molecules
Review
Exploring the Phytochemicals and Anti-Cancer Potential of the
Members of Fabaceae Family: A Comprehensive Review
Muhammad Usman 1 , Waseem Razzaq Khan 2 , Nousheen Yousaf 1 , Seemab Akram 3 , Ghulam Murtaza 4 ,
Kamziah Abdul Kudus 5 , Allah Ditta 6,7, * , Zamri Rosli 8 , Muhammad Nawaz Rajpar 9 and Mohd Nazre 5, *
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Citation: Usman, M.; Khan, W.R.;
Yousaf, N.; Akram, S.; Murtaza, G.;
Kudus, K.A.; Ditta, A.; Rosli, Z.;
Rajpar, M.N.; Nazre, M. Exploring
the Phytochemicals and Anti-Cancer
Potential of the Members of Fabaceae
Family: A Comprehensive Review.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863. https://
doi.org/10.3390/molecules27123863
Academic Editors: José Miguel
P. Ferreira de Oliveira,
Daniela Ribeiro, Andreia Ascenso
and Conceição Santos
Received: 17 May 2022
Accepted: 9 June 2022
Published: 16 June 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
9
*
Department of Botany, Government College University Lahore, Katchery Road, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
usmanphytologist@gmail.com (M.U.); dr.nousheenyousaf@gcu.edu.pk (N.Y.)
Institut Ekosains Borneo, Universiti Putra Malaysia Kampus Bintulu, Bintulu 97008, Malaysia;
khanwaseem@upm.edu.my
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
seemabakram@ymail.com
Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology,
Kunming 650500, China; murtazabotanist@gmail.com
Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; kamziah@upm.edu.my
Department of Environmental Sciences, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Sheringal,
Upper Dir 18000, Pakistan
School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway,
Perth, WA 6009, Australia
Department of Forestry Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Kampus Bintulu, Bintulu 97008, Malaysia; zamrirosli@upm.edu.my
Department of Forestry, Faculty of Life Sciences, SBBU Sheringal, Dir Upper 18000, Pakistan;
rajparnawaz@gmail.com
Correspondence: ad_abs@yahoo.com or allah.ditta@sbbu.edu.pk (A.D.); nazre@upm.edu.my (M.N.)
Abstract: Cancer is the second-ranked disease and a cause of death for millions of people around
the world despite many kinds of available treatments. Phytochemicals are considered a vital source
of cancer-inhibiting drugs and utilize specific mechanisms including carcinogen inactivation, the
induction of cell cycle arrest, anti-oxidant stress, apoptosis, and regulation of the immune system.
Family Fabaceae is the second most diverse family in the plant kingdom, and species of the family are
widely distributed across the world. The species of the Fabaceae family are rich in phytochemicals
(flavonoids, lectins, saponins, alkaloids, carotenoids, and phenolic acids), which exhibit a variety
of health benefits, especially anti-cancer properties; therefore, exploration of the phytochemicals
present in various members of this family is crucial. These phytochemicals of the Fabaceae family
have not been explored in a better way yet; therefore, this review is an effort to summarize all the
possible information related to the phytochemical status of the Fabaceae family and their anti-cancer
properties. Moreover, various research gaps have been identified with directions for future research.
Keywords: cancer; Fabaceae; phytochemicals; cancer treatment; anti-oxidants; apoptosis
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Cancer is a very dangerous disease and is characterized by the uncontrollable growth
of cells. The number of cases and deaths due to cancer is increasing with every passing day
(Figure 1). It is difficult to control and has become a major concern for scientists around the
world [1]. Many stages (initiation, promotion, and progression) occur in the formation of
the cancerous cells [2]. Irregular rates of dietary imbalance, hormonal imbalance, chronic
infections, inflammation, and smoking are the major causes of cancer [3]. Despite several
treatments to cure cancer, it is still considered the second most devastating cause of death
around the world [4,5]. Various methods have been employed to treat cancer, e.g., stem
cell transplantation, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and surgery. The most
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27123863
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
2 of 21
effective method to treat cancer is chemotherapy, but various side effects are associated
with this method [1,6]. Due to the various side effects of radiotherapy and chemotherapy,
alternative treatment methods with no or few side effects are required for the prevention
and treatment of cancer [7]. Recently, researchers around the globe have focused their
efforts on discovering novel drugs from natural sources such as plants with authentic
medicinal importance [8].
