the animal was a cave dweller who died inside
caverns regularly. Despite this, the species only used caverns as winter
hibernation locations during stadial times, otherwise spending no time
inside. It was a herbivore whose primary food source was grass. Although
weak or elderly bears perished during hibernation, there is no doubt that the
great majority of cave bears died outside of caverns. So, why are their
skeletons nearly all found in caves? The explanation is taphonomy: the
chance of skeletal remains surviving in cave sediments is thousands of times
higher than the chance of them surviving in the open. There are two primary
reasons for this: Inside limestone caves, the sedimentary pH, which
inßuences the survival of osteal remnants, is quite high, and they are not
susceptible to external weathering but rather to exceptionally stable
paleoclimatic circumstances.
Limitations in the Þeld or inaccuracy- The nineteenth-century
controversy over the signiÞcance of broken stones, which were thought to
show a Tertiary-aged "eolithic" civilisation, prompted a lot of study into
determining the physical characteristics of the stones that unequivocally
meant human alteration (Grayson, 1986). A paleobiologist, unlike an
archaeologist, understands what a certain seed, leaf, bone, tooth, or shell
looked like while the creature was alive. This makes the Þrst phase of the
taphonomic study, reconstruction, very simple because the comparison
baseline-the size and form of the living creature-is already known. Is there
anything about the prehistoric specimen in question that distinguishes it
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
131
from a regular (contemporary) example of the same kind? Is it
disarticulated, twisted, shattered, scarred, discoloured, scorched,
mineralized, or discoloured? If so, what's the reasoning behind it? Is the
difference due to a disease that occurred while the creature was alive, or is it
postmortem and hence taphonomic? Having a more or less well-known
model of what the contributing organism(s) looked like is a huge advantage
in paleobiology; archaeologists, on the other hand, don't have that luxury
and must infer very basic properties from the artefacts they study, such as
whether an arrowhead is a tip of an atlatl dart, a spearhead, or a knife. They
have no means of knowing what the arrow shaft (e.g., ßetched, un-ßetched)
or bow (e.g., sinew backed, or not) looked like after that. A femur, on the
other hand, necessitates a tibia, and the femur of a bear (Ursidae)
necessitates one kind of tibia, but the femur of a squirrel (Sciuridae)
necessitates another. Knowing those anatomical requirements, as well as
what a "normal" skeleton looks like, gives a useful framework for
recognising taphonomic features in skeletal remains.
Conclusion- Today, taphonomy is primarily concerned with a geobiological
knowledge of the earth based on postmortem processes that recycle
biological components and inßuence our capacity to recreate former
ecosystems in both good and negative ways. It looks at how organic matter
moves from the biosphere to the geological record. It is especially important
for zooarchaeologists and paleobiologists who study organic remains in the
archaeological record to recreate hominid dietary patterns and
paleoecological circumstances. Taphonomy is the response to the inquiry
"Are the remains different than when they were part of a living organism,
and if so, how are they different, and what do the similarities and differences
suggest about paleobiology, paleoecology, and the like?" We can't just
assume the scenario was this or that based on the number of bones, but it's
critical to do a taphonomic investigation.
Taphonomy in archaeology is the study of preservation processes
and how they affect the information stored in the fossil record. The
procedures both remove and add information, such as gnawing marks on
bones, which reveal predator identity. It seeks to understand processes (that
have transformed organic remains) so that data from the fossil record may be
appropriately analysed and used to address palaeobiological and
palaeoecological challenges in archaeology (Marchetti et.al. 2019).
Since the 1980s, one of the discipline's key goals has been to investigate
postmortem bias in paleobiologic data, even though taphonomy has
always been and continues to be a multi-tasking science. Because
organisms not only produce potential fossils but also have a high rate of
live/dead interactions and feedback, states of preservation of biotic
remains are not only indicators of how accurately biological history has
been recorded (issues of paleobiologic data Þdelity and resolution), but
also testaments to environmental conditions and evidence of important
aspects of biological evolution (skeletal and biochemical novelties,
live/dead interactions and feedback).
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
132
References
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6.
7.
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21.
Albarella, U. (2016). DeÞning bone movement) archaeological stratigraphy: a
plea for clarity. Archaeological Anthropological Science, 8: 353–358.
Bahn. P, (1992). Collins Dictionary of Archaeology. Harper Collins
Publication. Glasgow.
Behrensmeyer, Anna K., Susan M. Kidwell, and Robert A. Gastaldo (2000).
"Taphonomy and paleobiology." Paleobiology, 26.S4: 103-147.
Bednarik, R. G. (1990–91). Epistemology in palaeoart studies. Origini 15:
57–78.
Bednarik, R. G. (1992). The stuff legends in archaeology are made of: a reply
to critics. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 2(2): 262–265.
Bednarik, R. G. (1993a). Refutability and taphonomy: touchstonesof palaeoart
studies. Rock Art Research 10: 11–13.
Bednarik, R. G. (1993b). Wall markings of the cave bear. Studies in Speleology
9: 51–70.
Bednarik, R. G. (1994). A taphonomy of palaeoart. Antiquity68(258): 68–74.
Cadee, G. C. (1990). The history of taphonomy. In (S. K. D Donovan, ed.), The
processes of fossilization, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 3-21.
Efremov, J. A. (1940). Taphonomy: a new branch of palaeontology. Pan
American Geologist, 74(2): 81–93.
Grayson, D.K. (1986). Eoliths, archaeological ambiguity, and the generation
of “ middle-range” research. In (D. J. Meltzer, D. D. Fowler, and J. A. Sabloff,
eds.) American archaeology:past andfuture, pp. 77-133. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington.
Gifford, D. P. (1981). Taphonomy and paleoecology: a criticalreview of
archaeology's sister disciplines. In M. A. Schiffer (ed.), Advances in
archaeological method and theory, Vol. 4, pp. 365–438. Academic Press, New
York.
Hill, A. (1976). On carnivore and weathering damage to the bone. Current
Anthropology 17(2): 335–336.
Hill, A. (1979). Butchery and natural disarticulation: an investigatory
technique. American Antiquity 44: 739–744.
Hiscock, P. (1985). The need for a taphonomic perspective in stoneartefact
analysis. Queensland Archaeological Research 2: 82–97.
Kendall, Chistopher, Eriksen, Anne Marie, Ioannis et al. (2018). Diagenesis of
archaeological bone and tooth. Palaeogeography palaeoclimatology
paleology, 21-37.
Marchetti, (2019)DeÞning the morphological quality of fossil footprints.
Problems and principles of preservation in tetrapod ichnology with examples
from the Palaeozoic to the present, Earth Science Review, 193: 109-145.
Lawrance, D.R. 1979c. Taphonomy. In (R. W. Fairbridge and D. Jablonski,
eds.) Encyclopedia of palaeontology, Stroudsburg: D ow den, Hutchinson &
Ross, Inc., pp. 793-799.
Reiche, I., Favre-Quattropani, L., Vignaud, C., Bocherens, H., Charlet, L., &
Menu, M. (2003). A multi-analytical study of bone diagenesis: the Neolithic
site of Bercy (Paris, France). Measurement Science and Technology, 14(9):
1608.
Shipman, P. and Phillips, J. E. (1976). On scavenging by hominids and other
carnivores. Current Anthropology,17: 170-172.
Shipman, P. and Phillips-Conroy, J. E. (1977). Hominid tool-making versus
carnivore scavenging. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46: 77-86.
133
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Nisha Rathore
Abstract- The condition of tenants became miserable during the British rule
throughout India because majority of the tenants were made dependent on their
landlords (taluqdars, zamindars, etc.)due to the colonial land policies. Mostly
land settlements were made with the landlords in their favour, who acted as
intermediaries between the British Government and the tenants. Landlords
collected rent from tenants and paid a Þx amount to the British in the form of
revenue. They also collected nazrana, illegal tax, from the tenanats.The British
ofÞcers did not control the exploitation of tenants by their landlords. The
exploitation of tenants-at-will was more because they were not given
occupancy rights over land, therefore, such tenants could be evicted from their
land on any excuse at any time. So also they were not provided any kind of legal
protection by the colonial Government. Tenants with occupancy rights were in a
small number. This paper is restricted to the Province of Awadh.
Keywords- Tenants-at-will, occupancy tenants, taluqdars, zamindars,
nazrana, Oudh Compromise, ejectment.
Introduction- The Oudh Rent Act of 1868 conferred the rights of
occupancy on every tenant who had within thirty years before February 13,
1858, been in possession, as proprietor, of land in a village the rights being
heritable but not transferable. Though the Act gave some relief to old
dispossessed proprietors, it did not permit increase of occupancy rights in
future. Under-proprietary rights could be conferred by the superior
proprietors, but no occupancy rights could be conferred or acquired.
Occupancy tenant has obtained a decree for a speciÞc plot only at a
privileged rent, without any powers of transfer. 'Occupancy tenants',
according to Majid Hayath, 'were the beneÞciaries of the “Oudh
Compromise” of 1866.'1 The parties to the compromise were tenants,
taluqdars, the Chief Commissioner of Awadh and the Government of India.
The taluqdars did not wish to give any occupancy rights to their tenants, as
they had no wish to give under-proprietary right to them. The Awadh Chief
Commissioner supported the taluqdars. However, the Government of India
supported the tenants. Acompromise was reached in such a fashion that it
satisÞed both the parties, taluqdars and tenants. As a result the Act XIX of
1868 was passed. This Act 'declared all cultivators as tenants -at -will
except those enumerated in Section 5 of the Act.'2 The occupancy rights
under section 5 were only to a few tenants. As Powell points out:3
If a tenant could show that he was once
Associate Professor, Department of History, Agra College, Agra (U.P.)
134
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
proprietor i.e. within thirty years before
February 13th , 1856…he might be entitled
to the occupancy -right…with a heritable
but not transferable tenure.
As the period of thirty years was too long, the claimants in majority
of cases could not prove their proprietary rights. Therefore, a small number
of tenants were given occupancy rights. As Powell further points out
concerning the difÞculties of tenants in having occupancy rights:4
. . . in Oudh, 'occupancy–tenants', as representing
the residuary class of persons, who have some
right to consideration, and yet not deÞnite
enough to be sub-proprietors . . . are a small
class. Under the Act of 1868 they were holding
only about 1 per cent of the whole cultivated
area: 78 per cent was held by tenants-at-will.
So the occupancy tenants were only those persons who could not
proof for under-proprietary rights. But the kind of proof they produced was
sufÞcient to make them occupancy tenants. Seen in this way there was no
qualitative difference between the two categories, the category of underproprietors and the category of occupancy tenants. The occupancy tenants
too were respectable tenants. The taluqdars could not eject them at their will
if they paid their rents regularly. Soalso they could not enhance the rent of
occupancy tenants at their will. There were restrictions imposed on the
enhancement of rent of the occupancy tenants. But they hardly made any
difference to the economic position of the taluqdars, for they were negligible
in numbers. But they could possibly pose challenge to the taluqdars if they
joined hands with the under-proprietors, for both of them formed respectable
kinds of cultivators with the British Government's support for them.
The majority of the Awadh tenants who were not given any kind of
right on land by the Oudh Rent Act of 1868 were known as tenants-at-will.
They could be removed or evicted from their Þelds at any time by the
taluqdars. In 1880, about 88 per cent of the total cultivated area was held by
tenants-at-will who were at the mercy of the taluqdars and zamindars. The
British Government gave no kind of protection to them for a long time, i.e.,
till 1886. These tenants cultivated “78 per cent area.”5 Almost all the tenantsat-will were the bonded peasants, because they had very small, noneconomic, holdings. They had so much of land as to keep themselves
subsisting with the help of moneylenders. Tenants-at will could be ejected at
any time, so also their rent could be enhanced at any time. They had no
guarantee about their land.
For the Þrst time tenants-at-will were given legal protection by the
government through the Oudh Rent Act of 1886 ( XXII of 1886 ). This Act
placed certain checks on the power of taluqdars Referring to the protection
given by the government, Baden Powell writes: 6
Every non-occupancy tenant. . .has a statutory
right to remain on the holding, and with the
same rent, as he was paying on the 1st of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
135
January, 1887, for seven years , from the
Date of the last change in the area of his
holding.
Thus, for the period of seven years a tenant-at-will could not be
ejected, and so also his rent could not be enhanced. And if a tenant was
ejected, by whatever reasons, the rent of the new tenant would remain
precisely the same. After the statutory period the rent could be enhanced. But
such an enhancement would not exceed 6/1/4 per cent. A landholder could
take back his land from the tenant only after the statutory period. But the
tenancies were not made heritable and the Rent Act of 1886 did not prevent
the land- holders from demanding nazrana (premium) after the expiry of
seven years. It was also for the Þrst time provided that the tenants could make
improvement on their cultivated Þelds with the consent of their landlords. If
landlords did not give consent for making improvements then Deputy
Commissioner of the district could grant consent. The tenants were enabled
to get compensation for the improvements they had made on their lands, in
case they were ejected from lands.
Nazrana became a main source of exploitation of the tenants-at-will
in Awadh. The rate at which nazrana was exacted varied and depended on the
quality of soil, competition for land, circumstances of tenants and the nature
of the landlord.
Everything appears to help the tenants so far as the legal side is
concerned. Though the rise in rent was checked for a few years the Act was
enforced, in the long run it lost its impact on the landlords. Even for those
years when the rent stopped rising, it is doubtful whether it was the result of
Rent Act. It is maintained that the rise in rent rate was stopped because of
poor cropping culminating into famine. Awadh had a widespread famine in
1896-7, and the antecedents of the famine are well known. So it is doubtful
whether it was the Rent Act or drought which was responsible for a check on
rent rates. Once the normalcy in crop production returned, the rent rate
started rising. According to Moreland 'the statistics of the next decade (1898
to1907) indicate a marked upward movement in rents.'7 One is immediately
reminded of the Royal Commission Report on Agriculture that the land
cultivator is beyond any legal remedy.8 Rural indebtedness makes all legal
protection useless. As soon as the Land Act was introduced the landholders
started searching new ways to increase rents. As M.H. Siddiqi remarks:9
The letting value of the land was constantly rising
and the tenants in competition were themselves
beginning to offer sums over and above
what is the tenant rate would come to if regulated
by law. The laws of the market, like the landlords
were not to be governed by the rent acts.
In these circumstances giving legal protection to the tenant was like
prescribing tonic for his health without diagnosing his illness. And then there
was no legal remedy for the extraction of other kinds of cesses from the
tenants imposed by the landlords for the simple reason that they were not
legal. There was no law introduced for stopping these cesses, and even if
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
136
such a law was introduced it would fail to work. In spite of the act of 1886 the
tenants suffered. In many estates their condition was desperate and a good
deal of discontentment prevailed.
To conclude, in 1880, about 88 per cent of the total cultivated area
was held by tenants-at-will in Awadh who were at the mercy of the taluqdars
and zamindars. Even the Oudh Rent Act of 1886 which gave statutory right
to tenants-at-will for a given period, could not stop their exploitation by the
taluqdars.
Reference1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Majid Siddiqi, Agrarian Unrest in North India, p. 15.
Aulad Siddiqi, Land Tenures in U.P., p. 93.
Baden Powell, The Land Systems of British India, p. 246.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 250.
Moreland, The Revenue Administration of the United Provinces, footnote on
page 65.
8. See Nisha Rathore, 'A Comparative study of the Bonded Tenants and the
Bonded Labourers in Awadh, Bihar and Orissa (Odisha) During the Colonial
Rule', Research Journal of Social And Life Sciences, Vol. XXIV-III, English
edition, Reeva (M.P.), 12 June-2018 on bonded peasants of the dissertation.
9. Majid Hayat Siddiqi, Agrarian Unrest in North India : The United
Provinces,1918-22, New Delhi,1978, p. 80; Siddiqi refers to so many ways
adopted by the landlords for increasing rents.
137
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Kalpana Pandey
Abstract- An experimental study was conducted in a mixed 2x3 factorial design
with respected measures to Þnd out the signiÞcance of differences among the
mental clock comparison judgment times among blind and sighted students.
Congentially Blind (CB), Late Blind (LB) and Blind folded sighted (BFS)
subjects (120:40 in each category) were required to perform mental colock
comparison judgments under analogue versus discrete information processing
instructions. The mean response latencies among different experimental
conditions showed signiÞcant difference. CB subject under discrete processing
condition showed slowest while BFS subjects under analogue information
processing condition showed the fastest Judgment. The Þnding were consistent
with previous researches on perception through mind's eye and symbolic
distance effect''.
Keywords- Mental clock, Judgment, Experiment
Introduction- People compare objects by retrieving information
from memory rather than by direct perceptual inspection. Despite this very
little is known about these memory based comparative judgment. Moyer
(1973) student this through comparisons of size of named animals. The
judgement latency or reaction time for the choice of larget of the two
increased systematically as the difference in their real world sizes
narrowed. Such comparative judgement latency was found to be inverse
linear function of the logarithm of the estimated difference in animal sizes.
This was just like the direct perceptual comparison, hence it was called
"perceptual comparison through mind's eye" (Moyer, 1973).
Panio (1973) applied dual coding theory to explain the above
phenomeanon. He conducted experiments on comparsion of mental clocks.
The results showed a comparable symbolic distance effect (Paivio, 1977).
He also found that the judgement latency of symbolic judgement
was shortest for pictorial than mixed (picture and world) comparisons, while
all verbal (word and word) comparisons showed the longest reaction time
for such comparisons.
Pavio (1978) argued that the angular disparities were perceived and
retained with the help of imagery in sighted subject, therefore, analogous
imagery based comparison judgments were faster than computational or
digital ones. The present study was an attempt to replicate above
experimental Þnding among the blind and sighted subject.
Problem-The research questions of the prest study was: whether the
A.P.S University Rewa (M.P.)
138
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
congenitally blind, adventitiously blind and sighted subject differed in using
imagery while making mental clock comparisons?
Hypothesis- It was hypothesized that the superiority of image based
comparisons would be found among all the above three categories of the
subject (Congenitally blind, adventitiously blind and sighted).
Method
Subject- The study was conducted on 120 (40 each from blind,
adventitiously blind and sighted) boys from class IX to XII of the Govt.
school for blind, Rewa Govt. Martand School, Rewa.
Appratus and Material- Eighty cards with two digital clock times in
Braille language were used as comparison material with blind and
adventitiously blind subjects. While other eighty card with same digital
clock times in raised writing of Arabic digits were used with blind folded.
Sighted subjects. In both the above types of material half (40) cards had large
angular difference in between the 'clock hands', while remain half (40) had
small angular difference in between the hour and minute hands of the mixed
mental clock.
Experiment Design- A 3x2 factorial design with repeated measure was
used. The visual status of the subject was varied between groups at three
levels viz congenitally blind (CB), adventitiously blind or late blind (LB)
and blind folded sighted (BFS). Whereas, the type of instructions to use
analogue (or imagery) vs digital (or computational) mental comparisons of
the given varied with lat groups two levels. Thus, the study involved six
experimental treatments. Each experimental treatment consisted 40 subject
who compared 40 cards with larger and 40 cards with smaller angular
difference. Thus, every experimental treatment consisted of 320 (40x80)
observations. The subject were randomly assigned to different experimental
treatments.
Procedure- The subjects participated in the experimental setting arranged
separately in the respective schools. Each subject was assigned the
experimental task individual. The instruction provided to them were as
following.
(A) For analogue condition- ''You have to mentally compare and judge the
size of angles between the minute and hour hands of two digital times given
on each card (in Braille for blinds and in raised writing for blind folded
sighted subjects) For this you must imagine the two times in your mind and
compare the difference in the sizes of the angles of hour and minute hands to
tell which one (left or right) has the bigger angle.
(B) For Discrete condition- In the discrete condition the subjects were
asked to refrain from imaging the present digital times on the cards and to
compare then through computation. The judgment latency/reaction time in
the above comparisons was recorded through stop watch as the dependent
variable.
Results and Discussion- The date were analyzed through test and analysis
of variance (Anove). Table 1. Shows that the mean (M) reaction time
(response latency) (M=33.07 sec.) Congenitally blind subjects under
analogue condition was signiÞcantly shorter than the discrete condition (M-
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
139
=41.05 sec.) Similar trend was seen with blind folded sighted subjects for the
analogue (M=24.62sec) and discrete (M=26.72 sec). However, there was no
signiÞcance of differen in the two values for the late bling subject (Analogue
:M = 28.12 and Discrete : M=29.10 sec). Date showed that the response
latencies or comparison judgement reaction times were fastest for blind
folded sighted (BFS) under ananlogue instruction. Where as, these were
showest for the congenitally blinds under diserete instructions condition
(see Figure 1).
Further, The Anova analysis (Table 20 revealed that the main effects
of both the independent variables (Visual status of the subjects factor –A and
analogous vs discrete information processing instructions (Factor –B) were
signiÞcant. The interaction effect of AXB was also statistically signiÞcant.
Thus the Þndings clearly revealed the superiority of sighted visual status and
analogue information processing mechanisms in mental clock companion
tasks Recently, it has been shown that humans and other primates are
capable to make relative magnitude comparisons both with perceptual
(analogue) as well as with symbolic (discrete) inputs conveying such
information's. Chen et. Al (2014) have argued that often symbolic
magnitudes do not correspond directly to elementary features of individual
concepts. According to them, they may be formed in working memory of the
individuals, based on computations over more basic features stored in long
term memory (chen et.al. 2014)
Magnitude comparisons in making critical choices are common
among people in many different forms of appraisals (Moyer & Bayer, 1976)
Nieder & Miller 2003). When comparisons are done with contrastive polar
concepts (choose brighter vs dimmer) both perceptual and symbolic
judgements also yield a sematic congruity effect : for objects with high
values on the dimension, it is easier to judge which object is greater, whereas
for object with low values, it is relatively easier to judge which is lesser
(Moyer & Dumais, 1978).
The Þnding of the present study have supported the above previous
researches. These are also consistent with the dual coding theory (Paivio,
1978). They have great implications for both blinds as well as sighted
subjects.
Tabel 01
Showing Mean Rts, Sds & Ns
Under Different Experimental Condition
Instructions
Mean RT
(In sec)
SD
N
Congentally
Analouge
30.07
5.15
40.00
Visual Status
Blind
Late Blind
Discrete
Analoge
Discrete
41.05
28.12
29.10
7.83
40.00
6.72
40.00
5.12
40.00
Blind Folded
Analoge Discrete
24.62
26.72
3.57
40.00
4.77
40.00
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
140
Table 02
Showing Summary of Anova
Source of
Variation
Between SS
Main Effect of
Visual Status
(Factor
–
Sum of Square
Df
Mean Square
F
P
6971.40
5
1394.280
44.29
<0.01 S
5361.09
2
2680.545
85.15
<0.01 S
814.02
1
814.020
25.86
<0.01 s
796.34
2
398.185
12.64
<0.01 s
7365.70
234
31.477
14337.10
239
59.987
A)
Main Effect of
Angular Size
(Factor –B)
Interaction Effect
(AxB)
Within Treatment
(SS)
Total SS
Fig 01
Showing Mean Reaction Time under Analogue &
Discrete condition for CB, LB & BFS Subjects
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Allen, G.W. Siegel, A.W. & Rosinski R.R. (1978) The role of perceptual
context in structuning spatial knowledge. J. Experimental psychology, 41,
617-630.