Herbal treatment is a natural gift for humans to use to improve their health [9]. Since
ancient times, plants and their phytoconstituents have been used as far as medicinal
purposes are concerned [10]. Podophyllotoxin was discovered in the 1960s at the same
time as when cancer treatments were being searched for from therapeutic plants, which
contributed to the discoveries of taxol, vinblastine, camptothecin, and vincristine [11–13].
Many plants and their phytochemicals have the potential to control the spread of cancer in
the body and continue to attract researchers to examine the anti-cancer activities of various
extracted phytochemicals from plant sources [14].
Relevant percentage of new cases 2020
Relevant percentage of deaths 2020
20%
18%
16%
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
Figure 1. Relevant percentage of new cases and deaths caused by some major types of cancers in
2020 (Sung et al. [15]).
Kingdom Plantae is characterized by approximately 250,000 plant species; however,
the real issue is that only 10% of all plant species have been tested for the treatment of
cancer [11,12]. Anti-cancer compounds occur in various plant parts, e.g., leaf, flower, fruits,
roots, stigmas, pericarp, embryo, rhizomes, seeds, stem, sprouts, and bark, and these
phytochemicals are famous for their role in pharmacology [2]. Different phytochemicals
such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, terpenes, lignin, vitamins, minerals, taxanes, gums,
biomolecules, glycosides, oils, and various other metabolites are known to show anti-cancer
activities [2]. These compounds play a vital role in cancer prevention by activating enzymes
and proteins, regulating cellular and signaling events in growth, their anti-inflammatory
effect, and anti-oxidant action [12,16].
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
3 of 21
The Fabaceae family has a diverse fossil record where the late Paleocene period
represents the oldest fossil records of the family, which shows the history of the Fabaceae
family [17]. Most researchers believe that members of this family have evolved in arid and
semiarid regions near the Tethys Sea [18]. These plants have been the main part of meals
in these regions since 6000 BC because of their richness in proteins. There is also a history
of the use of these plants by humans in Asia, Europe, and North America for medicinal
purposes [18,19]. Currently, species of the Fabaceae family occur naturally or are cultivated
everywhere around the globe except the poles [18,20]. Different types of beans are used
in cuisines due to their richness of proteins and health-promoting activities in the Middle
East, Asia, Mexico, and South America [20].
Phytochemicals of this family have industrial and pharmacological importance [21,22].
This family is a big source of phytochemicals, namely, flavonoids, lectins, saponins, alkaloids, carotenoids, and phenolic acids, which have an anti-cancer property, and the use
of these phytochemicals is increasing over time [13,23]. However, phytochemicals of this
family have not been explored massively for their effect on cancer cell growth. Therefore,
more research is needed in the future to explore the potential of phytochemicals of the
Fabaceae family against cancer and to discover novel drugs against this disease. Various
researchers have worked on anti-cancer aspects of the medicinal plants from the Fabaceae
family. This review is the first attempt to explore the potential effects of phytochemicals of
the Fabaceae family against cancer cell growth, development, and associated mechanisms.
Moreover, research gaps have been explored and future recommendations are given.
2. Development of Cancer and Phytochemical Pathways of Action
Various researches have been conducted over the passing time to understand the
exact process of carcinogenesis. Sporn and Liby [24] demonstrated that carcinogenesis is
a multistep process, which is divided into three main phases, i.e., initiation, promotion,
and finally progression. In most instances, a carcinogen is detoxified within the body as
it enters. However, it may be activated through various metabolic pathways. According
to Klaunig and Wang [25], carcinogenic agents increase oxidative stress and damage the
DNA, and lead to the initiation of carcinogenesis. The proliferation activity of initiated cells
starts during the promotion phase and leads to the preneoplastic cells’ accumulation. These
preneoplastic cells begin invading and spreading in different parts of the body during the
third and the last phase, i.e., the progression phase. The progression phase is irreversible as
seen in Figure 2 [26].
Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of carcinogenesis process.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
4 of 21
The prevention and treatment of cancer by only one pathway does not turn out to be
an effective way due to the involvement of multiple pathways in the occurrence as well
as the progression of cancer [27,28]. All the treatment strategies are subjected to a few
hindrances, e.g., side effects and drug resistance to chemotherapy [29]. These hindrances
have made it difficult for scientists to efficiently develop various treatment strategies
related to cancer [30,31]. Chemoprevention is another approach that is widely practiced
worldwide, and it is useful during the initiation phase of carcinogenesis, while some have
even reported its effectiveness in the promotion and progression phases too [32]. The
chemopreventive agents are generally classified into two principal categories, where one
group includes blocking agents, while others are suppressive agents majorly sourced from
plant phytochemicals [33]. Blocking agents work uniquely; they suppress the carcinogen
activation through the metabolic pathway and do not allow carcinogenic agents to interact
with the biomolecule. On the other hand, suppressive agents work in another way and
suppress the promotion or progression of cancerous cells [34]. The chemopreventive
agents usually have an anti-proliferative and anti-oxidant effect or regulate specific enzyme
activities and cell cycles. Furthermore, these agents also regulate signal transduction
pathways and prevent carcinogenesis [35]. The phytochemicals’ pathway of the anti-cancer
effect is presented in Figure 3.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
5 of 21
Figure 3. Phytochemicals’ pathway of anti-cancer effect.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
6 of 21
3. Steps Involved in the Development of Phytochemical Drugs from the Medicinal Plants
The quality of active phytochemicals in plants determines their ability to be used
as therapeutic agents. Other vital factors, which affect the quality of phytochemicals in
plants, are the age of the plants, climate, and season. On the other hand, some plant parts
have higher levels of bioactive phytochemicals than others, but more research is needed
to improve the knowledge of phytochemicals and how these phytochemicals could be
exploited for cancer prevention and treatment (Figure 4). Many techniques can be used to
purify the active phytochemical including isolation assays, combinatorial chemistry, and
bioassay-guided fractionation [13].
Figure 4. Assessment of phytochemicals from medicinal plants for anti-cancer activity.
Several analytical techniques can be used for the separation of bioactive compounds
from a mixture of compounds in the case of bioassay-guided fractionation. Natural extract
tests from the dry or wet plant material serve as the beginning process to evaluate biological
activity [13]. For the fractionation of active extract, suitable matrices are utilized, and
various analytical techniques, namely, mass spectroscopy, HPLC, TLC, FTIR, and NMR,
are used for the separation of active compounds. There is a great variety of solvents that
can be used for the separation. For the fractionation, silica, superdex, and other suited
matrices can be used. Various dyes can be used to detect the natural bioactive compounds
in therapeutic plants. Furthermore, when the purification of these phytochemicals is
completed, then these molecules are tested for in vivo or in vitro anti-cancer effects. After
achieving anti-cancerous results, other aspects such as pharmacokinetics, metabolic fate,
side effects, immunogenicity, pharmacodynamics, dose determination, and drug interaction
are focused on for future drug design [4].
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
7 of 21
4. Major Phytochemical Constituents of the Fabaceae Family
Species of the Fabaceae family are vital sources of phytochemicals, including flavonoids,
lectins, saponins, alkaloids, carotenoids, and phenolic acids (Figure 5). These phytochemicals are present in every genus of the Fabaceae family and possess great medicinal values [18,22]. The phytochemicals have gained considerable recognition as far as anti-cancer
properties are concerned [13]. However, the phytochemicals of the Fabaceae family have
not been explored by various researchers around the world. According to available data,
all these phytochemicals have significant anti-cancer values against different forms of
cancers in humans (Figure 5). The structures of different phytochemicals found in different
members of the Fabaceae family with anti-cancer values are presented in Figure 6.
Ovarian
Cancer
Colon
Cancer
Liver Cancer
Breast
Cancer
Oral Epidermal
carcinoma
Brain Cancer
Intestinal
Cancer
Fabaceae
Phytochemicals
and Cancer
Prevention
Nasopharyngeal
Carcinoma
Melanoma
Prostate
Cancer
Lung Cancer
Testicular
cancer
Bladder
Cancer
Cervical
Cancer
Figure 5. Reported activity of phytochemicals of family Fabaceae against various types of cancers.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
8 of 21
Figure 6. Structure of main phytochemicals from family Fabaceae. 1. Gallic acid. 2. Quercetin.