Chen, D; Honging Lu & Holyoak, K.J. (2014) The discovery and comparison
of symbolic magnitudes. Congitive psychology. 71, 27-54.
Moyer, R.S. & Dumains, S.T. (19780 Mental comparisons in G.H. Bower
(Ed.) The Psychology of Learning and motivation. Vol.12, New York,
Academic Press.
Moyer, R.S. & Bayer, R.H. (19760 Mental comparisons and symbolic distance
effect. Cognitive Psychology. 8, 228-246.
Moyer, R.S. (1973) Comparing object in memory: evidene suggesting an
internal psychophysics. Perception and psychophysics. 8, 180-184
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
6.
7.
141
Nieder, A, & Miller, E.K. (2003), Coding of cognitive magnitudes Neuro, 37,
149-157.
Paivo, A. (1978) Mental comparisons involving objects attributes. Memory &
Cognition 6(3) 199-208.
142
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Fahmeeda Zaidi
Anubha Srivastava
Abstract- The purpose of this study was to examine and contrast the subjective
well-being of married and unmarried women. The participant of the present
research were 200 women (100 married women and 100 unmarried women).
The Subjective Well-being Inventory by G.P. Thakur & R.N. Singh, (2005) was
used to examine the subjective well-being of the participants. The data was
analyzed using SPSS 20. The needed analysis for the sample was calculated
using the mean, SD, and t-test. As a result, a signiÞcant difference in Subjective
Well-being was discovered between married and unmarried women. Subjective
well-being has been found to be better in married women than unmarried
women.
Keywords- Subjective Well-being, Married Women, Unmarried Women.
Introduction- There are three aspects of mental health : (i)
Negative mental health, (ii) Moderate mental health and (iii) Positive
mental health or psychological well-being.
A person's cognitive and affective evaluation of their life is deÞned
as subjective well-being (SWB).Diener and Seligman (2004) DeÞned wellbeing as people's positive evaluations of their lives, including positive
emotions, engagement, satisfaction, and meaning.Kahnemann and Riis
(2005) consider subjective well-being as being a hybrid concept with two
components, which might be labeled “experienced well-being” and
“evaluated well-being”.
The well-being of a person depends on his socio-economics status,
family environment, physical health, individuals own personality
characteristics and behaviour.The pleasant environment of the family makes
a person mentally healthy. Marriage is the foundation of family formation.It
can have positive and negative aspect but marriage is directory related to
happiness and life satisfaction.
Marriage is a means of increasing psychological, social and
economic resources (Williams and Umberson, 2004; Liu, Elliot and
Umberson, 2010).
Marriage plays positive role in the life of a person. To prove it many
studies have been done such as - Gove and Tudor (1973) Found that marriage
protects men's mental health more than women's.Fox G.W. (1980) produced
evidence to the contrary, claiming that marriage is more beneÞcial to
Associate Professor, Shibli National P.G. College, Azamgarh
Assistant Professor, Shri Agrasen Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Azamgarh
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
143
women. Waite and Gallagher (2000) Concluded that unmarried women have
a 50% higher mortality rate than married women, whereas unmarried men
have a 250% higher mortality rate. Frey and Stutzer (2002) Investigated that
marriage provides friendship, emotional support, ongoing sexual intimacy,
Þnancial security, and healthy behaviours to couples. Umberson et. al.
(1996) Marriage impels and supports a healthy lifestyle and behaviours that
can lead to and enable positive well-being throughout time. Many
researches found that marriage helps individual to get away from the stress
of relationship breakdown (Williams and Umberson, 2004; Simon and
Barrett, 2010; Liu et. al., 2010).
The purpose of this study is to examine the subjective well-being of
married and unmarried women. In order to achieve this goal, married and
unmarried women were compared in terms of total subjective well-being
and its many components (happiness, coping, optimism, physical health,
and social satisfaction).
Objectives- The objectives of the present study are as follows:
To examine the signiÞcant difference in overall Subjective wellbeing among Married and Unmarried women.
To explore the signiÞcant difference in Happiness among Married
and Unmarried women.
To investigate the signiÞcant difference in Coping among Married
and Unmarried women.
To Þnd out the signiÞcant difference in Optimism among Married
and Unmarried women.
To assess the signiÞcant difference in Physical Health among
Married and Unmarried women.
To examine the signiÞcant difference in Social Satisfaction among
Married and Unmarried women.
Methodology
Participants- There were 200 women in the sample. A total of 100 married
women and 100 unmarried women were chosen for the study. They were
chosen using the convenience sampling method from Azamgarh City (U.P.).
The age of the participants ranged from 30 to 35 years.
Inclusion And Exclusion CriteriaInclusion criteria:
Married and Unmarried women
Women who gave their consent
Women aged 30 to 35
Educated women
Non-working women
Exclusion criteria:
Women who are currently suffering from any physical or mental health
Illiterate women
Working women
Women below 30 years of age and above 35 years of age
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
144
Instrument- In the present research the participants' well-being was measured
through the Subjective Well-being Inventory by G.P. Thakur & R.N. Singh
(2005). This scale was created with the importance of SWB in human life in
mind. Both positive and negative items are represented on the scale. It provides
scores for Þve different SWB aspects, and global scores can be calculated by
putting the results from all of the dimensions together. Positive items on the
scale are rated on a scale of 3, 2, and 1, whereas negative items are scored in
opposite order, i.e. 1, 2, and 3. The higher the scale score, the better one's
subjective well-being, and vice versa. The Subjective Well-Being Inventory is
a well-known standardised test with veriÞed reliability and validity.
Procedure- In this study, both married and unmarried women were informed
about the purpose of the research and requested for their cooperation. After
their consent was obtained, the Subjective Well-being Inventory was given
to the participants. After reading and explaining the instructions, the
responses of the participants were recorded on the inventory. Inventory was
administered in a group of 5 to 10 participants at a time.
Statistical Analyses- The data was analysed using the SPSS 20 version. The
needed analysis for the sample was calculated using the mean and t-test.
Results And Discussions- The present study was done to see the signiÞcant
difference in overall Subjective Well-being and its components among
married and unmarried women. The result of the current research found that
married women score signiÞcantly higher than unmarried women in overall
Subjective Well-being and its various components. A clear picture of the
result of this study is presented in the tables below, respectively.
Table 01
Mean, SD, and t-value of Married
and Unmarried Women for the Subjective Well-being.
Group
N
Mean
SD
Married Women
100
61.35
5.06
Unmarried Women
100
40.98
7.81
t-value
21.88**
Note: **SigniÞcant at 0.01 level
Table 01 shows the Mean, SD and 't' values for the overall Subjective
Well-being of married and unmarried women. It is clear from the statistical
values shown in the above table that in the present study, the Mean of
married women was 61.35 and SD was 5.06. The mean of unmarried women
was 40.98 and SD was 7.81. t-value was 21.88 (SigniÞcant at 0.01 level).
Table 2:
Mean, SD, and t-value of Married
and Unmarried Women for the Happiness.
Group
N
Mean
SD
Married Women
100
19.56
3.44
Unmarried Women
100
15.80
3.91
Note: **SigniÞcant at 0.01 level
t-value
7.22**
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
145
The present research was done to investigate the signiÞcant
difference in happiness among married and unmarried women. Table - 2
shows the Mean, SD, and 't' values of married and unmarried women for the
happiness. It is clear from the observation of the table that in the present
research, the Mean of married women was 19.56 and SD was 3.44. The mean
of unmarried women was 15.80 and SD was 3.91. t-value was 7.22
(SigniÞcant at 0.01 level).
Table 03
Mean, SD, and t-value of
Married and Unmarried Women for the Coping.
Group
N
Mean
SD
Married Women
100
9.97
1.64
Unmarried Women
100
6.03
2.66
t-value
12.61**
Note: **SigniÞcant at 0.01 level
One of the objective of the present examination was to Þnd out the
signiÞcant difference in the degree of optimism among married and
unmarried women. Table - 4 shows the Mean, SD and t-value of married and
unmarried women for the optimism. In the present analysis the Mean of
married women was 17.37 and SD was 3.31. Mean of unmarried women was
11.80 and SD was 5.44. 't' value was 8.75 (SigniÞcant at 0.01 level).
Table 04
Mean, SD, and t-value of Married
and Unmarried Women for the Optimism.
Group
N
Mean
SD
Married Women
100
17.37
3.31
Unmarried Women
100
11.80
5.44
t-value
8.75**
Note: **SigniÞcant at 0.01 level
One of the objective of the present examination was to Þnd out the
signiÞcant difference in the degree of optimism among married and
unmarried women. Table - 4 shows the Mean, SD and t-value of married and
unmarried women for the optimism. In the present analysis the Mean of
married women was 17.37 and SD was 3.31. Mean of unmarried women was
11.80 and SD was 5.44. 't' value was 8.75 (SigniÞcant at 0.01 level).
Table 05
Mean, SD, and t-value of Married
and Unmarried Women for the Physical Health.
Group
N
Mean
SD
Married Women
100
4.57
1.17
Unmarried Women
100
2.71
1.24
t-value
10.92**
Note: **SigniÞcant at 0.01 level
The next purpose of the current research was to assess the signiÞcant
difference in physical health among married and unmarried women. Table -
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
146
5 shows the Mean, SD and t-value of married and unmarried women for the
physical health. In this trial, the Mean of married women was 4.57 and SD
was 1.17. The mean of unmarried women was 2.71 and SD was 1.24. 't' value
was 10.92 (SigniÞcant at 0.01 level).
Table 06
Mean, SD, and t-value of Married
and Unmarried Women for the Social Satisfaction.
Group
N
Mean
SD
Married Women
100
9.88
2.18
Unmarried Women
100
4.64
2.19
t-value
16.94**
Note: **SigniÞcant at 0.01 level
The present study was done to see the signiÞcant difference in social
satisfaction among married and unmarried women. Table- 6 shows the
Mean, SD, and t-value of married and unmarried women for the social
satisfaction. In our line of work, the Mean of married women was 9.88 and
SD was 2.18. The mean of unmarried women was 4.64 and SD was 2.19. tvalue was 16.94 (SigniÞcant at 0.01 level).
The result of the present research revealed that overall Subjective
Well-being was found to be signiÞcantly higher in married women in
comparison to unmarried women (Mean of married women = 61.35 and
Mean of unmarried women = 40.98). In addition, married women were
found to be better than unmarried women in all the components of
Subjective Well-being such as - Happiness (Mean of married women =
19.56 and Mean of unmarried women = 15.80), Coping (Mean of married
women = 9.97 and Mean of unmarried women = 6.03), Optimism (Mean of
married women = 17.37 and Mean of unmarried women = 11.80), Physical
Health (Mean of married women = 4.57 and Mean of unmarried women =
2.71) and Social Satisfaction (Mean of married women = 9.88 and Mean of
unmarried women = 4.64).
There are many beneÞts of marriage like a person does not want to be
alone, by getting married, he gets a partner who shares his happiness and
sorrow, develops tolerance and stability gets Þnancial support, husband and
wife get opportunity to share responsibilities and sexual need is fulÞlled. All
these things make a person's life happy, keep mentally Þt and increases his
Subjective Well-being. According to Carr (2004) There are two methods to
explain the link between happiness and marriage. First, cheerful individuals
make better partners than unhappy people. The second idea claims that
marriage provides several beneÞts that may contribute to happiness,
including psychological and physical connection, having children, building
a family, accomplishing a task as a parent, reinforcing identity, and
producing progeny.
The result of the present research conÞrm the results of several
previous studies such as Miller et. al. (2013) found a positive relationship
between marital quality and better physical health. Rogers (1995) and Dupre
et. al. (2009) concluded that married people have better health and live
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
147
longer than divorced, widowed and people who live alone or single.
The result of the present study is similar to the results of some other
previous studies. It has been found in these studies that married people are
happier and more pleased with their lives than their never-married, divorced,
separated, or bereaved counterparts (Frey and Stutzer, 2002; Graham and
Pettinato, 2002; Shapiro and Keyes, 2008).
Conclusion- It can be argued that the subjective well-being of married and
unmarried women differs signiÞcantly Subjective Well-being was found to
be higher in married women than unmarried women. Happiness levels differ
signiÞcantly between married and single women. Coping styles differ
signiÞcantly between married and single women. The difference in
optimism between married and single women is large. Physical Health
differs signiÞcantly between married and unmarried women. Married and
unmarried women have signiÞcantly different levels of social satisfaction.
Married women were found to have remarkable levels of happiness, coping,
optimism, physical health and social satisfaction than unmarried women.
Limitations And Future Recommendations- In this study the nature of the
sample was narrow and area speciÞc. The size of the sample of future
studies can be expanded and a larger area should be covered in research.
Other determinants in the context of Subjective Well-being should be taken
into account as well.
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Miller, R. B., Hollist, C.S., Olsen, J., & Law, D. (2013). Marital quality and
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Shapiro, A. & Keyes, C.L.M. (2008). 'Marital status and social well-being: Are
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149
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Vijeta Kumari
Abstract- The purpose of this study was to examine and contrast the subjective
well-being of married and unmarried women. The participant of the present
research were 200 women (100 married women and 100 unmarried women).
The Subjective Well-being Inventory by G.P. Thakur & R.N. Singh, (2005) was
used to examine the subjective well-being of the participants. The data was
analyzed using SPSS 20. The needed analysis for the sample was calculated
using the mean, SD, and t-test. As a result, a signiÞcant difference in Subjective
Well-being was discovered between married and unmarried women.
Subjective well-being has been found to be better in married women than
unmarried women.
Keywords- Growth, Education, Society.
Introduction- With the passage of the Charter Act of 1813, it was
clear that the colonial government would undertake some responsibility for
educating its Indian subjects. The nature of this education led to the
Orientalist- Anglicist debate in 1835, favouring the Anglicists. It was
Þnally decided that the colonial government would impart education in
Western knowledge to the Indian subjects. The authorities, however, had
only their male subjects in mind; the education of women was not high on
their agenda. Thus, the newly introduced education in India was destined to
be directed towards male education; and the scarce resource for educating
the Indian subjects was not to be wasted on the lower classes or women.
Although the government had an indifferent approach towards
female education, the girls' education initiative came from private agencies
from the colonial ofÞcials and the missionaries. For several decades, the
growth of female education in India remained tardy and unsteady before it
got impetus around 1850 when the issue of female education got the
attention of the British government. The government realised the need for
the spread of female education in India. The government, however, did not
take up the cause of the female education for the development of the girls as
individuals but as future mothers and wives who would be able to impart
modern western education to their children and the general people around
them. Thus, they would prove convenient tools for the spread of western
knowledge. There were several other grounds, too, for believing that
educated females would make better wives. One was based on the Victorian
idea that homemaking is a serious and scientiÞc affair. Another was that
Research Scholar, Department of History, Kolhan University, Chaibasa, Jharkhand
150
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
educated wives could prove to be better help-mates to their husbands. Yet
another emerging realisation was that in a changing society where middleclass men were emerging as important players and had to perform new roles,
they needed educated wives who would help them adapt to the changing
situation.
By the mid-nineteenth century, the idea of female education was
also Þnding support from the socio-religious reform movement in Bengal,
such as Brahmo Samaj. However, the idea was more in favour of education
at home than formal schooling outside the home. Generally, the reformers of
Bengal supported female education in the form of wives being educated by
their husbands or 'Zanana Education' whereby the 'missionary ladies' or the
governesses visiting the ladies at home and teaching them reading and
writing, apart from helping them to become 'good' and 'cultured' wives. They
taught them graceful conduct lessons that a government servant's wife
required. For all these, the visiting teachers were paid by the families visited.
By the second half of the eighteenth century, there were growing
demands favouring female education, including formal schooling, mainly
from the newly emerged middle class in Bengal. They took the help of print
media and wrote in favour of female education. A growing public consensus
had emerged around the desirability of female education. This resulted in
several native efforts to establish girls' schools. Several associations in
Bengal came forward to assist the government's efforts to disseminate girls'
education, such as Uttarpara Hitakari Sabha at Burdwan, Suhrid Sabha at
Faridpur, and Hindustani Sabha at Bakerganj. These efforts helped create
public consensus in favour of girls' education, which soon reached Madras
and Bombay Presidencies. By the later nineteenth century, it came to
Bengal, where girls' schools began to be opened through government
agencies. By the beginning of the twentieth century, girls' schools were
commonplace in small towns. Even in those regions that were thought to be
'socially backward' regions, girls' schools were opening and catching up
with the more 'developed' areas. However, various regions of India had
uneven progress regarding the introduction and growth of female education.
In the regions where tribal people had a dominant presence or
inhabited in large numbers, girls' education had its own set of problems,
which were addressed separately and slowed down the overall progress of
female education in these regions compared to the other areas of India. This
particular phenomenon necessitates a more focused regional and local study
of female education in India.
Advent of female education in Singhbhum- The present essay focus on the
initiation and growth of female education in Singhbhum, the erstwhile
district in the Chotanagpur Division. In Singhbhum, the advent and growth
of girls' education witnessed twin efforts: governmental efforts and the
Christain missionaries' efforts. Both of them complimented each other and
were seldom at the loggerhead. However, they differ in their methodology,
aims, and purpose of educating the tribal girls of Singhbhum.
Formal education of the Hos of Kolhan (Singhbhum) began as a
part of the 'civilizing' mission of the British. According to Thomas
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
151
Wilkinson, the Þrst political agent of the South-West Frontier Agency, the
spread of western knowledge in India will remove all kinds of social evils
that prevailed in the society. First, the East India Company opened its Þrst
Anglo-Hindi modern school in 1839 at Kishenpur (in the present Ranchi).
In 1837, Singhbhum District came entirely under British rule, and after
that, the Kolhan Government Estate (KGE) was established. In the same
year, the British Government implemented Wilkinson's civil and criminal
rules in the Kolhan Government State, according to which literacy was
necessary to run the work of the administration smoothly. Not only literacy
but the knowledge of the English language was also felt essential for the
people working under British rule.
In 1841, the Þrst modern school was opened near the district
headquarters at Chaibasa. This school was under the East India Company
in the Kolhan Government Estate of Singhbhum District. In the Þrst year,
the school had about 40 students, all of them were boys, and no girl student
was enrolled. Although the government encouraged the children to come
regularly by giving one paisa per day, it could not attract the girls of
Chaibasa town to attend the school.
Initiatives for the girls' education in Kolhan came late. In April 1871,
a girls' school was opened in Chaibasa, functioning with European funds and
local donations from native gentlemen, besides government funds. The
credit for the establishment of the school goes to Captain Garbett, who was
then the Acting Deputy Commissioner of Chotanagpur. In 1872, 43 of the
total girls' enrolment, 28 girls were Hindu, 4 Muslim girls, one girl was
Christian, 8 girls were Ho, and the other 2 girls were santali. It was estimated
by Captain E.T. Dalton, the then Commissioner of Chotanagpur, that there
were 60 girls in Chaibasa girls' school. Among them, daughters of mankis
were also present. The school seems to have progressed well and fast, as
gleaned from a report of 1885 written by an Assistant School Inspector:
'thesmall and outlying district of Singhbhoom, otherwise backward,
has advanced wonderfully in matters of female education, and can now
safely stand in comparison with a majority of the most advanced districts of
Bengal. The improvement…has not been in numbers only, but also in the
efÞciency of schools. I visited some of the institutions in the last cold
weather and was highly delighted to Þnd that a large number of little girls in
each school could not only read and explain passages from their textbooks–Bodhoday and Sisusiksha–in a majority cases,but could also work
easy sums in European and native arithmetic, with remarkable
facility'(General Report Public Instruction in Bengal, 1872–73, pp. 547,
Appendix A).
Dalton found Dhalbhum the most fertile area of female education,
where the Bengali population supported it. In 1888-89, the total allotment
for general education in Singhbhum was Rs. 11,560, out of which
expenditure for girls' schools was estimated at 1,330. The number of girls'
school was 36 and the number of pupils was Rs.1119/-. The cost per school
was Rs. 369/-, and the cost per pupil was Rs. 1.1/-. There were 3 Upper
Primary schools for the girls, where 156 students were enrolled.
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After 1872, it was decided by the government that all districts now
onwards have at least one girl child school. Captain Garbett had tried to
convince the girls' parents to send them to schools. He visited many of the
girls' parents to convince them of the desirability to educate their daughters.
He had his success, as, by 1882-83, 54 girls had reached the upper primary
class, and in the same year, one girl passed the upper primary and 14 girls
passed the lower primary examination.
In 1884, Sewing and Embroidery work was added to the curriculum
in all government girls' schools because the local people in Kolhan
demanded that girls' education be helpful for their future. To maintain the
interest of the girl students in the subject of sewing and embroidery, it used to
be examination like other subjects as well as numbers were also given. Still,
this number was not added to the examination result.
Missionary intervention in female education in Singhbhum- The
government was not the sole agency for spreading modern Western
education in the Singhbhum district. There were missionaries, too, who
primarily worked amongst the tribal people. Their aims and methodology
were quite different from those of government agencies. These missionaries
worked more for the girls' education and among the common masses. They
tried to impart education, as far as possible, in Hindi and local languages.
Their aim against the government was not only to educate but also to prepare
the giver to accept Christianity.
Lutheran Mission's works in Singhbhum- The Gossner Evangelical
Lutheran (GEL) Mission entered Chaibasa in 1864 and had opened a girls'
school in Chaibasa in 1869 by the name of 'Balika Nirman Prathmik
Vidyalaya.'The number of girl students soon swelled in this school. This
school was a successful experiment in the Þeld of girl child education.
Missionaries moved from village to village to convince villagers to send
their children to school; they used to say that if a daughter or daughter in law
is educated, she will educate the whole family. By 1872, three Lutheran
mission schools were operating in the Singhbhum district, two in Chaibasa
and one school in the Kathbhari. The number of students in Chaibasa Berlin
Mission Schools was 70, 46 boys and 24 girls.
In 1909, a proposal was made by the Mission to create a model girl's
school. The Mission planned to appoint more superior pundits and teachers
in the school, which were already in good condition. Now, all the schools of
the Mission should appoint trained teachers only. The trained pundits and
teachers replaced pandits and teachers appointed before. The Mission
thought girls would be neglected in boys' schools; if they had separate
schools with female teachers, their overall development would happen.
Roman Catholic works in Singhbhum- The Roman Catholic Mission also
played an important role in education. From its early days, the Mission
started providing education. From 1869 Father Stockman used to roam from
village to village, meeting people and telling them the importance of
education and school. In 1871, a chapel was built in Chaibasa, and the school
was attached to the chapel. He used to provide instruction in that chapel and
other public places, so the main effect of his arrival started from the Þeld of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
153
education. He had made primary education his main objective.
The school was attached to the church to preach the religion through
education. Parents were called to the church and told that if they did not send
their children to school, the Lord Jesus would be angry with them. Being
educated to live was as essential as food, not only for boys but also for girls.
Mission's efforts towards girls' education were continuing.In 1874,
Two sisters came from Kolkata from an institution called 'Daughters of the
Cross' and started their work in Chaibasa. They also taught Roman
Catholicism to converted girl students and tried to connect other
communities towards this Mission. With Loreto Sisters of Ireland and
Ursuline Nunn's of Belgium, the work of the schools was being carried out in
a lot of places.
In 1905, a Lace school was opened for Catholic women in and
around Ranchi. In 1905, there were more than 100 women in the school.
When the Lace School was opened in Ranchi in 1905, a similar school was
also opened in Chaibasa. It was also only for local Catholic women. This
school was functioning in Chaibasa as a part of other major charitable
schemes of the Mission. This school was not as prosperous as the Ranchi
school, but for local Catholic women, it was a boon. In Chaibasa's Lace
School, arrangements were made for weaving and spinning. This school was
running in collaboration with St. Xavier's Mission Chaibasa. The school was
named 'Shilp Ashram'. Later, it also started receiving grants and other
support from the government. Shilp Ashram had to work hard to get this
grant. From 1906, this institution was also opened for all the local tribals.
Due to this school, both men and women were getting job-oriented training
quickly, improving their lives.
S.P.G. Mission's works in Singhbhum- Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel (S.P.G.) did commendable work spreading girls' education in
Singhbhum. In 1884-85, S.P.G. opened the highest number of girls' schools
in the entire Bengal Presidency in Singhbhum. In the annual report of the
same year, the Assistant School Inspector has written that in matters of
female education, Singhbhum now safely stand in comparison with a
majority of the most advanced districts of Bengal. In 1887, the Girls Middle
School of S.P.G. Mission in Chaibasa functioned well. There were separate
schools for the boys and girls. These schools were also getting good support
of society. Separate hostels were also constructed for the boys and girls.
All the schools of the Mission ran government courses. It was the
order of the government that a school could take advantage of the facility of
grant-in-aid by following the government's rules. For this reason,
missionary schools ran similar courses as government schools.
A timetable was essential in every school, and while teaching in the
primary classes, the teachers must know which teaching method he is
adopting. They used to give religious education in their schools. Still,
religious education was imparted only to the Christian students in
recognition of the government rules. In all Mission schools,
comprehensive arrangements were made for the supervision of teachers
and the quality of teaching.
154
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
The school's new session started in January, and the annual
examinations were held in late November or December. Every year halfyearly tests and yearly examinations were held regularly. All Missionary
institutions and Normal schools gave utmost importance to the curriculum.
To prepare teachers, the curriculum in Normal schools generally included all
subjects. For them, along with general information about Christianity, Hindi
and English were necessary. Only the students who passed from the
Mission's Normal schools could get the job as teachers in the Mission's
schools. German Lutheran, Roman Catholic Mission and S.P.G. Missionrun Normal Schools had Theology, English, Mathematics, Algebra, History,
Science and Hindi Subjects included in their curriculum.
The Director of Public Education was appointed to maintain the
proper education system in the schools. Male and female school inspectors
were appointed for the operation of this whole system so that all the schools
could run well. This rule was followed for all the government's schools and
applied to the Mssionary schools. Missionary schools were inspected from
time to time by government ofÞcials, and school inspectors prepared the
reports and sent it to the government education department. As a result of the
relentless efforts of the Mission, girls had started coming out, and a separate
female school inspector was appointed for these girls' schools. The
importance of educating daughters was beginning to be understood by the
people of most sections of society.
Conclusion- In the nineteenth century, female education emerged as a
powerful aspect of tribal life. It worked signiÞcantly to improve the living
conditions of women and brought many changes in women's life. The
modernization process increased their awareness of the value of getting an
education. They used to help men in Þelds; soon, they worked on all
economic fronts like schools, hospitals, and government ofÞces. Now with
jobs standard of living has improved. As a result of the relentless efforts of
the Mission, girls had started coming out of their homes. Separate female
school inspectors were appointed for these girls' schools. The importance of
educating daughters was beginning to be understood among the people of
most sections of society. By this time, missionaries had started adult
education programs for women, grihini scheme, orphanage, girl child
education, and other training centres like lace school, nurse training centre,
bridal class, etc., to make them skilled. After getting training from these
institutions, they were able to start working.
Christian missionaries had an essential role in the spread of
Education in Singhbhum. They used to open their schools in remote rural
areas and take the help of education and preaching to build their faith in the
local people. In these schools, apart from education, emphasis was given to
sports, music, and moral education. The awareness in society and the feeling
of acceptance increased due to these schools. Changes were also seen in
social traditions and economic conditions. This process was long, but due to
girl child education, the state of women also ampliÞed their role in society. A
lot of change was seen, and its direct effect has been seen on the tribal
community itself.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
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2.
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Calcutta.
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Company, New York, Chicago, Toronto.
22. Roy, S.C. (1912), The Mundas And Their Country, Messrs, Thackers Spink &
Co., Calcutta.
23. Sahu, Murali(1985),The Kolhan under the British Rule, no publisher.
24. Sen, A.K. (2016), 'Faltering Steps to Modern Education: The Ho Adivasis of
Colonial Singhbhum', Avinash Kumar Singh (ed.), Education and
Empowerment in India: Policies and Practices, Routledge, London and
New York.
25. Stokes, Eric (1959). The English Utilitarians and India. London: Oxford
University Press.
26. Tete, Martin (1969), 1845 to 1969, 'Gossener Pariwar' in Gossener Kalisia
ka Sankshipt Itihas, Swarn Jubili Samiti, Gossener Press Ranchi.
27. Tete, Peter(1990), The Khariyas and the History of the Catholic Church in
Biru, St. Albert College, Ranchi.
28. Toppo, Sita(1979), Dynamics of Educational Development in Tribal India,
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157
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Jago Choudhary
Abstract- Bell Adjustment Inventory and Dependence Proneness Scale were
administered to 300 males to ascertain where college youth having high
moderate and low levels of DP differ in respect of their home, health, social
and emotional adjustment. The Þndings show that the persons having low DP
have better home adjustment than those having moderate and high dependence
Proneness (DP). Further DP has exhibited signiÞcant positive association
with home adjustment, Health, social and emotional adjustments fail to
difference between high moderate and low groups.
Keywords- Adjustment, Dependence Proneness, Youth
Introduction- Dependence proneness is often considered to be
motivational habit to depend on others even for routine matters. An
individual who develops such a trait would run to others for their help and
suggestions even if he faces a minor Problem. Such person needs frequent
encouragement and emotional supports from others. He feelsreluctant to
take initiative of independent judgments and actions. Critical and
demanding situation make him so uncomfortable that he cannot take his
own decisions. If somehow decision is taken, he would look for a positive
feedback. In case of failure, he blames others and displaces responsibility
for the outcome to someone else. A dependent prone person is more likely
to be suggestible, conforming passive and poor in self concept.
Although we have witnessed several empirical efforts concerned
with dependency (Sinha, J.B.P., 1968 a, 1969, 1970; Sinha, T.N. 1971), there
seems a dearth of research investigations exploring the role of adjusting in
dependence proneness. However, Pandey and Sinha (1968) examined the
association between dependence proneness and the Þve areas of adjustment
and found that the high dependence prone persons perceive to have
signiÞcantly fewer problems in the area of home and social adjustments.
Some more systematic studies are needed in this direction. The present study
has been conducted with a view to examining whether college youth having
high, moderate and low levels of dependence proneness differ statistically in
respect of their home, health, social and emotional adjustments.
Method
Sample- The sample comprised 300 males enrolled as undergraduate
students, drawn from different Colleges of Saran district of Bihar. The age
range of the subjects was from 18 to 24 years.
Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Jagdam College, Chapra
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
158
Tests Used- The following tests were used1. Dependence proneness Scale (DPS), developed by Sinha (1968b),
2. Mohsin-Shamshad Adaptation (Hindi) of Bell Adjustment
Inventory (MS-BAI), adapted by Mohsin and Hussain (1970).
Procedure- Subjects were approached in small groups (20-30 students)
in classroom situation. The collection of data was extended over a
period of two sessions. In the Þrst session, DPS and in the second MSBAI were administered. A gap of one day was allowed between the two
sessions. SufÞcient time was given to ensure completion of the tests.
The subjects were instructed on the basis of printed directions provided
on the test-booklet.
In order to verify different hypotheses formulated in respect of
adjustment dimensions, the criterion groups of the high (P67), the moderate
(P34-66) and the low (P33) scorers on the DPS was formed. Data was
analysed by the application of F-test, t-test and Pearsonian r.
Results and Discussion
Home Adjustment- It was hypothesized that the high dependence prone
persons would have more adjustment problems in home dimension than the
middle and the low groups. Towards this, data have been subjected to
statistical analysis. Table 1 presents analysis of variance of home adjustment
scores of the three groups formed on the basis of DP Scale.
Table 01
Analysis of Variance of Home Adjusted Scores of the three Groups
(High, Moderate and Low Scores on DP Scales.
Source
Between
2
df
Within
Total
297
299
SS
433.66
MS
216.33
6544.89
6977.55
22.04
F
p-value
9.81
.01
It is evident from table 01 that home adjustment has contributed
substantially to discriminate between high, moderate and low scorers on the
DP Scale. The obtained F-value (F=9.31, df=2/297) is signiÞcant beyond
.01 level of conÞdence. Further comparison of high, moderate and low
groups reveals that the low group (X= 6.39, SD= 4.59) has scored
signiÞcantly less (indicative of better home adjustment) than the high (X=
9.08, SD=4.44) and the moderate (X= 8.49, SD=5.01) groups. The
statistical comparison of high versus low, and moderate versus low has
yielded signiÞcant t-values of 3.06 and 2.16 respectively. However, high
and moderate groups have been found to be identical in respect of their
home adjustment (t=.59, df= 180, p> .05). Further, dependence proneness
has exhibited signiÞcant positive association with home adjustment
(r=.235, df= 298, p< .01).
In the light of statistical analyses, it may be inferred that dependence
prone subjects suffer from adjustment problems in home situation. This fact
is also substantiated by the correlation analysis. Since high scores on DPS
and Home Adjustment Inventory show more dependence proneness and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
159
poor home adjustment respectively, a signiÞcant positive correlation
between the two variables is expected. The result corroborates to our
expectation. However, the present Þnding does not gain support from the
Þndings of Pandey and Sinha (1968) who observed inverse relationship (r=.22, df=76, p<.5) between dependence proneness and home adjustment.
Health Adjustment- It was hypothesized that the high dependence prone
subjects would have adjustment problems in health dimension than the
middles and the low groups. Toward this, relevant statistics have been used.
Table 2 presents the ANOVA result.
Table 02
Analysis of Variance of Health Adjustment Scores of the Three
Groups (High, Moderate and Low Scores on the DP Scale).
Source
Between
2
df
Within
Total
297
299
SS
19.71
MS
9.85
6518.48
6938.19
22.28
F
p-value
.44 NS
The Þndings as summarized in table 02 reveal that the contribution of health
adjustment is not substantial in making discrimination between high,
moderate and low scores on the DP Scale. The obtained-vale (F=.44,
df=297/2) is not signiÞcant even at .05 level of conÞdence. Further
comparison of high, moderate and low groups shows that the three groups
yielded statistically insigniÞcant differences. The t-values ranged between
.22 and .69 only. This also substantiated by an insigniÞcant correlation value
(r=065, df= 298, p> .05). Thus our expectation that the high dependence
prone persons would have more adjustment problems in health dimension
than the moderate and the low groups is not fulÞlled.
Social Adjustment- It was hypothesized that the high dependence prone
persons would have more adjustment problem in social dimension than
the middle and the low groups. The ANOVA Result has been presented in
table 03.
Table 03
Analysis of Variance of Social Adjustment Scores of the Three
Groups (High, Moderate ad Low Scores on the DP Scale).
Source
Between
Within
Total
df
2
297
299
SS
68.17
7814.55
7882.72
MS
34.08
26.31
F
p-value
1.29NS
From table 03 it is evident that social adjustment fails to discriminate
between high, middle and low scorers on DP Scale. The obtained F-value
(F=1.29, df=2/297) is not signiÞcant even at .05 level of conÞdence. Further
analysis shows that the comparison of mean scores on social adjustment
across the three groups yielded statistically differences. The t-values ranged
.24 to 1.01 only. This is also substantiated by an insigniÞcant correlation
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
160
between dependence proneness and social adjustment (r=-.031, df=298,
p>.05). Thus our expectation that the high dependence prone subjects would
have more adjustment problems in social area than the moderate and the low
groups is not upheld by the present Þndings.
Emotional Adjustment-It was hypothesized that the high dependence
prone persons would have more adjustment problem in emotional
dimension than the middle and the low dependence prone persons. To
examine whether the three groups as a whole differ in differ in terms of
their emotional adjustment scores, one-way ANOVA has been employed
(cf. table 4).
Table 04
Analysis of Variance of Emotional
Adjustment Scores of the Three Groups
(High, Moderate and Low Scorers on the DP Scale)
Source
Between
2
df
Within
Total
297
299
SS
85.09
8740.30
8825.39
MS
42.54
29.43
F
p-value
1.44
NS
The Þndings as summarized in table 4 are discouraging. The
statistics so obtained show that the three groups as a whole do not differ
statistically in terms of their levels of emotional adjustment (F= 1.44, df=
2/297, p> .05). The comparison of mean scores on emotional dimension of
adjustment yielded insigniÞcant t-values ranging between .52 and 1.15 only.
It is also substantiated by an insigniÞcant correlation between the two
variables (r=-036, df= 298, p> .05). The Þndings are in unexpected direction.
Emotional adjustment fails to differentiate between fails to differentiate
between high, moderate and low groups.
Reference1. Adesoji, A. Oni (2010), “Peer group pressure as a department of adolescent
social adjustment in Nigerian Schools” “Department Educational
Foundations. Faculty of Education University of Logos. Asian paciÞc journal
of Educators and Education Vol. 25, 189-202, 2010.
2. Chopra, R., and Kalita, R. (2006). Adjustment problems of Elementary School
children of single parent and intact parent Families Edutracks, NeelKamal
publication (P) Ltd. 36-40.
3. Kurvilla, Maly, (2006), Sen and local difference in emotional adjustment of
adolescent. J. comm. guid. Res., 23(3) 285-291.
4. Lama, M. (2010). Adjustment of college freshman. International Journal of
Psychological studies 2(1) 142-150.
5. Malek T. Jdaitawi and other (2011) Emotional Intelligence in modifying Social
and Academic adjustment among First year University student in North
Jordan.
6. Priyanka Sharma and Nisha Saini, (2013) Health, Social and emotional
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161
problem of college students. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science
(IOSR- JHSS), 14(5) (Sep-Oct. 2013). PP 21-34.
Raham tullah, K. (2007), adjustment among adolescent. Journal of Social
science research 2: 53-64.
Rakhi Ghatak (2018) A study on home adjustment of adolescents International
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Shalu and Auduchya, S. (2006). A study in school adjustment of rural
adolescents. Ind .Psych. rev. 66(2): 93-96.
162
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Diwakar Pal
Hukum Singh
Abstract- The objective of the present study was to compare the effect of
selected yogic intervention strategies on VLDL. A total of Þfteen sedentary
male subjects were selected and used as two experimental groups of Þve
subjects each and one control group of Þve subjects from Gwalior (M.P.).
Suryanamaskar and Pragya yoga were considered as independent variable
and Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) was taken as dependent variable.
CHOD-PAP method (modiÞed Roeschlau's method) was used for measuring
the subjects' VLDL. Selected yogic intervention strategies training was given
up to one month with Þve days in week, each session scheduled for forty-Þve
minutes. The pre-test post-test randomized group design was used for this
study. Tests were administered before the training program and just after the
completion of the training program. Analysis of variance and analysis of covariance results revealed that there was signiÞcant difference of selected yogic
intervention strategies on VLDL.
Keywords- Suryanamaskar, Pragya Yoga, VLDL
Introduction- Cardiovascular diseases account for high morbidity
and mortality all over the world. Countries where the epidemic began early
are showing a decline due to major public health interventions. On the other
hand, cardiovascular diseases are contributing towards an ever-increasing
proportion of the non-communicable diseases in the developing countries
(WHO, 2002. Reddy et.al.,2005). Stress, lifestyle changes and
dyslipidemia are modiÞable risk factors. Behavioral methods are
recommended by the national cholesterol education program as the Þrst
line of prevention and treatment for hypercholesterolemia and other risk
factors (Calderon, 1999).Cholesterol has become a much-feared word
these days, and people are trying to maintain the normal cholesterol level
for which diets and yogic exercises prove to be effective means to reduce.
Now a days, there has been signiÞcant uptake of yogic exercises, as a
means of maintaining good health.Surya namaskara has been handed down
from the enlightened sages of the vedic age. The sun symbolizes spiritual
consciousness and in ancient times was worshipped on a daily basis. In yoga
the sun is represented by pingala or suryanadi, the pranic channel which
Sports OfÞcer, Government Girls College Chachora, Guna M.P.
Assistant Professor in Physical Education, DRA Government P.G. College Bisauli
Budaun U.P.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
163
carries the vital, life giving force (Saraswati, 2002). The practice of Surya
Namaskar as a complete and perfect compound blend of body movement,
breathing and concentration is used in many Indian schools and ashrams
since it was considered by the ancients of India to be a form of kriya
(puriÞcation), or body oblation, which would give an abundance of health,
vitality and spiritual upliftment (Gharote and Ganguly, 2006; Gharote, 2004;
Patel, 2004; Bhattacharya, 2007; Stiles, 2007). On the other side, Pragya
Yoga is developed by Gurudev, Pt. Shri Ram Sharma Acharya, has pioneered
a novel approach to yoga for a healthy and happy life, which is simple and
suitable for the masses. He has named it “Pragya Yoga”-under the noble
“PragyaAbhiyan” mission. Shantikunj-An Aranyak of our times, which is
situated in the lap of the Ganges and under the shadow of the Himalayas, is a
centre for learning this comprehensive yoga. This yoga involves all the three
bodies (physical, subtle and causal) of a person. There is a series of various
Asanas, which is done in a sequential manner (Sharma, 2007).
As the Suryanamaskar is a traditional approach in yoga with lots of
importance and beneÞts and Pragya Yoga has developed over the limitation
of Suryanamaskar for the beginners as the difÞculty in performing the asana,
both the package are entirely different. Therefore, the objective of the
present study was to compare the effect of selected yogic intervention
strategies on VLDL.
Methodology- A total of Þfteen male individuals with age ranged between
45-55 years from Gwalior, M.P. were selected randomly, which further
divided into three groups (two experiment and one control) of Þve subjects
each. All subjects were almost from the same socio- economic group and
were found to be physically Þt for the type of training programme they were
selected. Suryanamaskar and Pragya yoga were considered as independent
variable and VLDL was taken as dependent variable. Blood was collected
from a stasis free vein and stored in an ice bath.2ml blood collected in blood
plane vial after sterilizing the arm of the subject. For quantitative analysis
of blood VLDL, commercially available cholesterol kit of Erbamannheim
from Transasia Bio-Medicals Ltd. was used. This reagent kit was intended
in-vitro quantitative determination of cholesterol in serum and CHOD-PAP
method (modiÞed Roeschlau's method) was used for measuring the
subjects' VLDL.
In the present study, pre-test post-test randomized group design was
used to compare the effect of selected yogic intervention strategies on
VLDL. The subjects were divided into two experimental group and one
control group. The experimental group was imparted Þve days of selected
intervention strategies per week and each session scheduled for forty-Þve
minutes under the supervision and guidance of the scholar. The said
experimental training was administered in the Yoga hall of Shri Ram
colony, Gwalior and subjects in the experimental groups were practiced
Pragya Yoga and Suryanamaskar barefoot. The practice session was
conducted for a period of forty-Þve minutes in the morning i.e.8.00 a.m. to
8.45 a.m. from Monday to Friday for the duration of one month. To Þnd out
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
164
the signiÞcance of difference among the groups, descriptive, analysis of
variance and analysis of covariance were used. The level of signiÞcance
was set at 0.05.
Table 01
Groups
Pragya yoga
Surya
namaskar
Control group
Test
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Mean
29.81
23.64
35.03
23.55
29.90.
30.83
Std. Deviation
10.15
7.39
17.56
11.90
03.76
03.77
N
5
5
5
Descriptive Statistics of all The Three Groups for VLDL
Table 01 revealed that there were Þve subjects in each group. The
mean and standard deviation of Pragya yoga group in pre test and post test
were 29.81±10.15and 23.64±7.39 respectively. The mean and standard
deviation of Suryanamaskara group in pre test and post test were
35.03±17.56and 23.55±11.90 respectively. The mean and standard
deviation of control group in pre test and post test were 29.90±03.76 and
30.83±03.77 respectively in VLDL
Figure 01
Means of all the three groups for Serum VLDL
Table02
Analysis of Variance of Comparision of
post
Pre
Sources
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
SS
198.72
588.95
787.67
94.69
1118.69
1213.39
df
2
12
14
2
12
14
MSS
99.36
49.07
F
2.02
47.34
93.32
.508
Means of Experimental Group and Control Group in VLDL
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
165
*SigniÞcant at .05 level
F value required to be signiÞcant at 2,12 df = 3.89
Table 02 revealed that the obtained 'F' value of 2.02 was found to be
insigniÞcant at 0.05 level, in case of VLDL since this value was found lower
than the tabulated value 3.89 at 2, 12 df.
In relation to post test, insigniÞcant difference was found among
experimental groupsand control grouppertaining to VLDL since 'F' value of
Table 3
Analysis of Co-Variance of Comparison of Adjusted Post Test Means of
Experimental Groupand Control Group in VLDL
SS
Df
MSS
F
Sig.
Contrast
492.826
2
246.41
19.34
.00
Error
140.134
11
12.73
.508 was found insigniÞcant at 0.05 level.