3. Butrin. 4. Isorhamnetin-3-O-rhamnoside. 5. Isorhamnetin. 6. Catechin. 7. Rutin. 8. Castanospermine. 9. Derrubone. 10. Genistein. 11. Isoliquiritigenin. 12. Tricin.
Table 1 represents the data of different species of the family Fabaceae that exhibit
anti-cancer activities. The major phytochemicals of the family Fabaceae, including alkaloids,
flavonoids, carotenoids, lectins, phenolic acid, saponins, and terpenoids, are explored. In
total, the anti-cancer activities of the phytochemicals of 71 species are documented in Table 1.
The data related to the phytochemicals of the family Fabaceae are scarce as far as anti-cancer
activity is concerned. Therefore, the best possible data related to the phytochemical activity
of family Fabaceae members against cancer are presented in the table. The details about the
importance of each phytochemical are given in the following sections.
4.1. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are considered to be effective anti-oxidants and are known to exhibit antiangiogenic activity. Various studies have reported that flavonoids inhibit the metabolic
activation of carcinogens and stop the further growth of abnormal cells, which may develop into cancerous cells [36]. Flavonoids and their derivatives are considered the vital
phytochemical constituents of the Fabaceae family. The most important flavonoids isolated
from the various members of the family are chalcone, flavones, flavonol, isoflavones, a
flavonol glycoside, prenylated flavonoids, and lavandulyl flavanones [37]. According to
Krishna et al. [38], prenylated flavonoids from various members of the Fabaceae family are
known to exhibit anti-oxidant and anti-cancer activities.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
9 of 21
Earlier, Kleemann et al. [39] reported that flavonoids could be used as a protectant against inflammation, cellular oxidation, and certain cancers. On the other hand,
isoflavones extract from legume sprouts had inhibitory properties against breast cancer
MCF-7 [13]. Wang et al. [40] also found that the isoflavones extract from Cicer arietinum L.
have a repressive effect on MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Flow cytometry results and microscopic observations supported the inhibitory effect on MCF-7 cell lines, and C. arietinum
isoflavones with a concentration of 32 µg mL−1 are enough to cause apoptosis of MCF-7.
Clinical studies have confirmed that there is a positive effect of isoflavones on human
health by preventing various types of cancer, especially hormone-dependent cancers [41,42].
Eriosema (DC.) Desv. is another important genus in the Fabaceae family with anti-cancer
activities. Flavonoids from species such as Eriosema chenense Vogel, E. griseum Baker, and
E. robustum Baker have an inhibitory effect against various forms of cancer including
lung cancer and oral epidermal carcinoma [43]. Aregueta-Robles et al. [44] found that
Phaseolus vulgaris L. extract, as well as its flavonoid contents, have an inhibitory effect on
lymphoma in mice both in vivo and in vitro. Flavonoid fraction stopped the production
of cancerous cells in a dose-dependent way and, as a result, there was an increase in the
cellular population at the S phase after the treatment with flavonoid fraction. Ombra
et al. [45] also confirmed that flavonoids from P. vulgaris show considerable anti-cancer
properties, and suppress the development of human MCF-7, while flavonoids also showed
an inhibitory effect against human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-3) cells.
Moreover, Gatouillat et al. [46] reported the anti-cancer activity from the flavonoids fraction
of genus Medicago L. and found that two flavonoids, namely, millepurpan and medicarpin
isolated from Medicago sativa L., suppress cancer cells’ proliferation. According to Bora and
Sharma [47], millepurpan and medicarpin can be utilized as chemopreventive agents for
breast cancer as well as cervical cancer.