*SigniÞcant at .05 level
F value required to be signiÞcant at 2, 11 df =3.98
Table 03 revealed that the obtained 'F' value of 19.34 was found to be
signiÞcant at 0.05 level, in case of VLDL, since this value was found higher
than the tabulated value 3.98 at 2, 11 df.
Result and Discussion- The present study evaluated the effect of one month
yogic training on very Low-Density Lipoprotein on sedentary male. The
practice of Yoga works biochemically and biomechanically on human
physiology. Biomechanically, the practice of Yoga, gives a feeling of
wellbeing which reduces the stress and ultimately regulates the metabolic
activities, hence reßect into biochemical changes as normal functioning of
Human Body. The Þndings of this study demonstrate that one month
Suryanamsakar and Pragya yoga training have signiÞcant effect on very
Low-Density Lipoprotein.
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Kulkarni, A. N., &Pendse, U. B. (1989). Effect of yogic training on serum
LDH levels. The Journal of sports medicine and physical Þtness, 29(2), 177178.
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Patel S. (2004). Surya Namaskar-Teach yourself the Sun Salute. Srishti
Publishers, New Delhi, 83.
Reddy KS, Shah B, Varghese C, Ramadoss A. (2005). Responding to the threat
of chronic diseases in India. Lancet, 366: 1744-9.
Saraswati, Swami S. (2002). Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha. Yoga
Publication Trust, 159-172.
Sharma, Acharya PanditSriram (2007). Pragya yoga for happy and healthy
life. (Sri VedmataGayatri Trust, Shantikunj, Hardwar, India), 24-30.
Stiles M. (2007). Ayurvedic Yoga Therapy. Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, 253.
World Health Organization (2002). Non communicable diseases in South-East
Asia region. A proÞle. New Delhi: World Health Organization.
Verma, J. P. (2009). A Text Book on Sports Statistics, Sports Publication, New
Delhi.
Verma, J. P. (2012). Statistical Methods for Sports and Physical Education,
Tata Mcgraw-HillEduction on Private Limited, New Delhi.
Yogaraj,P., Ramaraj P., and Elangovan, R. (2010). Effects of selected asanas on
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Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Sonal Singhvi Choudhary
Abstract- Women poets at the turn of the century adopted strong subversive
strategies in order to communicate their feelings and thoughts, their agonies
and anguishes in a male dominated society. Their verse speaks for and
interprets the truth of their gender. It is by “speaking out” and giving voice to
the formerly “buried” knowledge that the confessions of women poets like
Anne Sexton, Sylvia Plath and Kamala Das inscribe what Michel Foucault has
termed “a return of knowledge,” or “an insurrection of subjugated
knowledges” (Foucault 81). Their confessions have helped shape a
speciÞcally female genre which allows them to explore female subversive
strategies that help in giving voice to stories that have been long silenced and
suppressed.At the turn of the twentieth century new ideas, themes and concerns
emerged in women's poetry. Women poets undertook the paradoxical task of
voicing the silence that had enveloped women and their predicament for
centuries. Why did this silence need to be voiced at all? The answer lies in the
history of women. We live in a patriarchal society, a patriarchal culture, which
is in every way a man's world. The laws, customs, practices and beliefs are
therefore all designed to suit male needs. So when women voice their inner
desires and feelings either by speaking or by writing, it is considered
inappropriate. Besides, this silence is an ironical one that has inÞnite layers of
turbulence and violence beneath what apparently appears to be silence.
Keywords- Women, Society, Knowledge
Introduction- Poetry, for centuries has been a vehicle for an
objective, impersonal and universal representation of reality. However, in
the second half of the twentieth century it emerged as a typical product of
the circumstances prevailing in the social, cultural and literal realms of
America. Confessional poetry was a style of writing that emerged in the
late 1950s and the early 1960s. The confessional poets dealt with subject
matter that had previously not been openly discussed in American poetry. It
was a reaction to the frustration and disillusionment in the post – war world
where the individual had been reduced to a non-entity. The effect could be
seen in the literary realm too, as a new class of writers and poets emerged
whose writings were turned inward focusing on the private life, struggles
and emotions of the poet. These poets stepped away from the traditional
impersonality of poetry to look within and to write without inhibition about
their inner lives, private events, emotions, fears, desires as well as events of
intimate confession. In the decades preceding the emergence of
Assistant Professor. (English), Sarojini Naidu Govrnment Girls PG College, Bhopal
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confessional poetry, the literary realm had been deeply inßuenced by
Modernism which stood for collective mind and impersonality.
Modernism stood for tradition and objectivity as against individuality,
personalism and subjectivity. T.S. Eliot, the high priest of Modernism,
talked about poetry “not [as] a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from
emotion.” He considered poetry “not the expression of personality, but an
escape from personality” (39-50). Eliot along with other modernist poets
like Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Crowe Ransom etc. produced a poetry “a
poetry of symmetry, intellect, irony and wit” (qtd. in Mills 3). The
modernists stressed on concepts and forms, and used language in new and
different ways to call attention to style. Gradually, attitudes towards poetry
began to change as poets like Walt Whitman, Wallace Stevens and William
Carlos William began to express emotion from a subjective point of view
(Phillips xii).These poets did focus on themselves, yet they did it with
reserve and were careful enough not to violate the norms of public
acceptability. It was only in the 1950s that poetry took a turn towards the
personal and the poets started treating the self without any restrain in an
extremely straightforward manner (Phillips 5). In his The Confessional
Poets, Robert Phillips calls this time the great “Age of Autobiography.” No
longer do general universal truths about human nature seem to attract
poets, rather they come out with their personal lives with no restrictions and
write about everything including insanity, suicide, adultery and divorce.
It was M.L Rosenthal who Þrst used the term “confessional poetry,”
and deÞned it as that in which “the private life of the poet himself, especially
under stress of psychological crisis, becomes a major theme” (Rosenthal,
New Poets 25). He used the term particularly for the poetry of Robert
Lowell. He further remarked that “because of the way Lowell brought his
private humiliations, sufferings and psychological problems into the poems
of Life Studies, the word 'confessional' seemed appropriate enough”
(Rosenthal, New Poets 26). Robert Lowell had earlier been writing like the
Eliotean School. But soon he realized that he was not comfortable with this
style. With the publication of Life Studies in 1959, Lowell came up with the
confessional theme in which he himself became his own subject. He
abandoned the traditional meters and tried to break free from the shackles of
form. Lowell now wrote without any inhibitions and communicated his
personal emotions and personal history in his poetry, thereby striking a new
chord in poetry whose reverberations can also be felt in the three women
poets considered for comparison in this study. Apart from Robert Lowell,
Theodore Roethke and W. D. Snodgross, John Berryman etc. were also
eminent poets who wrote in the confessional style and had tremendous
inßuence on the three women poets. Robert Lowell talks about the inßuence
W.D Snodgross had on him and gives him credit for doing so. In this context,
Lowell says: “He [Snodgross] did these things before I did, though he is
younger than I am and had been my student. He may have inßuenced me,
though people have suggested the opposite. . . . I mean the poems are about
his child, his divorce, and Iowa City. . . . I believe that's a new kind of poetry”
(Phillips 6). In her interview with Patricia Marx, Sexton too talks about the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
169
inßuence of Snodgross on her poetry: “If anything inßuenced me it was W.
D. Snodgross' Heart's Needle. . . . At the same time everyone said, 'You can't
write this way. It's too personal; it's confessional, you can't write this Anne,'
and everyone was discouraging me. But then I saw Snodgross doing what I
was doing, and it kind of gave me permission” (Sexton, Marx 79).
It was Snodgross's name that opened the door for Anne Sexton to
join Robert Lowell's writing seminar at Boston University in September
1958. It was here that Sexton came in contact with Sylvia Plath. Together
while attending Lowell's classes, they pushed up a good deal of his ideas as
well as exchanged ideas with each other. For Plath, Lowell's seminar acted
as a stimulus for a breakthrough in her poetry. What stimulated Plath was the
subject matter of Life Studies as well as the subject matter of Anne Sexton's
poems. She immediately got interested in the “peculiar private and taboo
subjects” that Sexton dealt with. She said later: “I think particularly of the
poetess Anne Sexton, who writes also of her experiences as mother; as a
mother who's had a nervous breakdown, as an extremely emotional and
feeling young woman. And her poems are wonderfully craftsman like
poems, and yet they have a kind of emotional and psychological depth which
I think is something perhaps quite new and exciting” (Middlebrook 105). It
was from Lowell that Plath learned to establish a link between public and
private sensibility, and it was this same quality in Plath's poetry that Lowell
admired. Says D.B. Stauffer, “Even in his [Lowell's] most personal and
painful revelations he manages to suggest the universality of his anguish, a
quality that he recognized and admired in the poems of Sylvia Plath”
(Stauffer 374). Plath talks about the inßuence of Lowell on her poetry to
Peter Orr in an interview in 1962: “I've been very excited by what I feel is the
new breakthrough that came with, say, Robert Lowell's Life Studies, this
intense breakthrough into very serious, very personal, emotional experience
which I feel has been partly taboo” (Plath, Orr 167-168).
Talking about Robert Lowell's inßuence, Anne Sexton even
suggests that it was she who inßuenced Lowell. She writes, “I was writing To
Bedlam and Part Way Back, the story of my madness, before Life Studies
was published. I showed my poems to Mr. Lowell as he was working on his
book. Perhaps I even inßuenced him” (Sexton, Kevles 90). Speaking of
Sylvia Plath, Sexton says: “I suppose I might have shown her something
about daring – daring to tell it true. W. D. Snodgross showed me in the Þrst
place. Perhaps he inßuenced Robert Lowell too…” (Sexton, Barßy 178). It
can therefore be said that all the Confessional Poets writing in the 50s and
60s had a considerable inßuence on each other. What was most important
was that they were candid and honest in their pursuit of truth. While
portraying the truth in their poetry it did not matter to them as to how terrible
the truth was.
It should however be kept in mind that the term “confessional” is not
new. “To confess” has a religious connotation and denotes the catholic
practice of confessing one's guilt in the Church. According to the Shorter
Oxford English Dictionary, “confession” means “a making known or
acknowledging of one's fault, wrong, crime, weakness. . . . An
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acknowledgement before the proper authority of the truth of a statement. . . .
The confessing of sins to a priest. . .” (395). This practice of making
confessions in the Church had a very psychological basis behind it. It was a
purgative and therapeutic exercise, designed by the religious and moral
authorities, which would give a person an opportunity to unburden one's
disturbed psyche that is loaded with guilt and thereby restore it to peace.
Psychiatrists too have adopted this practice in treating neurotic patients in
order to know the unknown reasons embedded in the psyche of the patients
that have caused the abnormal state of mind. By bringing out these buried
experiences, the psychiatrist helps the patient to analyze one's self in relation
to past traumas and experiences and then get rid of them.
Thus for the confessional poets, poetry involves a lot of
autobiography. The self is employed as the sole poetic symbol by the
confessional poets. In the search for their own identity, the three women
poets set off on a journey of self exploration and the struggle that ensued
became the text for their writing.
Reference Eliot, T. S. “Tradition and Individual Talent.” The Sacred Wood:
Essays on Poetry and Criticism. London: Faber and Faber, 1997.
39-50. Print.
Foucault, Michel. “Two Lectures.” Power / Knowledge: Selected
Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977. Ed. Colin Gordon.
Brighton: Harvester, 1980. 78-108. Print.
Lowell, Robert. Interview by Frederick Seidel. Writers at Work: The
Paris Review Interviews. Ed. George Plimpton. London: Secker and
Warburg, 1963. Print.
Middlebrook, Diane Wood. Anne Sexton: A Biography. Boston:
Houghton Mifßin,1991. Print.
Mills, Ralph. J. Cry of the Human: Essays on Contemporary
American Poetry. Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1975. Print.
Phllips, Robert. The Confessional Poets. Carbondale: Southern
Illinois University, 1973. Print.
Plath, Sylvia. Interview by Peter Orr. The Poet Speaks. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 167-168. Print.
Rosenthal M.L and Sally Gall. The Modern Poetic Sequence: The
Genesis of Modern Poetry. New York: OUP, 1983. Print.
Rosenthal, M. L. The New Poets: American and British Poetry since
World War II. New York: Oxford, 1967. Print.
Sexton, Anne. “The Barßy Ought to Sing.” The Art of Sylvia Plath: A
Symposium. Ed. Charles Newman. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1970. 174-182. Print.
---. “Interview With Barbara Kevles.” No Evil Star: Selected Essays,
Interviews and Prose. Ed. Steven E. Colburn. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan P, 1985. 83-112. Print.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
171
---. “Interview With Patricia Marx.” No Evil Star: Selected Essays,
Interviews and Prose.Ed. Steven E. Colburn. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan P, 1985. 70-82. Print.
Stauffer, D.B. A Short History of American Poetry. New York: E.
P. Dutton, 1974. Print.
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Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Geetanjali Bajpai
Abstract- E-Learning is a learning technique in which users may use different
technologies, the internet, computer technology, and multimedia. E-learning
may bereplacing the entire conventional educational system with the help of
ICTs. The present paper covers the meaning of education, purpose, objectives,
and function of higher education, academic libraries, and their aims and
function, what is e-learning, types of e-learning, advantages, and
disadvantages. E-learning gives new dimensions to higher education as well
as other areas of education.
Keywords- E-learning, E-Education, ICTs, Education.
Introduction- The library is the giant brain of humanity. It
preserves the lofty thoughts of masterminds, the lovely Imaging of
sensitive brains, the wise and weighty counsels of sound and sagacious
heads, in short, all the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of the hoary,
dim, and distant past. it links up hundreds and thousands of generations
with one another and thus provides a panoramic picture of humanity
Emphasizing the importance of education in national development
says: “Education is deliberately used to develop more and more potential
talents and to harness it to the solution of national problems.”
“N.K.Goil Summarized the Objective of Education as follows”1.
To develop the personality of the individual;
To provide him with the knowledge of the world in which he lives;
To develop skills needed to sustain and advance social life so that he
can be acreative member of the society;
To satisfy the individual's search for values.
Objectives of Higher Education
Helping to spread science and technology;
Generating new knowledge through research.
Higher education has special importance within the education system. It is
the driving force of development, the repository, and the creator of
knowledge that helps determine the future shape of society in cluding the
educational system it self. Higher education is gaining importance
atsuchatimewhenintellectualresourcesarebecoming more signiÞcant than
material resources, when routine tasks are diminishing in all sectors of
economic activity, and when intelligence, initiative, and imagination are the
principal qualities required of the workforce.
Research Scholar Lib. Inf. Sc., Govt. T.R.S. College Rewa (M.P.)
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
173
Functions of Higher Education- In 1966 education Commission” the
functions of Higher education as below
To seek and cultivate new knowledge, to engage vigorously and
fearlessly in the pursuit of truth, and to interpre told knowledge and
belief sin the of new need sand discoveries;
To provide the right kind of leadership in all walks of life to identify
gift youth,and help them to develop their potential to the full by
cultivating physical Þtness, developing the power of the mind and
cultivating the right interests, attitudes, and moral and intellectual
values; To provide the society with competent men and women
trainedinagri culture, arts, medicine, science and technology, and
various other professions, who will also be cultured individuals
imbued with a sense of social purpose;
To strike to promote equality and social justice and to reduce social
and cultural differences through the diffusion of education.
To inculcate into the teachers and students and through them in
society in general, the attitudes and values needed for developing a
good life in individuals and society.
According to the S.P.A hulwalia and H.S. Bais,'t here cognized aim
of university education is to provide and sustain an environment conducive
to sharing, extending and critically examining knowledge and value and to
furthering the search for wisdom. Universities, in general, are thought of
centers of free and untrammeled thinking and their functions have been to
create and preserve a climate of reßection essential for the and bold pursuit
of truth'.3
Academic Library- Academic libraries play a vital role to fulÞll the
requirement of information for their users as well as faculty members. An
academic library is an integral part of any educational system and also serves
an institution of higher learning, such as a college or university library.
Academic libraries are two complementary purposes: to support the
curriculum and to support the research of the university faculty and students.
The support of teaching requires material for class readings. Academic
libraries today vary in regard to the extent to which they accommodate those
who are not afÞliated with their parent universities. Some offer reading and
borrowing privileges to members of the public on a payment basesor annual
membership. The academic library is also different from other libraries.
Academic libraries are the institutions that impart formal education to the
student. These academic institutions are supposed to have rich libraries to
feed the students, teachers, and research scholars in meeting their day-todayneedsrelatedtostudy, research, and supplementing the classroom
teaching. The libraries are the heart of such institutions, without them, the
body cannot last long.
United Kingdom's Perry Committee 1967- The lecture and textbook
method is no longer regarded as the sole method for teaching-if one of the
main purposes of university education is to teach students to work on their
own, and reading by students must be preferable to attendance at lecture
2
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sunless the lecture is superior in presentation or contents to the available
literature.
University Grant Commission, U. K. 1921'The character and
efÞciency of a universitymay be gauged by its treatment of its central
organ, An adequate library isnot only the basis of all teaching and study; it
is the essential condition of research without which addition cannot be
made to the sum of human knowledge.Sir knower wood says 'It is better
proof of education to know how to use a library than to possess a
university degree'.
Objectives and Function of Academic Libraries-There are so many aims
and functions of academic libraries, in the given below points we are
discussingthe aims and functions of academic libraries.
Instruction in the use of the library for new members of the library,
it is also called user education about the use of the library
Provision of General and SpeciÞc Information
Literature Search
Readers Advisory Service
On-demandedserviceslikecurrentbibliography,and subject in
dexes, provide abstractand indexing services
Reservation of document
Inter-Library Loan
Preparing and distributing accession list of new additions
Maintenance of newspaper clippings
Reports, and syllabus provide to the students
To create user proÞles of special education and researchers
Current Awareness Service and Selective Dissemination of
Information
Reprographic Services, Translation Services, and MicroÞlming
Referral services
“Education Commission(1964-66) mentioned the effective
functioning of the library the major recommendation is as follows-"4
No new university, college, or department should be set up without
taking into account the library needs in terms of staff, books,
journals, space, etc. Nothing could be more damaging to a growing
department than neglecting its library or giving it a low priority. On
the contrary, the library should be an important center of attraction in
the college or university campus;
Even more important is the proper use of books by students and
teachers. Lectures should be supplemented by tutorial instruction,
and thereafter the students should turn to the library to Þnd
themselves, with the help of reference librarians, therelevant
material and knowledge needed. More working hours and days,
easyaccessibility of books, the adequate provision in terms of staff,
multiple copies of text books which may beloanedorneedystudents,
better display of new reading materials, organization of books clubs,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
175
separate rooms for periodicals, reference books, and research works
are some of the measures that would help to raise thestandard of
library service. Reading habit which is appalling low must be turned
up in every possible way;
A collection of books, even a collection of good books, does not
constitute a library. Given enthusiastic teachers, 'who teach with
books, and librarians who can cooperate with them in converting the
library in an intellectual workshop even a comparatively small
collectionofsensitivelychosenbooksmayworkwondersinthelifeofst
udentswithoutsuchastaff.Themostluxuriousbuildingorextensive
books collection may have no effect at all;
The library is the heart of Institutions it serves the academic
community
Provide resources necessary for research in the Þeld of special
interests to the university;
Aid the university teacher in keeping himself abreast of
development in his Þeld;
Provide library facilities and services necessary for the success of
all formal programs of instruction as well as provide nonformal
education.
Open the door to the wide world of books that lie beyond the
borders of one's own Þeld of specialization;
To bring books, students, and scholars to gether under conditions
that encourage reading for pleasure, self-discovery, personal
growth, and the sharpening the intellectual curiosity.
E-Learning- The use of the internet for education including the use of
websites and e-mail has come to be known as the online education system.
Onlinecoursesfrequentlyusetheinternetincombinationwithdependingdelive
rymodes.E-learningisa combination of online learning with face-to-face
instruction Net Work (web-based resources) learning. It is a new way of
teaching or a net-based education system. The concept of e-learning is very
old before the emergence of the internet; Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI)
and Computer Based Training (CBT) was used for the same purpose. Elearning is also known as web-basedlearningorweb-basedtraining.Elearningisatypeoftechnology-supportededucation learning where the
medium of instruction is through computer/ technology particularly
involving listed technology. In the e-learning education system, there is no
face-to-face interaction taken palace. E-learning is meant a learning
technique in which users may utilize different technologies, like the internet,
computer technology, and multimedia. In other words, e-learningisinternetbasedlearning, E-learningenhancestheteaching-learning process by offering
virtual classrooms to awidespectrumofgeo graphically dispersed
institutions. It is revolutionizing the basic process of learning focusing on
individualsratherthaninstitutionsor industry-based. It is a process of
knowledge transformation from one to many people or many to one people.
E-learning isbased on computer-based teaching and the learning approach is
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employed with the help oftelecommunication networks.
Categories ofE-Learning- There are fundamentally two types of elearning: synchronous learning and asynchronouslearning.
SynchronousLearning- Itmeansparticipantsandinstructors interact with
the webinin same timethrough telephone, video conferencing, and web
conferencing etc.
Asynchronous Learning: It means “not at the same time”, allowing the
participants to complete at their own pace with outlive interaction with the
instructor. Asynchronoustechnologiesare audio cassette, e-mail, message
board forums, print materials, voice mail/fax, video cassette, and CDROMs. A new form of learning is known as blended learning is emerging. As
the name suggests it is an amalgamation of both learning methods.
Need and Advantage of E-Learning- E-learning has many advantages
over other methods of learning. Some of these are The information can be accessed by anyone, any time, and any
place;
It is cost-effective and time-saving;
When using an information system, one is more innovative and
interactive;
Cognitive abilities are enhanced with e-learning;
Itisself-pacedlearning. In other words, a slow learner can take
time to grasp the things;
Instruction quality is consistent;
Theinformationcanbesharedbymorethanoneuseratatime.Ithasaned
geover print media;
AppreciabletimeissavedinpreparingtheE-write-upandfor
publishing the same;
Status of the pre-print material with the publisher is known much in
advance;
It offers an opportunity for piecemeal learning.
Why E-Learning- E-learning is essential for operating the Technological
instruments as well as to access various e-resources through Internet,
INTRANET ,Consortia and other devices of Information Storage and
access some major issues are as follows Availability of various e-resources
Save time of Users ;
Maintenance of resources is so easy;
M i n i m u m I n f o r m a ti o n &c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y
infrastructure is required;
Manpower saving
Retrieval of information Avoid Duplicate of work;
Helpful for organizingWorldwide library services
Marketing of Information Products and services;
Availability of the universe of knowledge in Þngers tips;
Update, technical support to service providers and learners;
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
177
Minimum Equipment needs of learners and Service providers.
Helpful for preserving and disseminating all types of information,
Helpful for Disaster Management.
Impact of E-Learning on Higher Education System- E-learning is the
change all the traditional way of teaching methods, it is offering
virtualclassroomstoawithoutgeographicalboundariesandcountries,itisrevol
utionizingchange in the educational people system; it is also focusing on
individuals rather than a group. E-learning is the transitof the knowledge
from maybe may be people maybe or groups. It also reduces infrastructure
structure, and the salary of faculty members and administrative members,
and also increases the satisfaction of the student. The satisfaction of students
is a must for each and everyeducational system. The majorchangeinelearning with satellite and television expansion and also advancement in the
Þeld of telecommunication is also affect the e-learning process. On the
television, we can broadcast the educational based
program,wherethatpeoplecanlearnfromitandalsobeneÞt.Peoplecanlearnany
thing,atlowcost, at any time, anywhere, any subject on their television set at
home. It is a time of ICT'smade education very easy for the student; they
want anything at their doorstep. e-learning educational system has beneÞted
both student and the irparents.It is not compulsory to a student; he can't come
to the classrooms room for everything. Student can solve their problem with
e-learning and also contact the particular subject expert for their doubt. Elearningplays a vital role in the modern educational system, it gives the
ßexibility of timefor a quality and standardized the education to masses. Elearning processes are so effective with the uses of audio-video cassettes,
C D ' s D V D s v i d e o t a p e , c o m p u t e r- b a s e d l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s ,
teleconferencing, and educational CD's; video conferencing is provided
quality education to their users. E-learning is beneÞcial those people, who
cannot attend the classes for formal education system, we can teach those
p e o p l e a n d s t u d e n t w i t h t h e h e l p o fe - l e a r n i n g e d u c a t i o n a l
system.Wearealsoprovidingtheallthefacilitiesintheevening and night
classes, we arrange all programs, with the help of state and national
agencies, distance education council or Non-Government Organization. It is
also included in curriculum and syllabus in higher education system. Elearning programs are used for improvement of our education system. It is
very useful for talented children especiallyrural areas, lower income groups,
peoples of below poverty line, minorities, SC/ST/OBC's, and weak section
of our community.
ISRO - launchtheeducationalsatellite“ EDUSAT” 5, dedicated
entirely education center. This satellite services are used to connect various
educational institutional to share their resource and information too the
rseducationalinstitutionalororganisations. WhenEDUSAT is fully
operational, it would be very helpful to distance education and also elearning educational system. It is speciÞcally conÞgured for the audiovisual medium andemploys the interactive classroom to support virtual
education. Another popular way is FM educational channels is very useful
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
178
popular and is very often used by IGNOU and Gyanvani. These FM radio
stations is broadcast a variety type of educational programs
ondifferenttypeslikestudent- teacher relations, teacher education,
environmentalscience, rural developments, agriculture programs for
farmers, mass communication, science, mathematics, commerce, arts,
history, social problems, mass communication, business.
Conclusion-E-learningisgivinga new dimension of the education sector and
also affecting education in different ways. It can play a signiÞcant role in the
development and growth ofthe country. With the help of academic libraries,
we must achieve educational goals and alsoimprove the education system.
Time is also changeable, so we emphasize informal education in form of elearning teaching methods. Academic Libraries should be converted into elearning educational centers and also provide the information in print form
as well aselectronic form. It may be used in every area of education viz.
primary education, secondary education, higher education, technical
education, professional education, and management education.
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Goil, N. K. College Library, Library Hera ld, 5(1), April, 1962
India, Report of the Education Commission 1964-66, Education and Youth
Services: Education and National Development; (Chairman: D. S. Kothari),
New Delhi, 1971,p.497-498.
Ahuli walia, S. P. and H. S. Bais, Education: Issues and Challenges, New
Delhi, Ashish Publishing House, 1981, p.29.
India, Report of the Education Commission 1964-66, Education and Youth
Services: Education and National Development; 519-522
www.edusat.ac.in
179
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Ranjana Updhayay
Zainab Khan
Abstract- India has been renowned for its printed and dyed cotton cloth
since the 12th century and the creative processes ßourished as the fabric
received royal patronage. Evolution of different styles of designs has taken
place in different parts of the country having its own particular local aesthetic
.India has been renowned for its printed and dyed cotton cloth since the
12th century and the creative processes ßourished as the fabric received royal
patronage. Evolution of different styles of designs has taken place in different
parts of the country having its own particular local aesthetic. From the 12th
century, India was renowned for its printed and dyed cotton cloth, and the
creative processes ßourished with royal patronage. India has a great diversity
in term of block printing techniques and women's clothing varies widely and is
closely associated with local culture and skills. This research is performed on
the basis of primary data as well as secondary data. The purpose of this
research to explore the importance and the use of surface ornamentation
technique of block printing as a classic fashion in contemporary dress designs
for the female consumers in Bhopal city.
Keywords- Block printing, Contemporary Dress, Consumer.
Introduction- Hand block printing on textiles involves repeatedly
pressing carved wooden blocks covered with dye along a length of fabric to
create patterns natural dyes have traditionally been used and it is a skill that
has been passed down through generations.The craft of block printing
provides rural artisans in the third world with a sustainable source of
income.Since the 12th century, India has been known for its printed and
dyed cotton cloth, whose production ßourished under royal patronage.In
various parts of the country, designs have evolved into different styles
according to their own local aesthetic. (Ganguly & Amrita, 2013)Textile
scraps found in the ruins of Mohenjo Daro, an ancient settlement of the
Indus Valley Civilization, demonstrate that block printing used to be
popular in India as long ago as 3000 BC.
Block printing is an ancient printing technique and numerous
examples of block prints can be found in the historical records of Europe and
Asia. In the historical Indian culture and its heritage of tradition are reßected
in many of the various regions of this country. (Babel & Mehta,2012)
The major centres of India where block printing is done on large scale are:Associate Professor, (Textile and Clothing), Sarojini Naidu Government Girls Post
Graduate (Autonomous) College, Shivaji Nagar, Bhopal
Research Scholar, Home Science, Barkatullah University, Hoshangabad Road, Bhopal
180
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Gujarat (Ajrak), Rajasthan (Bagru,Dabu,Ajrak,Sanganeri), Madhya
Pradesh (Bagh)Andhra Pradesh,Uttar Pradesh (Farukhabad), West Bengal.
Block printed designs are enamouring. The imprints when impressed on the
cloth add an amusing allure to the fabric. (Gill,2018).
India has a rich legacy of heritage textile traditions and wide range of
ethnic costume traditions comprising versatile draped silhouettes and
classic tailoring techniques; across the subcontinent, suitable to the terrain,
weather and the regional sociocultural inßuences due to various invasions
and the colonial past. A consumer is a person or a group who intends to order,
orders, or uses purchased goods, products, or services primarily for
personal, social, family, household and similar needs, not directly related to
entrepreneurial or business activities. Female consumer actively participate
in purchasing of Goods and services. They are a true inßuencer.
Bhopal District population in 2022 is 2,651,675 (estimated as per
aadhar uidai.gov.in Dec 2020 data). As per 2011 census of India, Bhopal
District has a population of 2,371,061 in 2011 out of which 1,236,130 are male
and 1,134,931 are female.Consumers who enjoy shopping are mostly female
and are considered to be a noteworthy force in the retail market.Women are
more in touch with their feelings and have the tendency to stay better
connected with their family, friends, and 'brands'. Women set their decisions
and priorities not only according to their needs but also according to people in
their personal circle. Hence, it becomes easier to understand and analyse the
adoption of classic block prints through brands and women consumers in
contemporary Dress Designs. The Indian women have been an integral part of
the family, and been conÞned to home. The information technology has
brought the world closer and sudden economic growth has given the Indian
women a great emancipation in terms of their sartorial practices. Till about the
1970's the Indian women dressed in their regional style and patronized the
traditional textiles in the neighbouring areas. The most sought after textile
though was the Saree and Salwar Suit for Indian ladies.
As these neue Indian women gear to take on various social and
professional roles and lifestyles, they have embraced new garments in their
wardrobe to meet these roles. The Internet and satellite television not only
provides the information on latest world fashion trends access cities of India
by means of online E-commerce portals and tele-shopping.
Fashion is an everyday phenomenon and not restricted to occasion
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
181
wear like weddings, festivals or formal evening parties. The Indian Fashion
system is very dynamic.21st century the scenario changed for the better for
many Indian Women in cities and for a few even in villages and they got
better education and they took up work to be Þnancially independent, which
required them to step out of their home daily; to gain exposure to the world
outside, many of them grabbed the opportunity and there was drastic change
in their clothing preference. Fashion became a very interesting tool to carve
this new identity as working women; they needed to present themselves
more conÞdently and in command of themselves in the outside world
working in pace with the men and doing better than men despite various
limitations. The indo-western fusion style in terms of tunics /kurti, variety of
bottom wear options like dhoti pants, harem pants, duppatas to
scraves/stoles etc. (Raavaade& Karolia,2017)
Review of Literature: The review of literature for the study has been
collected primary sources which as followsThe goal of this study was to Þgure out what wearing classic styles
meant to people. A qualitative study approach was used, and 16 people from
the United States were questioned and asked to deÞne a classic fashion or
style, as well as why they wear it. The research was conducted using
grounded theory. Three themes emerged from the Þndings: (1) a classic style
reßects conservatism in style; (2) style pragmatism refers to the good aspects
of wearing a classic style; and (3) consumers intend to continue to wear that
classic style in the future. Those who are fashion-forward also anticipate to
wear traditional clothing as they get older. Classic is also a safe choice for
those who do not follow fashion trends.(Kwon, 2017)
Stated that one of the earliest techniques used to colour fabric was
printing with block printing. Block printing is one of the most common types
of hand printing. Printing is the application of colour to fabric in
predetermined patterns or designs. It's also referred as as the thicker
application of dye or colour to a substrate to create an appealing design with
well-deÞned boundaries. (Sharma et al;2018)
This study was focused on providing a history of block printing
techniques as well as a look at the Bagh block print, which is a world-famous
hand block print. Bagh Print is a natural-colored traditional hand block print.
A popular textile printing product is Bagh print fabric, which features
reproduced geometric and ßoral compositions in vegetable colours of red
and black on a white background. Bagh print, a Madhya Pradesh-based
native art form, is an exceptional product. (Chouhan,2019)
Objective- To understand and analyse the acceptability of block print as
classic fashion among consumer.
Hypothesis- Block printing is a hoary technique but consumers still prefer
this for buying their dresses.
Methodology Locale of the study: The study was conducted at Bhopal city of
Madhya Pradeshand traditional art of block printing known as Bagh
is very popular in this State.
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Selection of sample and Criterion for selecting sample:For this
purpose, a survey study was conducted on Þfty women of high
middle income group which were selected randomly and
questionnaire in Google form was used as a tool.
Development of tool:Questions in the questionnaire were
developed to understand and analyse the preference and acumen of
the consumer.
Data Collection and analysis of data: To collect data through
developed questionnaires thirty women of Bhopal city as a sample
were selected randomly.
All the responses are plotted in pie chart and the result were analysis
accordingly-
This pie chart shows the knowledge of block printing of the
respondent. Maximum (48.5%) people know very much about block
printing while 36.4% have moderate knowledge and only 15.2% have little
knowledge.
This pie chart shows the liking of the Block printing in which about
84.8% like block printing very much while 15.2% moderately like block
Printing. This conclude that Block printed fabric are most popular choices.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
183
From the pie chart, it is clear that the majority of the respondents
prefer to wear hand block printed dresses (66.7%) and nearly a third of
respondents wear them often and not a single response was on rarely and
never wearing block printed dresses. In conclusion block, printing dresses
are more popular choices.
From this pie chart, it is clear that the majority of respondents prefer
Bagh printed fabrics with the second choice of Ajrak prints. 9.1% like Ajrat
prints but only 3% preferred Bagru prints. This concludes that Bagru is the
least popular while Bagh prints are the most preferred choice.
184
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The reading of this pie chart shows that about half of the respondents
prefer the Block printed fabric because of all mentioned reasons while
approximately one-third prefer them due to its elegant look. About only onetenth of respondents prefer due to Eco-friendly nature and there is a onesixth responded prefer because of it is favourable to all occasion.
From the pie chart, it is clear that the Þrst prefers of the respondents
is to wear a kurta with pants (57.6%), and the Second prefers of
respondents chose to wear kurta with palazzo (36.4%) and (3%)
respondents prefer to wear short frock with plants. and (3%) respondents
prefer to wear the Garrara pattern. In conclusion, Kurta with pants dresses
is a more popular choice.
The reading of this pie chart shows that about majority of the
respondents prefer to wear Block printed cotemporary dresses twice a
week while approximately one-third prefer them due to its elegant look.
About only one-tenth of respondents prefer due to Eco-friendly nature and
there is a one-sixth responded prefer because of it is favourable to all
occasion.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
185
This pie chart shows the number of block print contemporary
dresses respondents have in their wardrobe. Maximum (72.7%) people
have block print contemporary dresses in their wardrobe. 15.2% have twothree dresses in their wardrobe while 12.1% have a few dresses in their
wardrobe. This concludes that the majority of the respondent have block
print contemporary dresses in their wardrobe.
Dabu
Bagru
Bagh
Courtesy-https://www.libas.in
Sanganeri
Courtesy-https://www.faridagupta.com/
Ajrak
Ajrak
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
186
Ikat Print
Courtesy- Westside
Dabu Print
Courtesyhttps://www.jaypore.com/
Bagh Print
Courtesy-vastragathaa
Block Print
Courtesy-Fabindia
While exploring brand design it was observed that there are many brands
that also adopt block printing techniques like Bagh, Bagru, Sanganer,
Ajrakh and a few of them adopt patterns of classic block printings using
different printing methods like roller or digital printing as a surface
ornamentation. Here conclusion was found that the respondents had a very
high opinion about classic block prints in contemporary dress designs.
Female consumers of Bhopal city had knowledge about block printing.
The majority of consumers preferred to wear block-printed dress Kurta
with pants as a contemporary dress form.
Reference
Babel, R., & Mehta, Sonu.(2012). Exploring the problems of craftsmen
involved in traditional block printing. Asian Journal of Home Science Volume
7 | Issue 1 156-158
Bhopal District Population.(n.d.).www.indiagrowing.com
https://www.indiagrowing.com/Madhya_Pradesh/Bhopal_District
Chouhan,K.,(2019) Historical View on Block Printing Technique and its
Used in Bagh Print. International Journal of History and Cultural Studies.
5(4):71-84
Ganguly,D., & Amrita.(2013).A brief studies on block printing process in
India, 41. 197-203.
Gill, K. K.(2018).Block Printing: As An Art. International Seminar on
Changing Trends in Historiography: A Global Perspective,5(9),2348-6848
http://researchjournal.co.in/online/AJHS/AJHS%207(1)/7_A-156-158.pdf
h t t p : / / w w w. t j p r c . o r g / p u b l i s h p a p e r s / 2 - 2 9 - 1 4 9 1 8 1 6 2 5 0 4.IJTFTAPR20174.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292876526_A_brief_studies_on_b
lock_printing_process_in_India
Kwon, J.Y. (2017). What Does the Classic Style of Clothing Actually Mean
to Consumers?International Journal of Costume and Fashion. 17: 29-39
Raavaade, P.V. &Karolia, A.(2017).The Study of the Indian Fashion System
with a special Emphasis on women's everyday wear. International Journal of
Textile and Fashion Technology,7(2), 27-44
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
Sharma, S.Khatri., A. & Joshi, C. (2018) A Study on Block Printing
Workers of Rajasthan. International Journal of Pure and Applied
Bioscience. 6 (3): 635-639
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer
https://www.instagram.com/p/CTNKCxDojJr/
https://www.faridagupta.com/
https://www.jaypore.com/
https://www.libas.in
187
188
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Anup Kumar Mishra
Abstract- The Sunßower (Helianthus annus, L.var. KBSH-1) plants were used
for oil production. The studies were done on these plants. These plants were
raised in soil-pot culture conditions. The different Supply levels of blue green
algae, nil (control), 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250g bga/kg soil were applied to
plants. Increase in bga supply upto 200g bga/kg soil level increased the oil
content in seeds of sunßower plants. Beyond 200 g bga/kg soil level increase in
bga supply decreased the oil content of seeds. As compared to control, all the
levels of bga supply highly signiÞcantly (P=0.01) increased the oil content in
seeds.
Keywords- Sunßower, bga, BNF, controlled condition, DM
Introduction- The bio-fertilizers, otherwise called microbial
inoculants are preparations containing live or latent cells of efÞcient strains
of nitrogen Þxing micro-organisms used for seed or soil application. The
main objective of applying inoculants is to increase the number of such
microorganisms in soils or rhizosphere and consequently improve the
extent of micro-biologically Þxed nitrogen to plant growth. Application of
bio-fertilizers in combination with organic nitrogenous fertilizers has a key
role to play in the economic management of nitrogen needs of crops.In
India, considerable progress has been made in the development of blue
green algae based in bio-fertilizer technology.
The blue green algae as biofertilizers are proving to be strong
alternative of chemical fertilizer, and thus improving the environmental
health.In addition to this, blue green algae are imparting a great contribution
towards establishment of strong biodiversity on the planet, Rai et. al., (2000)
reported that blue green algae are good colonizers of the nitrogen poor soils,
and that through their nitrogen input into the environment they may help to
create habitats suitable for other species.
There is a great role of blue green algae in sustenance of soil fertility
by enhancing the quantity of various nutrients in soil. In this fashion bga
also improve the nitrogen content of soil. The various supply levels of blue
green algae as biofertilizers leave impact on the growth and composition of
sunßower plants. The blue green algae as biofertilizers are proving to be
strong alternative of chemical fertilizer, and thus improving the
environmental health.
The blue green algae have inhabited much of the surface of the
earth for billions of years and today they are responsible for a signiÞcant
amount of biological nitrogen Þxation (BNF).The tropic independence of
AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofBotany,D.A.V.(P.G.)College,Dehradun,Uttarakhand
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
189
blue green algae made them suitable for use as biofertilizers. Blue green
algae are widely distributed organisms all over the world and can be found
in extreme habitats, from hot springs to arctic regions. Among the
ecosystems in which they can be found, wet soils provide an ideal
environment for blue green algae to grow. Blue green algae represent a
small taxonomic group of photosynthetic prokaryotes which some of them
are able to do nitrogen Þxation and also possess a tremendous potential for
producing a wide range of secondary metabolities. Blue green algae have
drawn much attention as prospective and rich sources of biologically
active constituents and have been identiÞed as one of the most promising
groups of organisms capable of producing bioactive compounds (Þsh &
codd 1994),( Schlegel et al.1999). De (1939) attributed the natural fertility
of ßooded rice Þeld soil and its maintenance to the process of biological
nitrogen Þxation by blue green algae.
Material and Method- For the experiment, there were six pots. The pots were
arranged in 3blocks A, B and C. In each block there were two pots, one pot
was meant for controlled treatment and other one with BGA treatment. In
each block the treatments were completely randomized. The experimental
pots were arranged in north-south direction and were kept raised from the
ground at a height of one feet avoiding any surface contact of the drainage
holes with the ground to eliminate any contamination.
For studies, the Sunßower (Helianthus annus, L.var. KBSH-1)
plants were raised in soil pot culture. Soil samples were collected in a clean
polythene bags after surface scrapping and brought to the laboratory.
Calculated amounts of normal water were applied daily to pots to provide as
for as possible uniform soil moisture conditions. Sampling was generally
started at 8:30A.M. and completed in an hour. All samples were drawn at the
same time and placed in the shade. The 3 blocks a, b and c were sampled
at the same time.
Soil was separately mixed with required amount of blue green algae.
There after it was air dried, thoroughly grounded and mixed. For through
mixing required amount of BGA were mixed with small amounts of
soil, divided and mixed again and again. Then these amended soils were
mixed with bigger amounts of soil similarly, and Þnally these soils were
mixed with bigger lots of calculated amount of soils required for
experiments. Soil mixing was done on separate clean chart to avoid any
contaminations. Mixed soils were Þlled in pots.
The oil content was analysed by Oxford 4000 NMR equipment – II
as per method described by Jambunathan et al. (1985).
Result- Increase in oil content in seeds was found to be a highly signiÞcant
(P=0.01) at 100g bga/kg soil over 50g bga/kg soil, and 150g bga/kg soil over
100g bga/kg soil. At 200g bga/kg soil over 150g bga/kg soil, increase in oil
content fails to reach the level of signiÞcance. However, at 250g bga/kg soil
over 200g bga/kg soil the insigniÞcant decrease in oil content was observed.
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
190
Effect of the blue green algae as biofertilizers on oil content of
Sunßower
(Helianthus annus, L. var. KBSH-1) plants
Plant
Age
(days)
g
Part
Nil
Seeds
35
blue
Percent
100
green
50
38
algae/kg
100
oil
soil
150
200
250
46
47
46
DM
41
Effect of the blue green algae as biofertilizers
on oil content of Sunßower
(Helianthus annus, L. var. KBSH-1) plants
Discussion- The biofertilizers contains beneÞcial microorganisms which
improve plant growth and protect plants from pests and diseases (El-yazeid
et.al, 2007). The role of soil microorganisms in sustainable development of
agriculture has been reviewed (Lee and Pankhurst, 1992, Wani et.al.1995).
Biofertilizers are important components of integrated nutrients
management. These potential biological fertilizers would play key role in
productivity and sustainability of soil and also protect the environment as
eco-friendly and cost effective inputs for the farmers. They are cost
effective, eco-friendly and renewable source of plant nutrients to
supplement chemical fertilizers in sustainable agricultural system.
The blue green algae as a biofertilizer is a strong alternative of
chemical fertilizer in improving the soil quality. Biofertilizers such as
rhizobium, Azotobacter, and blue green algae are being used since long time.
The blue green algae is used as a important tool to maintain the sustenance of
the biodiversity.
In 1977 Verghese stated that the demand for chemically Þxed nitrogen
is bound to be on increase and the nitrogen gap is likely to double in India by
1984, which would be difÞcult to bridge in the wake of the energy crisis.
Blue green algae dominate a wide range of diverse environments
characterized by extremes of temperature, desiccation, pH, salinity, light
intensity and nutrients (Whitton, 2000). Many blue algae tolerate high levels
of ultraviolet radiation (Sinha et al, 1999), permitting them to survive at the
soil surface.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
191
Many blue green algae have the capacity to manufacture
nitrogenase. Because the enzyme complex is anaerobic, signiÞcant Þxation
by unicellular, colonial and some Þlamentous species occurs only in the
absence of air. Therefore, only heterocystous species are valuable as
biofertilizers. Blue green algae i.e. biofertilizers have several advantages
over chemical fertilizers. They are non-polluting, inexpensive, utilize
renewable resources. In addition to their ability of using free available solar
energy, atmospheric nitrogen and water. Besides supplying N2 to crops, they
also supply other nutrients such as vitamins and growth substances
(Wagner,1997). Anabaena and Nostoc have been recorded among the
common nitrogen Þxing blue green algae in rice Þelds.
The use of blue green algae as nitrogen based biofertilizers is
reported in many countries of the world. This was because of the increased
cost of chemical fertilizers, that cause soil and water pollution, changes soil
structure and produce microßora. In comparison, blue green algae is a cheap
source of N, which does not cause pollution. It improves the organic matter
status and water holding capacity. Venkataraman (1981) reported that open
air soil culture is simple, less expensive and easily adaptable by farmers. As
mentioned earlier, blue green algae had minimum growth requirements of
sunlight, simple inorganic nutrients and moisture.
In agreement with the present results were the Þndings of Jacq and
Roger (1977), Roger and Kulasooriya (1980) and Omar (2001) who
reported blue green algal cultures or extracts enhanced germination,
promoted growth of roots and shoots and increased protein content of the
grain. The effect of nitrogen Þxing blue green algae that were isolated from
saline soils on growth and yield of rice grown in the green house and Þeld
were studied by Anonda et al. (1990). Under green house conditions, the N2
content in straw, grain yield and protein content of rice were signiÞcantly
increased.
The use of latest innovations in agriculture arena has resulted in
signiÞcant increase in productivity. There is a however, a growing concern
about the adverse effects of indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers on soil
productivity and environmental quality. Blue green algae offer an
economically attractive and ecologically sound alternative to chemical
fertilizer for realizing the ultimate goal of increased productivity.
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195
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Shikha Dwivedi
Pushpendra Singh
Abstract- Water is the most important resource to sustain the life on this
planet. Tamus is the most important river in satna(M.P). Heavy Metals is a
collective term, which applies to the group of metals and metalloids. The
present review focus on the concentration of heavy metals in Tamus
river.Tamus River receive very harmful heavy metals life Mn, Fe, Cd, Pb, Cr
etc.These heavy metals causing several disease of mankind such as cancers,
lung disease , lever damage , kidney disease and Fragile bones and even death
in instances of very high exposure. The following review article present the
views and Þndings of the work carried out by the various researchers in the
past on heavy metal pollution in Tamus river in satna.
Keywords- Heavy metals, Pollution, Tamus river.
Introduction- Satna is a district of M.P. in india. It is situated in
eastern part of the state. It abounds in natural resources like lime stone,
latterite and silica sand i.e. silicates. Due to the availability of different kind
of industries,main among them are cement factories and lime kilns and due
to industrial activities and uncontrollable use of insecticides, pesticides
and fertilizers the water pollution has become a threat in this region.
The present investigation has the target to give data base informations
of heavy metals found in river water of this region. For this purpose valuable
help form P.H.E. Department, Water pollution control authority and
communication and Capacity development unit is availed. The test of
different heavy metals are done using the method furnished by this unit.
Tamus is the most important river of satna region, and hundred of villages
are contaminating the river by waste water per day(Khan, et al.,
1998).Among the inorganic contaminants of the river water, heavy metals
are getting importance for their non-degradable nature and often accumulate
through tropic level causing a deleterious biological effect (Jain, 1978) .
Anthropogenic activities like mining, ultimate disposal of treated and
untreated waste efßuents containing toxic metals as well as metal chelates
(Amman, et al. , 2002) from different industries based on use of batteries,
paints, ceramics, electroplating, utensils manufacturing etc are
incorporating heavy metals in river water . Tamus river are basically receive
heavy metals from efßuents coming from temple washings and worshiping,
also the indiscriminate use of heavy metal containing fertilizers and
Department of Zoology Goverment College Nagod,Satna (M.P.)
Department of Zoology Goverment P.G.College Amarpatan Satna (M.P.)
196
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
pesticides in agriculture resulted in deterioration of water quality rendering
serious environmental problems posing threat on human.
The area under study receives domestic raw sewage from
surrounding habitation; so also the activity like cattle washing, cloth
washing, bathing, religious activities like idol immersion etc. Paves the way
for high concentration of harmful chemicals in the river water. So it is vital to
study the heavy metals of this river to Þnd a safeguard instruction regarding
health of human and crops production. Thease Heavy Metals causing several
diseases of mankind.
Material and Methods- Water samples were collected once in January
2021 to December 2021 from Four sites discharge points of the Tamus river
over a stretch of 10 kms. The samples were collected from a depth of 1ft
below the surface using Nansen type water sampler and kept in polythene
containers (500mL) with the addition of 2mL concentrated HNO3 at 2mL in
order to preserve the metals and also to avoid precipitation. The pH of water
samples was determined using pH-meter with electronic glass electrode (LI
127 of Elico, India) and conductivity was measured by conductivity-meter
(Systronics 304).
For the analysis of total heavy metals (dissolved and suspended),
water (200mL) samples were digested with 5 mL of di-acid mixture
(HNO3: HCLO4 :: 9: 4ratio) on a hot plate and Þltered by Whatman No. 42
Þlter paper and made up the volume to 50 mL by double distilled water for
analysis of Þve heavy metals viz. Mn, Cd, Fe, Cr and Pb using atomic
absorption spectrophotometer(GBC-902, Australia) (APHA, 1995)
Among the methods available for the determination of Manganese, the
Persulphate method is the best suited and is applicable to all type of water.
The soluble manganese compounds are oxidized to Permanganate by
Persulphate in Acid solutions. The resulting colour of the Permanganate
solution is measured spectrophotometrically at 545nm. Cadmium ions
react with Dithiozone to form a pink-red colour . The colour so formed is
ex t r ac t e d w i t h C h o l o r fo r m a n d ca n b e de t er mi n ed s p ec tr o
photometrically at 518nm. For the detection of iron, all the Iron is
converted into Ferrous state by boiling with Hydrochlorci Acid and
Hydroxyl Amine. The reduced iron Chelates with 1, 10-Phenonthroline at
a pH 3.2 to 3.3 to form a complex of orange and red colour. The intensity of
this colour is proportional to the concentration of iron and follow Beer's
Law, and therefore , can be determined colorimetrically at 510nm.
Chromium is spectrophotometrically estimated by measuring the
intensity of yellow coloured sodium chromate solution For the
assessment of Lead, it is made to react with Dithizone at a pH of about 11.5
to form Lead Dithizone which is soluble in Chloroform. In the presence of
an Alkaline Cyanide solution, the free green coloured Dithizone is not
extracted by Chloroform. The interference form Bismuth and Tin is
eliminated by preliminary.
Result and Discussion- Cd concentration in this region is very less. Its
minute concentration in the water of this river may be due to paint-pigments
as well as plastics and silver cadmium batteries. Its accumulation may also
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
197
be possible due to its photographic use as cadmium bromide and iodide as
well as its use as fertilizers. The W.H.O. permissible limit of cadmium is
0.01gm/l, suggesting concentration of cadmium is within the permissible
limit. Although on any metal except iron is crossing the W.H.O. and BIS
parameters but their presence in traces suggest to take proper precautions
before using this water in domestic purpose. Concentration of Mn is 0.5 ppm
as per water quality standards(india). Mn concentration is also within the
limit and its accumulation in the water of this region is due to use of dry
battery cells, iron alloys, glass, ceremics and fertilizers. Choromium
accumulation in the water of this region may be owing to using Cr as
corrosion inhibitor in photography and in manufacture of green varnishes
and paints etc. Chrome steel disposal may also be a cause of it. Latterite ores
of iron are the main cause of iron concentration in this region. Traces of lead
may be dur to application in alloys, lead pipes, lead arsenate as pesticide as
well as its use in pigments, paints and as lead storage batteries.
Thus it can be concluded that traces of heavy metals are mainly in
the Tamus river which receives sewage form Maihar, Unchehara and
satna which have increasing industrial activities.Thease Heavy Metals
causing several disease of mankind such as cancers, Lung Disease, Lever
Damage, Kidney Disease and Fragile bones and even death in instances
of very high exposure.
References1.
Silva M.A., MaterL.,Souza-Sierra M.M.,Correa A.X., Sperb R. and Radatski
C.M.,J.Hazard mater.,(2007) 147:986.
2. S.Mansoor,Munir H. Shah, N.Shahin, A.Khalique,M.Jaffer. Jaurnal of
hazardous material. A (2006) 137:31-37.
3. BIS:10500: Drinking water speciÞcation, First revision, Bureau of Indian
Standards New Delhi(1991).
4. Baruah,B.K. water quality ponds in Chandrapur area of Kamarup distt. Assam
Environ. Ecology Vol. (1998) 16(2):254-256.
5. Mishra sanjay Some studies on water pollution due to mining activities around
mining areas of Sahdol(M.P.)(2001).
6. Impact of agricultural modernization on socio-economic status of farmers of
Satna Distt. By Sashank Lenka & A. Das Indian Journal of soil
conservation,(2003) 20(3).
7. Kumar A. Saxena,K.K. and Chauhan S., study of physico chemical
characteristics of river Jamuna in distt. Auraiya (U.P.), Him. J. Env Zool.
(2004) 18(1): 85-88.
8. Pandey B.N., Lal R.N., Mishra P.K. and Jha A.K.,Seasonal rhythm in the
physic-chemical properties of Mahananda River, Katihar(Bihar). Env. And
Ecol.,(1992) 10(2): 354-357.
9. M.B. Ubale, Faroqqui Mazber, Arif Pathan , Mo. Zahir Ahmed, Dhule D,G,
Oriantal Jounal Chemistry., (2001) 17(2): 347-348.
10. Prasanna Kumari , A.A. Gangadev, T. and Sukesh Kumar, C.P., Surface water
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quality of River Neyyar,Thiruvananthapuram , Kerala(India) Poll. Research,
(2003) 22(4): 515-525.
11. Sanap R.R., Mohite A.K., Pingle S.D., Gunale V.R., Evaluation of water
qualities of Godavari River with reference to physic-chemical parameters,
Distt. Nasik(M.S.) India Poll. Res. (2006) 25(4): 775-778.
12. Singh S.K. and Rai J.P.N., Pollution Studies of River Ganga in Allahabad
Distt., Poll. Res. (2003) 22(4): 469-472.
199
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Mithilesh Kumar Singh
S.N.P. Yadav
Abstract- In North Bihar Baya river is an important seasonal river. It holds
maximum water in the Rainy season and minimum in Summer season. As we
know water quality of river or pond water depends on radiation of sun light i.e. it
regulates water temperature, pH, BOD, COD, dissolved O2,Turbidity,
Transparency, TDS, Electrical Conductivity, Total Hardness, Total Alkalinity,
Free CO2 and Chloride ions. Such physcio- chemical characteristics depend
also on sources of water supply and impurities mixed-up during journey of
water. This water quality responsible for variation in Phytoplanktons
population density as well as their diversity in Baya river at different Ghats like
S1(Barhauna Ghat),S2 (Dhobia Ghat) and S3(Teghara Ghat) in Samastipur
district of Bihar. My present study of river in the period of 2017 -18.
Keywords- Baya river, Vidyapatinagar, Diversity, Population density, Ghats ,
Phytoplanktons.
1. Introduction- No any boundary touches coastal line in Bihar. So
Bihar is called landlocked state. As we know that Bihar is an agricultural
state. Here industries are for name only. So maximum population are
depend on agriculture and agricultural based industries for survival. Fish
farming with agriculture is also a main stream occupation. In paddy Þeld
with paddy crop Þshes and arthropods like prawns and molluscs are also
cultivated.
Due to lot of perennial and seasonal streams, fresh water availability
is not poor in Bihar. The Ganga, the Burhi Gandak, the Gandak, the Kosi, the
Bagmati etc. are perennial river ßowing in North Bihar. River Baya is also a
longer river at somewhere perennial and somewhere seasonal i.e.scarcity of
water in dry season. Water of river Baya is used at different places for
different purposes. During utilization of these water bodies it is just ignore
the life of river. Baya river is also suffering from this problem. A very little
contributions have been made on the limnology of the reservoirs like ponds
and river in Bihar and Jharkhand at Bhagalpur ( Nasar1975;Nasar and Nasar
1976;Siddiquie et al 1980;Saha1983;Verma and Munshi 1987); at
Darbhanga (Bazmi1989, Ahmad 1990,Siddiquie and Bazmi1990, Kund
1992, Ahmad 1994,Surbhi 1994and Ahmad et al 1996); at Muzaffarpur
(Prasad and Verma 1988 and Singh 1992); at Samastipur (Mala and Sinha
Research Scholar, Magadh University Bodh-Gaya
Deen, Professor& Head, Department of Zoology, Magadh University Bodh-Gaya)
200
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
2011); at Patna (Singh and Ahmad 1990) and at Hazaribagh (Ramakrishna
and Shankar 1982).
In this my researchstudy of Baya river at three different Ghats
(stations) denoted by S1(Barhauna Ghat), S2 (Dhobia Ghat),S3(Teghara
Ghat) mostly situated in Samastipur district of Bihar. Assessment was done
on physcio-chemical characteristics of water as well as variation in
population density of phytoplanktons in relation to seasonal variation. Small
and lower taxonomic plants are called phytoplanktons. As we know that
phytoplanktons have an important role in aquatic food chain. In other words
we can say that phytoplanktons are the food for Þshes.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Sites- As above mentioned my study was at three different sites
called Ghats they were S1(Barhauna Ghat), S2(Dhobia Ghat), S3(Teghara
Ghat). These all three Ghats situated Southern part of Samastipur district of
Bihar West to Eastward respectively.
2.2 Sampling- Samples of river water and phytoplanktons were collected
manually with the help of different types of nets or gears. In which some are
made up of mesh of polymer while some are bamboo's steaks. Sampling
frequency was per month.
Water samples helped in assessment of water quality in aspects of
physcio-chemical characteristics at different parameters. It is necessary for
establishment the co-relation between diversity and seasonal variation in
population density of phytoplanktons.
3. Results and Discussion- Present study of river Baya was carried out
during period of 2016-17 at all three Ghats. Assessment of water in reference
to physical and chemical characteristics with the help of APHA (2005) .
During analysis of phytoplanktons diversity, I saw that population density
varied season to season. That means population density also depends upon
local climates.
3.1 population Density- Population density was determined with the help
of haemocytometer, to count the different phytoplanktons. For analysis a
drop of sample was placed in counting chamber were settled for Þve minutes
and then an average number was taken. This procedure was repeated four
times and overall a mean value was taken and the number of phytoplanktons
per ml. Was calculated as followsNo. Of phytoplanktons in counting chamber
Phytoplanktons/ml =-----------------------------------------------------------×10
Concentration Factors (A)
Where,
Volume of water concentration
A =----------------------------------------------------------Volume of water made after Concentration
During course of analysis of water quality I founded maximum
temperature in Summer at S2 (Dhobia Ghat) as 33.6°C and minimum water
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
201
temperature founded at S1( Barhauna Ghat) as 18.7°C in 1017-18. Turbidity
was maximum founded as 11.2 NTU at S3 (Teghra Ghat) indicates
maximum pollution in the Rainy season while minimum Turbidity founded
as 7.50 NTU at S2 (Dhobia Ghat) in Winter season. Similarly, Electrical
Conductivity was maximum founded at S3 (Teghra Ghat) as 576.0 u/S in the
Rainy season while minimum was founded in Summer season as 407.0 u/S
at S2 (Dhobia Ghat). Transparency was recorded maximum in Winter
season at S2 (Dhobia Ghat ) as 22.3 cm while minimum was recorded as 12.5
cm at S3 (Teghra Ghat) in Rainy season. TDS was recorded maximum as
349.4 mg/ L. At S3( Teghra Ghat) in Rainy season while minimum was 237.7
mg/ L at S2 ( Dhobia Ghat) in Winter season.
As we know pH determines the acidity or alkalinity of water.
Maximum pH was recorded as 8.25 at S2 (Dhobia Ghat) in Rainy season
indicates water was alkaline while minimum pH was recorded as 6.43 at S2
(Dhobia Ghat) in Summer season which indicates water was slightly acidic
in nature. DO maximum was recorded as 6.25 mg/ L at S2 ( Dhobia Ghat) in
Winter season while minimum as 4.43 mg/L at S3 (Teghra Ghat)in Rainy
season. BOD was maximum recorded as 11.10 mg/L at S3 (Teghra Ghat)in
Rainy season while minimum was 7.50 mg/L at S1 (Barhauna Ghat) in
Winter season. COD was maximum recorded as 31.30 mg/L at S3 ( Teghra
Ghat) in Rainy season while minimum was 16.60 mg/L at S1 (Barhauna
Ghat) in Winter season.
Free CO2 was maximum recorded as 7.80 mg/L at S1 (Barhauna
Ghat) in Summer season while minimum was recorded as 4 60 mg/L at S3
(Teghra Ghat) in Winter season. Similarly 'Total Alkalinity ' was recorded
maximum as 136.0 mg/L at S3 (Teghra Ghat) in Winter season while
minimum was recorded as 117.0mg/L at S2 (Dhobia Ghat) in Summer
season. Chloride ions was recorded maximum as 24.30 mg/L at S2 (Dhobia
Ghat) in Summer season while minimum was recorded as 7.90 mg/L at S3
(Teghra Ghat)in Winter season. Thus we see that how water quality changed
with changing in season.
Month wisepopulation density of phytoplanktons was analysed. At
S1 (Barhauna Ghat) average mean value was recorded as 9182.92 u/L ( unit
per litre ).In which maximum value of phytoplanktons was recorded as
46919 in the month of May 2018 (2017-18) while minimum population
density of phytoplanktons was recorded as 1544 u/L in the month of January
2018 (2017-18 ).
At S2 ( Dhobia Ghat) maximum population density of
phytoplanktons was recorded as 56749 u/L in the month of May while
minimum was recorded as 1437 u/L in the month of January. Mean value of
Phytoplanktons was recorded as 10764.08 u/L which S.D. was ± 15808.39
At S3 (Teghra Ghat) maximum population density was recorded as
80697 u/L in the month of May while while minimum minimum was
recorded as 1587 u/L in the month of January. Mean average value was
recorded as 14587.25 u/L while S.D. was ±22431.78
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
202
Table 01
Temperature
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
31.5
30.2
18.7
S2
33.6
28.6
19.2
S3
32.7
29.0
20.1
Mean
32.6
29.27
19.33
S.D.
0.86
0.68
0.58
S.E.
0.497
0.393
0.335
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
8.34
9.90
7.90
S2
9.93
10.30
7.50
S3
10.10
11.20
8.25
Mean
9.25
10.47
7.88
S.D.
0.72
0.54
0.31
S.E.
0.415
0.311
0.178
Table 02
Turbidity
2017-18
Table –03
Electrical Conductivity
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
410.00
501.00
497.00
S2
407.00
533.00
485.00
S3
483.00
576.00
511.00
Mean
433.33
536.67
497.67
S.D.
35.14
30.73
10.62
S.E.
20.288
17.741
6.131
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
Table 04
Transparency
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
19.00
18.30
21.50
S2
18.50
13.00
22.30
S3
13.10
12.50
18.10
Mean
16.87
14.60
20.63
S.D.
2.67
2.62
1.82
S.E.
1.541
1.512
1.050
Table 05
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS, mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
272.50
282.40
267.30
S2
281.30
286.50
237.70
S3
286.10
349.40
302.10
Mean
279.97
306.10
269.03
S.D.
5.63
30.66
26.32
S.E.
3.250
17.701
15.195
Table 06
pH
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
6.90
7.70
7.76
S2
6.43
8.25
7.85
S3
6.51
7.80
7.90
Mean
6.61
7.92
7.84
S.D.
0.21
0.24
0.06
S.E.
0.121
0.138
0.034
203
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
204
Table 07
Dissolved Oxygen (DO, mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
5.42
5.00
6.10
S2
5.23
4.65
6.25
S3
5.10
4.43
5.46
Mean
5.25
4.69
5.94
S.D.
0.13
0.23
0.34
S.E.
0.075
0.132
0.196
Table 08
Biochemical Oxygen Demands (BOD, mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
8.65
9.35
7.50
S2
8.80
10.30
8.70
S3
9.20
11.10
8.55
Mean
8.88
10.25
8.25
S.D.
0.23
0.72
0.53
S.E.
0.132
0.415
0.305
Table 09
Chemical Oxygen Demands (COD, mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
18.50
24.60
16.60
S2
21.30
27.50
18.65
S3
22.40
31.30
17.90
Mean
20.73
27.80
17.72
S.D.
1.64
2.74
0.85
S.E.
0.946
1.581
0.490
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
Table 10
Free CO2 (mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
7.80
6.50
5.00
S2
7.50
5.65
4.90
S3
7.60
5.10
4.60
Mean
7.63
5.75
4.83
S.D.
0.12
0.58
0.17
S.E.
0.069
0.334
0.098
Table –11
Total Hardness (mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
150.00
170.00
180.00
S2
153.00
173.00
186.00
S3
147.00
162.00
169.00
Mean
150.00
168.33
178.33
S.D.
2.45
4.64
7.04
S.E.
1.415
2.678
4.064
Table 12
(Total Alkalinity mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
121.00
126.00
129.00
S2
117.00
123.00
127.00
S3
125.00
131.00
136.00
Mean
121.00
126.67
130.67
S.D.
3.27
3.30
3.86
S.E.
1.887
1.905
2.228
205
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
206
Table 13
Chloride ( Cl- , mg/L)
2017-18
Summer
Rainy
Winter
S1
21.60
15.70
8.80
S2
24.30
19.40
12.30
S3
18.50
14.30
7.90
Mean
21.47
16.46
9.67
S.D.
2.37
2.15
1.90
S.E.
1.368
1.241
1.096
Table14
Month wise population density
(unit/L) of phytoplanktons at S1 (Barhauna Ghat)
of Baya river in the period of 2017-18
Months
Cyanophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Diatoms
Other
Total
November
2849
163
38
23
3073
December
20876
1396
179
29
22480
January
1021
35
471
17
1544
February
1079
23
2172
79
3353
March
1243
5115
588
13
6959
April
2707
216
172
30
3125
May
46503
285
90
41
46919
June
5350
82
10
47
5489
July
2418
94
55
18
2583
August
2609
412
102
14
3137
September
2982
289
695
54
4029
October
7075
232
185
21
7513
Total
96712
8342
4757
386
110195
Mean
8059.33
695.17
396.42
32.17
9182.92
S.D.
12709.32
1378.16
577.45
18.97
12567.62
S.E.
3673.21
398.21
166.89
5.48
3632.26
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
207
Table 15
Month wise population density (unit/L) of phytoplanktons at S2
(Dhobia Ghat) of Baya river in the period of 2017-18
Months
Cyanophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Diatoms
Other
Total
November
3024
140
30
25
3219
December
28750
1705
185
45
30685
January
826
32
550
29
1437
February
946
23
2442
124
3535
March
1050
5965
676
91
7782
April
3830
36
202
63
4130
May
56218
394
96
41
56749
June
5824
102
10
36
5972
July
1950
8
44
34
2036
August
1530
346
160
28
2064
September
2015
305
780
53
3153
October
7950
218
190
49
8407
Total
113913
9274
5365
618
129169
Mean
9492.75
762.83
447.08
51.5
10764.08
S.D.
15915.75
1627.10
650.74
28.01
15808.39
S.E.
4599.75
470.26
188.07
8.09
4568.89
Table 16
Month wise population density (unit/L) of phytoplanktons at S3
(Teghara Ghat) of Baya river in the period of 2017-18
Months
Cyanophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Diatoms
Other
Total
November
3646
135
52
17
3850
December
38500
1870
198
76
40644
January
1242
10
705
207
2164
February
1352
12
130
93
1587
March
1660
8725
2550
123
13058
April
5065
5
695
68
5833
May
79600
585
465
47
80697
June
7040
82
160
51
7333
July
2752
149
135
17
3053
August
2131
432
15
71
2649
September
2838
281
50
13
3182
October
9800
236
880
81
10997
Total
155626
12522
6035
864
175047
Mean
12928.83
1043.50
502.92
72.0
14587.25
S.D.
22381.11
2367.61
679.67
51.62
22431.78
S.E.
6468.52
684.27
196.43
14.91
6483.17
208
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
Reference1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
209
Ahmad, M.S. ( 1989 ): Ecology of polluted ponds of Darbhanga, Ph.D. Thesis,
L.N. Mithila University, Darbhanga.
APHA (2005 ) ,Standard methods for the Examination of water and waste
water, 21stEd. ; American Public Health Association, New York ,USA.
Woodwell, G.M. (1970 ): Effect of pollution on the structure and physiology of
Ecosystems, Science; 168, 429-433
Whittaker, R.H. (1970): Communities and Ecosystems, Mc Millan 3, New
York.
Saha,L.C.(1985): periodicity of algal ßora in Bhagalpur pounds in relation to
ecological factors; J.Ind. Bot. Soc. ,Vol.64: 25-30
Singh, M.P. (1992): Limnological studies of Sikandarpur ox- bow lake with
reference to algal diversity. Ph.D. Thesis, B. R.A. Bihar University,
Muzaffarpur.
Yadav, Y.S. ; Singh, R.K. ; Chaudhary, M. And Kolekar, V. (1987): Limnology
and productivity of Dighali Beel (Asam), Trop. Ecol.Vol –28 : 137-146.
210
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
A.K. Dixit
Abstract- I have studied the thermo physical and cohesive properties such as
Gruneisen parameter, molecular force constant, Restrahl frequency, Debye
temperature compressibility and Anderson-Gruneisen parameter etc of LiCl 1xFxmixed alkali halide underthe banner of three body force potential model
.Three body force potential (TBFP) model contains long- range forces
(Colombians and three body interactions) as well as short range forces (vanderWaal's and overlap repulsive forces)(10-15) .I have selected mixed alkali
halides for the discussion because mixed crystals are very useful and known as
solid solutions. Mixed alkali halides have received considerable attention of
investigators (1-9) due to their scientiÞc and technological importance. The
observations show that the micro hardness of mixed alkali halides is larger than
the pure crystals. Some results are very close to their experimental value which
shows the superiority of this model over other models.
Keywords- Thermo Physical and Cohesive Properties
Introduction- Ionic solids are model crystal for the analysis of
lattice properties. In the same sprit we have used our three body force
potential model (TBFP) for the calculation of lattice and thermo-physical
properties of mixed alkali halides LiCl 1-xFx. This potential model consists
long-range (Columbians and three body interaction) forces as well as short
range forces (overlap repulsive force operating up to next nearest neighbor
ions and vander-Waal's interaction) (25-30). This shows that the inclusion of
three body interaction effect makes the present model suitable for the study
of thermo physical properties of mixed alkali halides. Most of the
theoreticaland experimental workers (10-36) have explained the elastic and
thermo physical properties of the ionic solids.
Theory and method of Calculations- From the early history of science and
its evolution, attempts have been made to explain the behavior of the ionic
solids under some boundary conditions through some potential models. We
have applied the TBP model for the calculation of thermo physical
properties of mixed alkali halides. Three body potential model contains
long-range forces as well as short-range forces. Colombians force
associated with three body force is long-range force while Vander -Waal's
and Hafemeister – Flygare are short-range forces . The values of input data
for different concentrations(x) have been evaluated by applying Vegards'
law for second order elastic constants, lattice constants, ionic radii and
Professor of Physics, Government P.G. College Satna (M.P.)
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
211
vander-Waal's constants of host and do pant materials as –
Cij(mix) = x cij(A) +(1-x) cij(B)
rij(mix) = x rij(A) +(1-x) rij(B)
ρ (mix) = x ρ (A) +(1-x) ρ (B)
C(mix) = x C(A) + (1-x) C(B)
D(mix) = x D(A) + (1-x) D(B)
The constituent of mixed crystals are held together by the harmonic
elastic forces with no internal stress within the crystal.The values of input
data are given in table 1.1.Thermo physical properties included in the
discussion are Gruneisen parameter (γ), molecular force constant (ƒ) Debye
Temperature (θD), Restrahl frequency (υο), ratio of volume thermal
expansion coefÞcient to speciÞc relevant expressions have been derived
from three body potential model.(25-36) -U® = -α mz2e2/r-2nf(r) α mze2/r+nbβ +-exp [(r1 + r2- r)/ρ]
+n, b/2[ β++ exp [(2r1- 1.4142r)/ρ
+ β-- exp (2r2 – 1.4142r)/ρ]- C/r6 – D/r8
U'® = +α mz2e2/r2+2nf(r) α mze2/r-2nf' (r) α mze2/r -nb/ ρ β +-exp [(r1 + r2- r)/ρ]
n, b(1.414)/2 ρ [ β++ exp [(2r1- 1.4142r)/ρ
+ β -- exp (2r2 – 1.4142r)/ρ]+6 C/r7 +8 D/r9
U”® =
-2α mz2e2/r3+4nf(r) α mz2e2/r3+4nf' (r) α mze2/r2-2nf' (r) α mze2/r
+nb/ ρ2 β +- exp [(r1 + r2- r)/ρ]
+n, b(1.414)2/2 ρ2 [ β++ exp [(2r1- 1.4142r)/ρ
+ β-- exp (2r2 – 1.4142r)/ρ]-42 C/r8 – 72D/r10
U” ' (r) =
6α mz2e2/r4+12nf® α m ze2/r4-12f' (r) α mze2/r3+6nf' (r) α m ze2/r2-2nf”,
2
(r) α mze /r
+nb/ ρ2 β +- exp [(r1 + r2- r)/ρ]
+n, b(1.414)3/2 ρ3 [ β++ exp [(2r1- 1.4142r)/ρ
+ β-- exp (2r2 – 1.4142r)/ρ]+336 C/r9 + 720D/r11
[U (r)]SR= +nb β +- exp [(r1 + r2- r)/ρ
+n, b/2[ β++ exp [(2r1- 1.4142r)/ρ
+ β-- exp (2r2– 1.4142r)/ρ]- C/r6 – D/r8
[U' (r)]SR= -nb/ ρ β +- exp [(r1 + r2- r)/ρ
-n, b(1.414)/2 ρ [ β++ exp [(2r1- 1.4142r)/ρ
+ β--exp (2r2 – 1.4142r)/ρ]+ 6C/r7+8 D/r9
[U'' (r)]SR = +nb/ ρ2 β + - exp [(r1 + r2- r)/ρ] +n, b(1.414)2/2 ρ2 [ β++ exp [(2r11.4142r)/ρ
+ β-- exp (2r2 – 1.4142r)/ρ]-42C/r8 -72 D/r10
(i) Gruneisen parameter
γ = -ro/6[U'''(r)/U''®] r = ro
(ii) Molecular force constant
f = 1/3[U''SR(r)+2/r U' SR(r)] r=ro
(iii) Restrahl frequency
υο = 1/2π√ƒ/µ
where µ is the reduced mass of the crystal.
(iv) Debye Temperature.
(ΘD) = h υο/k
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
212
(v) Ratio of volume thermal expression coefÞcient to speciÞc heat at
constant volume
αv/Cv = -U”'(ro)/2 ro U”(ro)2
(vi) Compressibility
β= 18 ro/U”(ro)
(vii)
The Anderson-Gruneisen Parameter
δT = - β ro3/27V U”'(ro)
The above relations have been used to calculate the thermo physical
properties of mixed halides. The model parameters are given in table 1.1 and
calculated thermo physical properties of mixed alkali halide are given in
table 1.2 .
Table 1.1
Model Parameters for Mixed
Alkali Halide Licl 1-Xfxat Different Compositions
Composition
(x)
0.0 (LiCl)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0 (LiF)
ρ (10-8cm)
b
(10-12ergs)
0.408
0.422
0.437
0.451
0.466
0.480
0.399
0.394
0.390
0.385
0.381
0.377
f (r0)
af/ (r0)
0.0038
0.0035
0.0031
0.0028
0.0024
0.0021
-0.030
-0.027
-0.024
-0.020
-0.017
-0.014
C(10-60erg x
cm6)
317
262.8
208.6
154.4
100.2
46
D(10-76erg x
cm8)
221
182
143
104
65
26
Table 1.2
Thermophysical & Cohesive Properties
of Mixed Halide Licl 1-Xfx at Different Compositions
Cohesive
Property
Gruneisen
Prarmeter
X=0
Calc
1.627
X=0.2
X=0.4
X=0.6
X=0.8
X=1.0
Exp. Calc Exp. Calc Exp. Calc Exp. Calc Exp.
1.78 1.5436
1.4602
1.3768
1.2934
-
Calc
1.21
Exp.
-
γ
Molecular force
6.72
constant ƒ (104
dyn/cm)
Restrahl frequency
13.92
υο (T Hertz)
Debye Temperature 658.28
(ΘD) (k)
4.66
Ratio of volume
thermal expression
coefÞcient to
speciÞc heat at
cons tant volume
αv/Cv(10 10ergs unit)
Compressibility (β)
2.91
(10-12 dyn/cm)
The Anderson
- 3.25
Gruneisen
Prarmeter δT
-
6.966
-
7.217
-
7.458
-
7.704
-
7.95
-
-
13.796
-
13.672
-
13.548
-
13.424
-
13.3
-
-
654.25
-
650.22
-
646.19
-
642.16
638.13
730
-
4.596
-
4.532
-
4.468
-
4.404
4.34
3.36
2.68
-
2.45
-
2.22
-
1.99
1.76
1.49
-
3.082
-
2.914
-
2.746
-
2.578
2.41
-
Result and Discussion- A look at the table 1.2, it is clear that presently
estimated end point values of Gruneisen parameter are very close to their
experimental values. Some results of ours are still higher than the
experimental values. The reason behind is to change in bond length in ionic
solids. The compressibility and micro hardness and Ratio of volume thermal
expression coefÞcient to speciÞc heat at constant volume of mixed halide is
higher than pure crystals. So this mixed halide is very important for
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
213
industrial purpose. Some results are very close to their experimental value
which shows the superiority of this model over other models. On the basis of
overall achievements the present TBP model can be regarded to be
adequately suitable for the prediction of thermo physical and cohesive
properties of mixed alkali halides.
References1.
2.
3.
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Kennedy, S.W., J. Appl. Cryst . 6,293(1973); J.Mat. sci. 9, 1043 (1974).
Basset, W.A. and Takahashi, T., “Advance in high pressure research” vol. 4,
R.H. wentorf (Academic press London, 1974); Rev. Sci. Instgr. 38,37 (1967);
Liu, Lingin abd W.A. bassett, j. Geophys. Res. 77, 4934 (1972).
Singh, R.K. and Agrawal. M.K., Solid state Communication 17,991 (1975).
Singh R.K. and Gupta, D.C., Phase Transition, 53,39 (1995).
Singh R.K. Phys. Report 85, 259 (1982).
Hafemeister, A.M., Phys. Rev. B 56, 5835 (1997).
Tosi, M.P., Solid State Physics 16,1 (1964).
Cohen, A.J., Physical Rev. B 12, (1975).
Tranquada, J.M. and Ingalls, Phys. Rev. B34 4267 (1986); Phys. Lelt. 94 A,
441 (1983).
Singh, R.K. and Singh, Sadhana, Phase Transitions, Phys. Rev. B39, 761
(1989).
Jog, K.N. Singh R.K. and Sanyal, S.P., Phys. Rev. B35, 5235 (1987); B31,
6047 (1985).
Singh, R.K. and Gupta, D.C., Nuovo Cimento, D2, 1235 (1987).
Singh, R.K. and Gupta, D.C. and Sanyal, S.P., Physics Status solidi B149, 356
(1988).
Ladd., M.FC., J. Chem. Phys. Solids 60, 1954 (1974).
Fumi, F.G. and Tosi M.P., Ibid 25, 345 (1964).
Tosi, M.P., J. Phys. Chem. Solids 24, 956 (1963).
214
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Nazia Hasan
Rakesh Prasad
Abstract- In the present study several carnivorous Þshes of river Ganga from
Aami (Saran), site was examined on monthly basis from January 2019 to
December 2019 to Þnd out the status of helminth infection in them. Presence of
Cestode, Nematode and Trematode parasites was observed from
gastrointestinal tract, visceral organs and body cavity of both type of host Þshes
during the study period. As per the Þndings, Nematode shows highest incidence
in both the Þshes i.e. 70% in Eutropiichthysvachaand 120% in Ailiacoila, in
May and October, respectively. Highest density was also found in Nematode in
both the Þshes – 1.2 in Ailiacoila in the month of October, and 0.9 in
Eutropiichthysvacha in the months of May and August. Beside this, the highest
index was also observed in Nematode 4.8 in Ailiacoila in October while 0.63 in
Eutropiichthysvachain May. Similarly, Trematode shows high intensity in both
Þshes i.e., 2 in Eutropiichthysvachain the month of June, July & August, and 4 in
the month of July in Ailiacoila.It was concluded that that Nematode parasite
showed maximum incidence, density and index while Trematode parasite
showed maximum intensity in both type of Þshes.
Keywords- Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT), Trematode, Helminthic Infection.
Introduction- Helminths have been a problem for humans since
the dawn of recorded history (Faust, Russell & Jung, 1970). The ancient
works of Hippocrates, Egyptian medical papyri, and the Bible can all be
used to identify helminthic illnesses (Cox, 2002; Hotez, 2008). Helminths
are said to have resulted in huge loss in production of Þsh as they are a chief
form of parasites found in them (Sobecka & Slominsca, 2007). Parasites
are important groups of organisms because they have evolved
independently in nearly every phylum of animals, from protozoa to
chordates, as well as in many plant groups. Due to their continuous
contamination of the environment with their eggs and larvae helminth's
infection is a huge challenge, both in developing and developed countries
(Nalule, Mbaria& Kimenju, 2013).
Fish is regarded to be a very cheap and chief source of diet,
especially due to high level of protein and other micro nutrients. Because
of its richness and ease of availability it is a staple food for poor
population of the country. Commercially, it makes a signiÞcant
contribution to the economy due to its constant high demand, although
Department of Zoology, J.P. University, Chapra, Saran, Bihar. Pin 841301
Department of Zoology, J.P. University, Chapra, Saran, Bihar. Pin 841301
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
215
parasitic infestation hinders the Þshery's commercial viability,
impacting the economy in this area.
Helminths can be found in both wild and cultured Þshes. Fishes are
infected with all three major groups of helminths: Nematode, Cestode and
Trematode. Worldwide, about 20,000 to 30,000 helminth species have been
reported, causing signiÞcant losses to the Þsh sector (Kime, 1995).
In any natural ecosystem, parasites maintain a complicated dynamic
equilibrium with the free-living plants and animals' community (Hoffman,
1967). Parasitic diseases, alone or in combination with other environmental
stresses, may inßuence the host weight or reproduction, alter population
traits, and have an economic impact (Rhode, 1993).Many workers have
studied on the helminthparasites and their population dynamics occurring in
Piscean host. The study of population dynamics can be used as the biological
basis of method to regulate population of parasite.
Materials and Methods
Area and duration of Study- The samples for present study were collected
monthly fromAami(AmbikaBhawani, Saran) site of Ganga River between
January 2019- December 2019
Examination of Fishes for Helminth Parasitic Infestation- Sample of
Þshes i.e. Eutropiichthysvacha (Bachwa) and Ailiacoila (Suthri) were
collected on monthly basis from Aami(AmbikaBhawani, Saran) site of
Ganga River and carried to the laboratory in glass jars with safety measures
to keep them alive. However, those Þshes which died during the
transportation were also used. In some cases, alive parasites were recovered
from these fresh dead Þshes. In the laboratory, morphometric characters
were observed and their identiÞcation was done after giving them serial
number. The live Þshes were killed by severing the spinal cord just behind
the head, and then external body organs (Skin, Fins, Gills, Oral cavity) were
thoroughly examined for the parasites with the help of magnifying glass. For
examination of the gills and internal organs, Þshes were dissected by making
an insertion from the anus towards the mouth. After opening the viscera, the
alimentary canal and others organs were removed and placed in a normal
saline solution (0.75 % NaCl) in separate petri dishes for examination and
body cavity was examined carefully for helminth parasite. Sex of the Þsh
was determined by examining the gonads. The alimentary canal and other
visceral organs were pulled open taken out carefully using sharp tweezers
and Þne needle and were cleaned with Þne brush to ensure presence of
parasites (Cestodes, Trematodes, and Nematodes). The ßicking movement
of parasites was observed by using magnifying lens. Each
helminthparasitewas carefully and slowly dislodged from the intestinal
wall, ensuring that it remained intact. They were transferred to a clean petri
dish containing normal saline solution. Then the number of different
helminth parasite were counted and noted down.
Population dynamics of helminth parasites was determined by following
formula (Margolis et al., 1982).
Infected hosts
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
216
Incidence of Infection = --------------------------- x 100
Total hosts examined
Number of parasites collected in a sample
Intensity of Infection = -----------------------------------------------------Number of infected hosts
Number of parasites collected in a sample
Density of Infection = ---------------------------------------------------------Total hosts examined
No. of hosts infected x No. of parasites collected
Index of Infection = -----------------------------------------------------------(Total hosts examined) 2
Fig:-River Ganga at Aami, (AmbikaBhawani) Saran
Fig:-Eutropiichthysvacha (Bachwa)
Fig:- Visceral organ of Þsh
Observation: -
Fig:-Ailiacoila (Suthri)
Fig:- Helminth parasite in gut of Þsh
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
217
Fig:- Different Helminth parasite collected from the Þsh specimen
Population Dynamics of Different Helminth Parasites in
Eutropiichthysvacha at Aami Site
Table 01
Showing the population dynamics of different
helminth parasites in E.vacha. Population Dynamics of Different
Helminth Parasites in Ailiacoila at Aami Site
Table ⁰2
Month
No of
Host
Examined
No of
Total
Host
Infect
ed
Jan-19
10
3
Feb19
10
5
Mar19
10
4
Apr19
10
6
May19
10
7
June19
10
7
July19
10
8
Aug19
10
6
Sep19
10
5
Oct19
10
4
Nov19
10
2
Dec19
10
3
Name of
Parasite
No.
No. of
of
Host
Parasi
Infected
te
Inciden
ce
Inte
nsit
y
Densit
y
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
2
1
2
3
1
3
2
4
7
5
2
1
4
3
1
3
2
4
1
2
2
2
3
-
20
10
20
30
10
30
20
40
70
50
20
10
40
30
10
30
20
40
10
20
20
20
-,
30
-
1.5
1
1
2
1
1.6
1
1.5
1.2
1.4
2
1
1.
2
1
3
2
1
2
2
1
1.5
1.6
-
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.4
0.1
0.7
0.6
0.1
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.5
-
3
1
2
6
1
5
2
6
9
7
4
1
7
6
1
9
4
4
2
4
2
3
5
-
Index
0.06
0.01
0.04
0.18
0.01
0.15
0.04
0.24
0.63
0.35
0.08
0.01
0.28
0.18
0.01
0.27
0.08
0.16
0.02
0.08
0.04
0.06
0.15
-
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
218
Showing the population dynamics
of different helminthparasites in Ailiacoila.
Result and Discussion- In the present study, out of 240 collected
No of
Host
Exami
ned
No of
Total
Host
Infected
10
2
Feb-19
10
2
Mar-19
10
1
Apr-19
10
3
10
4
June19
10
3
July-19
10
4
Aug-19
10
3
Sep-19
10
1
Oct-19
10
4
Nov-19
10
2
Dec-19
10
1
Month
19
19
Jan-
May-
Name of
Parasite
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
Cestode
Nematode
Trematode
No of
Host
Infect
ed
2
2
1
3
1
3
3
3
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
1
No
of
Paras
ite
4
6
1
4
3
4
5
4
4
1
5
1
12
1
2
3
Inciden Intensi
ce
ty
20
20
10
30
10
30
30
30
10
10
20
10
120
10
10
10
2
3
1
1.3
3
1.3
1.6
1.3
4
1
2.5
1
3
1
2
3
Densit
y
0.4
0.6
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.5
0.1
1.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
Inde
x
0.06
0.12
0.01
0.01
0.12
0.03
0.12
0.15
0.12
0.04
0.01
0.10
0.01
4.8
0.01
0.02
0.03
carnivorous Þshes, 120wereEutropiichthysvacha and the rest 120 were
Ailiacoila. Out of 120Eutropiichthysvacha, 60were found to be infected and
outof120Ailiacoila, 30 hosts were found to be infected. Furthermore, the
types of helminth parasites found in Eutropiichthysvacha were 7 in the form
of Cestode, 65 in the form of Nematode, and 19 in the form of Trematode. On
a similar note, the types of helminth parasites found in Ailiacoila were 3 in
the form ofCestode, 18 in the form of Nematode, and 22 in the form of
Trematode. Besides these, many larvae and Acanthocephalous were also
recovered from the infected hosts during the study period. The data of
monthly variation in terms of prevalence, intensity, density and index of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
219
helminth parasite infection in both Eutropiichthysvacha and A. coilahave
been shown in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.
As per the present Þndings, Nematode showed highest incidence in
both the Þshes at 70% in Eutropiichthysvachaand 120% in Ailiacoila, in
May and October respectively. While Trematode showed high intensity in
both Þshes; i.e.; 2 in Eutropiichthysvacha and in the month of June, July &
August, and 4 in the month of July in Ailiacoila. Highest density was found
in Nematode in both the Þshes – 1.2 in A.coilain the month of October, and
0.9 in Eutropiichthysvacha in the months of May and August. Nematode
showed highest index 4.8 in Ailiacoila in October while 0.63 in
Eutropiichthysvachain May.
Helminthparasitesare more prevalent and intense in Þshes during
rainy season from April to August(Chowdhury&Hossain, 2015) and the
intensity lowered during winters (Khanum, Begum & Begum,
2015).Trematodes were found in high incidence in summer and low
incidence in monsoons with a mid-range in winters due to environmental
issues (Pallewad, Nanware&Bhure, 2015).
Development of more parasites take place during summers when
temperature remains high low rainfall and sufÞcient amount of moisture
(Jadhav, 2008). In addition, strength of parasites depends upon temperature,
parasites' types and food consumption of Þshes (Verma, Yadav&Saxena,
2018). The view was supported in terms of temperature, pH and conductivity
(Kennedy, 1976).
On the contrary, it was found that parasites developed in higher number in
low temperature and low pH value (Mukherjee et al., 2019).
To sum up, most of the previous researches are in synchronization
with the present Þndings which prove that parasitic infections in Þshes are
affected by seasonal changes, organic pollutants, types of parasites, type of
food intake by Þshes, humidity, and rainfall.
Conclusion- As per the Þnding, it was concluded that nematode parasite
showed maximum incidence (120 % in Ailiacoila and 70% in
E u t ro p i i c h t h y s v a c h a ) , d e n s i t y ( 1 . 2 i n A i l i a c o i l a a n d 0 . 9 i n
Eutropiichthysvacha) and index (4.8 in Ailiacoila and 0.63% in
Eutropiichthysvacha) in both the Þshes while trematode parasite showed
maximum intensity (4 inAiliacoila and 2 in Eutropiichthysvacha) in both
type of Þshes in different months, which clearly indicates, heavy burden of
helminth infestation is found in Þshes. To add on, infestation of parasites in
Þshes affects the health of the latter as well as their consumers, as Þsh forms
a staple and rich diet across many parts of the country. It can be determined
that Þsh industry is largely affected by parasitic diseases in them (William
& Jones, 1994; Schmidt & Roberts, 2000). Hence, it is recommended that
further study on the parasite infestation in Þshes is required to minimise
parasitic attacks on them keeping in mind the health factor of both the Þshes
and of the people who consume them in their diet.
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
220
References1.
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Chowdhury SZ, Hossain MM (2015). Isolation and characterization of
internal parasites in Snakehead. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Studies. 2(4): 17-22.
Cox FEG (2002). History of human parasitology. Clinical Microbiological
Review. 15:595–612.
Faust EC, Russell PF, Jung, RC (1970). Craig and Faust's clinical parasitology.
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8 . Lea &Febiger, Philadelphia.
Hoffman GL (1967). Parasites of North American freshwater Þshes.
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Hotez PJ (2008). Forgotten people and forgotten diseases, the neglected
tropical diseases and their impact on global health and development. ASM
Press. In press
Jadhav BV (2008). Population dynamics of the helminth parasite in freshwater
Þshes from Marathwada region (M.S) India. Flora and Fauna. 12(2):143-148.
Kennedy CR (1976). Ecological aspect of parasitology. North Holand
publishing company, Amsterdam 10x Ford.
Khanum H, Begum S, Begum A. (2015). Seasonal Prevalence, Intensity and
Organal Distribution of Helminth Parasites in Macrognathusaculeatus,
Dhaka. Univ. J. Biol. Sci. 20(2): 117‐122.
Kime, KE (1995). Inßuence of aquatic environmental features on growth and
reproduction of Þsh. Reviews Fish Biology and Fisheries. 3:52–57.
Margolis L, Esch, GW, Holmes, JC, Schod, GA (1982). The use of ecological
terms in parasitology. Report of an ad-hoc Committee of the American Society
of Parasitologists. Journal of Parasitology. 68:131-133.
Mukherjee D, Soni M, Sanyal, KB, Dash G (2019). Prevalence of
Ectoparasitic Infestation in Indian Major Carps During Winter at Different
Blocks of South 24-Parganas District, West Bengal, India. Journal of Fisheries
Science. 1(1): 7-14.
Nalule AS, Mbaria JM, Kimenju JW (2013). In vitro anthelmintic potential
and phytochemical composition of ethanolic and water crude extracts of
Euphorbia heterophyllaLinn. Journal of Medicinal Plants Res.
7(43):3202–3210.
Pallewad S, Nanware SS, Bhure DB (2015). Incidence of infection of
trematode genus Azygialooss , 1899 parasitic in freshwater Þsh
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Rhode K (1993). Ecology of marine parasites: An Introduction to marine
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psychology. 2 . CAB International.
Schmidt DG, Roberts LS (2000). Foundations of parasitology. McGraw-Hill;
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Sobecka E, Słominska M (2007). Species richness, diversity and speciÞcity of
the parasites of bream Abramisbrama (L.) and perch PercaßuviatilisL. in the
estuary of the Odra River, Poland. Helminthologia. 44(4):188–192.
Verma SK, Yadav S, Saxena AM (2018). An ecological analysis of
acanthocephalan parasites of Channapunctatus of river Gomti, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh, India. International Journal of Zoology Studies. 3(2): 01-04.
Williams HH, Jones A. (1994) Parasitic worms of Þsh. Taylor and Francis;
London.
221
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Lalit Gupta
Abstract- Diacrisia obliqua walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) is a phytophagous
insect causing great loss to different crops. To control this pest different
concentrations of bacterial preparations were administered by Leaf Dip
Method and Topical Method. It was observed that bacterial preparation reduces
the longevity of adult insect. It was also found that bacterial preparation is more
effective under LDM.
Keywords- Bacillus thuringsiensis, Diacrisia obliqua
Introduction- Bihar hairy caterpillar, Diacrisia obliqua is a
notorious polyphagous pest of various economically important crops.
Chemical insecticides have been used by farmers to control this pest but
older larva survived their toxicity. Chemical pesticides are also harmful to
human & pet animals. They also impose resistance development and
environmental pollution. Biopesticides are being popular day by day in
order to control the pests. Microbial agents like virus, bacteria & fungi have
been widely used & tested to control several crop pests.
Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) is a gram positive bacterium. It has been
found very effective to control lepidopteran pests. B.t. has been found
pathogenic to more than 525 insect species. A number of toxins like
endotoxin and many more are produced by it. This toxin is a protein
produced when spores are formed. It targets the insect's midgut epithelium
upon ingestion. In the light of previous work done & literature available,
following work was planned to study the effect of Dipel (a commercial
preparation of B.t.) on growth of D. obliqua.
Material & Method- For the study male & female moths were collected and
maintained in laboratory to ensure the regular supply of insects. Adults were
maintained in glass chimneys and larva obtained from them were kept in
large petridishes. Full grown larvae were transferred to pneumatic trough
having 10-15 cm thick soil on their bottom, for pupation.
Dipel is a commercial preparation of B.t. whose efÞcacy has been
already evaluated to control different insects. It is a wettable powder
containing 25x109 viable spores per gram of Þnal product of B.t. var Kurstaki
(Serotype 3a, b strain HD-1).
The concentrations of Dipel used in this study included 0.05, 0.10,
0.50, 0.75 & 1.0%. 2% skimmed milk powder was added to Dipel which
increased its adhering property.
Janta College, Bakewar, Etawah (U.P.), INDIA
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
222
Two methods were employed to treat the insects with different
bacterial preparations.
1. Leaf Dip method (LDM) - In this method, small & uniform sized
leaves were treated with each concentration of Dipel.
2. Topical Method (TM) - In this method 2 hr old adults were exposed
to a thin Þlm of residue.
Observation- The results obtained in different experiments are presented in
following tableTable 1
Effect of Bt on longevity in male and female D. obliqua
at different modes of treatment. (Values are man S. E.)
Mode of
treatment
L.D.M.
T.M.
Concentration (%)
0.05
0.10
0.50
0.75
1.00
0.05
0.10
0.50
0.75
1.00
Control
Longevity (in days)
Male
Female
7.260.34
8.350.25
7.680.26
7.750.26
6.020.48
6.930.44
5.060.78
5.180.56
3.140.12
3.060.02
7.800.44
9.760.32
7.060.22
8.820.26
7.3660.34
7.870.16
6.540.56
6.860.46
3.450.14
3.550.42
11.350.22
13.760.24
Result & Discussion- The life span of progeny male and female adults of
untreated parents was more as compared to that earlier treated by leaf dip
method with any concentration of the dipel (P<0.05). The longevity of
adults, varying from 3.14 to 7.26 days in male and from 3.16 to 8.35 days in
female and tending to decrease with the increasing concentration, differed
signiÞcantly with different concentrations (P<0.05).
Every concentration of the dipel applied as residue Þlm to the adult
reduced the life-span of both male and adults (P<0.05). As regards the
inßuence of different concentrations of the dipel as residue Þlms on the
longevity of adults, it varying from 3.45 to 7.80 days in male and 3.55 to
09.76 days in female and declines with the advancing concentration of dipel
concentration of the residue Þlm (P<0.05).
Same Þndings have been revealed by previous workers against other
pests Chaturvedi (2002)1 and Bajpai (2003)2 also worked on microbial
preparations against sex oriented sterilizing inßuence on different insects.
The present Þndings are in correlation with the results of earlier
workers. Similar Þndings have also been reported earlier by Sharma(2001)3,
.Krishnaiah,K., Mohan, N.J. and Prasad, V.C4(1981) and Sundrababu,
P.C. and Subramaniam, T.R5.(1973) by using insect growth regulators to
observe the effect of these on development and sterility of U. pulchella. and
other pests.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
223
Conclusion- The above study reveals that Bt is a promising biopesticide. It
has potential to control the pests especially lepidopteran. It is more
signiÞcant in recent farming practices because it is safe to environment.
References1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Chaturvedi,R.K.Studies on the effectiveness of Bacillus thuringiensis Ber.
Against Utetheisa pulchella Linn.(Lepidoptera:Arctiidae).Indian Society of
Life sciences).Pp. 68-69(2003)
Bajpai, Anju . Studies on the effects of Bacillus thuringiensis Ber. on the
growth and development of Leucinodes orbonalis. Indian society of Life
Scinece. Pp. 75-77(2003)
Sharma,S.S.;Kaushik,H.D. and Kalra,V.K. Toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis
varities kurstaki and aizawai against some lepidopterous pests.Annals of
Biology,17(1);91-94 (2001)
Krishnaiah,K., Mohan, N.J. and Prasad, V.C. EfÞcacy of B. thuringiensis Ber.
For the control of lepidopterous pests of vegetable crops.Entomon.,6(2):8793(1981)
Sundrababu, P.C. and Subramaniam, T.R. Studies with B.thuringiensis
Berliner on Spodoptera litura fabricius. Madras Agric. J., 60 (7) : 487491(1973)
224
UGC Journal No. (Old) 2138,
Peer-Reviewed Research Journal
Impact Factor 5.125 (IIFS), ISSN 0973-3914
Vol.- 36, English Edition, Year-18, Jan.-June 2022
Anup Kumar Mishra
Pushpendra Kr. Sharma
Abstract- The blue green algae are one of the major components of the nitrogen
Þxing biomass in crop plant and provides a potential source of nitrogen
Þxation. The blue green algae as a biofertilizer are proving to be a very
important media in improving the soil quality by enriching the various
components in the soil.Biofertilizers are ecofriendly as they do not contain any
such chemical which is harmful to living soil.The Paddy (Oryza sativa, L.var.
SAKET) plants were taken in experiment. These plants were raised in soil-pot
culture conditions. The different Supply levels of blue green algae, nil (control),
50, 100, 150, 200 and 250g bga/kg soil were applied to plants. The increase in
manganese content of paddy plants was observed with the increase in bga
supply level upto 200g bga/kg soil in tops of 30 days,upto 150g bga/kg soil level
in tops of 90 days old plants,and upto 250g bga/kg soil level in grains of
plants.In tops of 90 days old plants,manganese content at 250g bga/kg soil
level was found to be equal with that of value observed at 200g bga/kg soil
level,whereas in tops of 30 days old plants further increase in bga supply
beyond 200g bga/kg soil level and beyond 150g bga/kg soil level in tops of 90
days,showed decrease in manganese content. As compared to control increase
in tissuemanganese was found to be highly signiÞcant (P=0.01) at each level of
bga supply.
Keywords- Paddy, bga, BNF, controlled condition, FM
Introduction- The human population, food production and
fertilizer consumption have increased gradually. To guarantee enough food
for all, either the population growth has to be stemmed or more fertilizer has
to be found to meet the ever increasing demand for protein. The demand for
chemically Þxed nitrogen is bound to be on the increase and the nitrogen gap
is widening up. Such a gap would be difÞcult to bridge in the wake of the
energy crisis. Furthermore, in the area of chemical Þxation, no major breakthrough is yet visible to minimize the energy requirements of the
conventional Haber–Bosch process for the production of ammonia.
The use of latest innovations in agriculture arena has resulted in
signiÞcant increase in productivity. There is a however, a growing concern
about the adverse effects of indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers on soil
productivity and environmental quality. Blue green algae offer an
economically attractive and ecologically sound alternative to chemical
Associate Professor, Department of Botany, D.A.V.(P.G.) College, Dehradun,Uttarakhand
Associate Professor, DepartmentofZoology, D.A.V. (P.G.) College, Dehradun,Uttarakhand
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
225
fertilizer for realizing the ultimate goal of increased productivity,especially
in rice cultivation.
The blue green algae have inhabited much of the surface of the
earth for billions of years and today they are responsible for a signiÞcant
amount of biological nitrogen Þxation (BNF).The tropic independence of
blue green algae made them suitable for use as biofertilizers. Blue green
algae are widely distributed organisms all over the world and can be found
in extreme habitats, from hot springs to arctic regions. Among the
ecosystems in which they can be found, wet soils provide an ideal
environment for blue green algae to grow. Blue greenalgae represent a
small taxonomic group of photosyntheticprokaryotes. Some of them are
able to perform nitrogen Þxation and also possess a tremendous potential
for producing a wide range of secondary metabolities. Blue green algae
have drawn much attention as prospective and rich sources of biologically
active constituents and have been identiÞed as one of the most promising
groups of organisms capable of producing bioactive compounds (Þsh &
codd 1994, schlegel et al…1999). De (1939) attributed the natural fertility
of ßooded rice Þeld soil and its maintenance to the process of biological
nitrogen Þxation by blue greenalgae.
The biofertilizers contains beneÞcial microorganisms which
improve plant growth and protect plants from pests and diseases (El-yazeid
et al, 2007). The role of soil microorganisms in sustainable development of
agriculture has been reviewed (Lee and Pankhurst, 1992). Biofertilizers are
important components of integrated nutrients management. These potential
biological fertilizers would play key role in productivity and sustainability
of soil and also protect the environment as eco-friendly and cost effective
inputs for the farmers. They are cost effective, eco-friendly and renewable
source of plant nutrients to supplement chemical fertilizers in sustainable
agricultural system. In developing countries like India where there is
immediate need to rely increasingly organic fertilization of soil these biofertilizer play a role in mini mising dependenceon inorganic nitrogenous
fertilizers. The bio-fertilizers, otherwise called microbial inoculants are
preparations containing live or latent cells of efÞcient strains of nitrogen
Þxingmicro- organisms used for seed or soil application. The main objective
of applying inoculants is to increase the number of such microorganisms in
soils or rhizosphere and consequently improve the extent of microbiologically Þxed nitrogen to plant growth. Application of bio-fertilizers in
combination with organic nitrogenous fertilizers has a key role to play in
theeconomic management of nitrogen needs of crops.
In India, considerable progress has been made in the development of
blue green algae based bio-fertilizer technology. It has also been
demonstrated that this technology can be a powerful means of enriching the
soil fertility and improving rice crop yields.
Application of bio-fertilizers in combination with organic nitrogenous
fertilizers has a key role to play in the economic management of nitrogen needs of
crops.In addition to this blue green algae are imparting a big role in the sustenance
of the conservation of biodiversity on the planet, which is the dier need of time.
226
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
Material and Method- Experimental plants were raised in soil culture
under pot culture conditions in the laboratory. Plants were raised in 8” clay
ßower pots with a central drainage hole. The inner surface of the pots along
with top 3” of outer rim was lined with acid washed polythene provided with
a central hole superimposed on the drainage hole of the pot. Normal water
was used during culture work. All the plants were raised in the soil, 1.5 cm
deep holes were madewith glass rod of 3mm diameter and seeds were put in
these holes, carefully, covered loosely with soil of the same pot. After the
seeds emergence, plants were thinned to a uniform number in each pot.
Subsequent thinning was done wheneverneeded.
For the experiment, there were six pots. The pots were arranged in 3
blocks A, B andC. In each block there were two pots, one pot was meant for
control treatment and other one with BGA treatment. In each block the
treatments were completely randomized. The experimental pots were
arranged in north- south direction and were kept raised from the ground at a
height of one feet avoiding any surface contact of the drainage holes with the
ground to eliminate any contamination.
For studies, the Paddy (Oryza sativa, L.var. SAKET) plants were
raised in soil pot culture. Soil samples were collected in a clean polythene
bags after surface scrapping and brought to the laboratory. Calculated
amounts of normal water were applied daily to pots to provide as for as
possible uniform soil moisture conditions. Sampling was generally
started at 8:30A.M. and completed in an hour. All samples were drawn at
the same time and placed in the shade. The 3 blocks a, b and c was sampled
at the same time.
Soil was separately mixed with required amount of blue green algae.
There after it was air dried thoroughly grounded and mixed. For through
mixing required amount of BGA were mixed with small amounts of soil,
divided and mixed again and again. Then these amended soils were mixed
with bigger amounts of soil similarly, and Þnally these soils were mixed with
bigger lots of calculated soils required for experiments. Soil mixing was
done on separate clean chart to avoid any contaminations. Mixed soils were
Þlled inpots.
Manganese was determined by 'tetrabase' (PP-tetra-ethyl-diaminodiphenyl-methane) method described by Nicholas and Fischer (1950).The
colour measurement was made immediately in Elico CL-20A photo-electric
calorimeter using green Þlter.
RESULT- The increase in manganese content was found to be, highly
signiÞcant (P=0.01) at 100 g bga/kg soil over 50g bga/kg soil and 200 g
bga/kg soil over 150 g bga/kg soil in tops of 30 days old plants and in grains,
at 150 g bga/kg soil over 100 g bga/kg soil in tops of 30 days and in grains,
and at 250 g bga/kg soil over 200 g bga/kg soil in grains, signiÞcant (P=0.05)
at 150 g bga/kg soil over 100 g bga/kg soil in tops of 90 days old plants.
The decrease in manganese content was found to be highly
signiÞcant (P=0.01) at 250 g bga/kg soil over 200g bga/kg soil in tops of 30
days and 200 g bga/kg soil over 150g bga/kg soil in tops of 90 days old plants.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.-36, Year-18, Jan. -June 2022
227
Maximum tissue manganese was observed at 200g bga/kg soil level
on tops of 30 days,at 150g bga/kg soil level in tops of 90 days,and at 250g
bga/kg soil level in grains of paddy plants.
Effect of the blue green algae as biofertilizers on
manganese content of Paddy (Oryza sativa, L.var. SAKET) plants
Effect of blue green algae as biofertilizers on
manganese content of Paddy (Oryza sativa, L.var. SAKET)plants
Discussion- Blue green algae dominate a wide range of diverse
environments characterized by extremes of temperature, desiccation, pH,
salinity, light intensity and nutrients (Whitton, 2000). Many blue algae
tolerate high levels of ultraviolet irradiation (Sinha et al, 1999), permitting
them to survive at the soil surface.
In conformity with the results of the present study, Rai et. al., (2000)
reported that blue green algae are good colonizers of the nitrogen poor soils,
and that through their nitrogen input into the environment they may help to
create habitats suitable for other species. Many blue green algae have the
capacity to manufacture nitrogenase. Because the enzyme complex is
anaerobic, signiÞcant Þxation by unicellular, colonial and some Þlamentous
species occurs only in the absence of air. Therefore, only heterocystous
species are valuable as biofertilizers. Blue green algae i.e. biofertilizers have
several advantages over chemical fertilizers. They are non- polluting,
inexpensive, utilize renewable resources.In addition to their ability of using
free available solar energy, atmospheric nitrogen and water. Besides
supplying N2 to crops, they also supply other nutrients such as vitamins and
growth substances (Wagner, 1997). Anabaena and Nostoc have been
recorded among the common nitrogen Þxing blue green algae in riceÞelds.
UGC Journal No. (Old) 40942, Impact Factor 5.125, ISSN 0973-3914
228
In 1977 Verghese stated that the demand for chemically Þxed
nitrogen is bound to be on increase and the nitrogen gap is likely to double in
India by 1984, which would be difÞcult to bridge in the wake of the energy
crisis. The use of blue green algae as nitrogen based biofertilizers is reported
in many rice growing countries of the world. This was because of the
increased cost of chemical fertilizers, that cause soil and water pollution,
changes soil structure and produce microßora. In comparison, blue green
algae is a cheap source of N, which does not cause pollution. It improves the
organic matter status and water holding capacity. Venkataraman (1981)
reported that open air soil culture is simple, less expensive and easily
adaptable by farmers. As mentioned earlier, blue green algae had minimum
growth requirements of sunlight, simple inorganic nutrients and moisture.
In agreement with the present results were the Þndings of Jacq and
Roger (1977), Roger and Kulasooriya (1980) and Omar (2001) who
reported blue green algal cultures or extracts enhanced germination,
promoted growth of roots and shoots and increased proteincontent of the
grain. The effect of nitrogen Þxing blue green algae that were isolated
from saline soils on growth and yield of rice grown in the green house and
Þeld were studied by Anonda et al. (1990). Under green house conditions,
the N2 content in straw, grain yield and protein content of rice were
signiÞcantly increased.
The current study was preformed to assess the effect of nitrogen
Þxing blue green algae to improve the natural poor sandy soil. The data
presented revealed the beneÞcial use of blue green algae in comparison with
the controlled (untreated soil) without any consideration to other treatments
employed in this study. The aim of the present study was to design a soil
system supported with microalgae and other soil conditioners that change
the physical and chemical properties of that system in order to improve the
surrounding environment of crop plants. It is evident from the present results
that the inoculation of the different microalgal species to the investigated
soil caused a signiÞcant enhancement of both physical and chemical
properties of soil.
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