Stochmal et al. [48] investigated the role of flavone tricin as a chemopreventive agent
sourced from Medicago truncatula Gaertn. It was noticed that tricin in humans caused cell cycle arrest or a growth inhibitory effect on MDA-MB-468 breast cancer. Tricin majorly inhibits
the cyclooxygenase enzyme activity; therefore, it regulates the cyclooxygenase-mediated
prostaglandin production. Due to this effect, tricin can be exploited as a chemopreventive
agent for prostate and intestinal carcinogenesis. Custodio et al. [49] investigated another
genus, Ceratonia L., from the Fabaceae family and reported that flavonoids extracted from
Ceratonia siliqua L. have an inhibitory effect on tumor cell growth under in vitro conditions. Fu et al. [50] reported a novel flavonoid known as licochalcone-A from the roots of
Glycyrrhiza glabra L., and this novel flavonoid leads to late G1 and G2 arrest in androgenindependent PC-3 prostate cancer cells. Choedon et al. [51] determined the effect of butrin
extracted from the flowers of Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. on liver cancer and found
significant results.
4.2. Lectins
Most members of the Fabaceae family are rich in lectin proteins, and communities
in various regions use these plants for different diseases due to their anti-cancer and antitumor activities [13]. Several studies have confirmed the tumor inhibition mechanisms
of lectins in various cell lines including bone, skin, bile duct, and liver cell lines [52–56].
According to De Mejia and Prisecaru [57], various forms of lectins showed anti-cancer
properties under in vivo and in vitro conditions. Lectins bind with cancer cell membranes
or their receptors resulting in apoptosis and cytotoxicity, and finally suppress the cancer cell
growth. Fang et al. [58] assessed the anti-cancer activity of lectin isolated from the Phaseolus
vulgaris L. and declared that lectin possesses anti-cancer activities, particularly against
MCF-7, nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells (HNE-2, CNE-1, CNE-2), and liver cancer cells
(Hep G2). Moreover, P. vulgaris lectin regulates nitric oxide (NO) production through the
upregulation of inducible NO synthase known to introduce apoptotic bodies and contribute
to the anti-carcinogenic activity. Similar results were confirmed by Lam and Ng [59] while
working on the anti-cancer properties of lectin isolated from P. vulgaris.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
10 of 21
Ye and Ng [60] demonstrated that lectin from Glycine max (L.) Merr. possesses antitumor properties for breast cancer and hepatoma cells. C. arietinum is a rich source of lectin
and has a long history of medicinal use in several parts of India as it exhibits strong cancer
chemopreventive activity [61]. Une et al. [62] purified the lectin from Canavalia gladiata
(Jacq.) DC. using the DEAE-sephacel column and affinity chromatography and confirmed
chemopreventive activity. Cavada et al. [63] found that Conyza bonariensis L. contains a
considerable amount of lectin, which inhibits the process of carcinogenesis. According to
Arteaga et al. [64], the proliferation of colon cancer cells is greatly inhibited by the lectin
isolated from Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray. Gondim et al. [65] evaluated the anti-cancer
activity of seed isolated DLasiL lectin of Dioclea lasiocarpa Mart. Ex Benth. The experiments
showed that DLasiL lectin was effective against PC-3 prostate cancer, A-2780 ovarian, and
MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines.
Lagarda-Diaz et al. [66] stated that legume lectins showed anti-oxidant and anticancer activities. Legume lectins inhibit cell proliferation in lung cancer, and the consumption of legume lectins contributes to immunity against different forms of cancer.
Korourian et al. [67] used Griffonia simplicifolia (DC.) Baill. lectin-1 (GS 1) to suppress the
progression of human breast ductal carcinoma and found significant results.
Table 1. Phytochemicals of family Fabaceae and suppression of particular cancer types.
S. No.
Species
Genus
Phytochemicals
Targeted Cancer
1
Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. eX Del.
Acacia
Not specified
[68]
2
Acacia hydaspica R. parker
Acacia
Not specified
[69]
3
Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl.
Acacia
Gallic acid
Alkaloids, flavonoids, and
saponin
Flavonoids and saponin
[70,71]
4
Acacia seyal Delile
Acacia
Lectin
Hep G2 cancer (liver cancer)
Hepatocellular carcinoma, HEP-2
(Larynx Cancer), HCT116 (colon
cancer), and MCF-7 (breast
cancer)
Breast cancer
Liver, larynx, breast, cervical, and
colon cancer
5
Acacia victoriae Benth.
Acacia
Avicins and Fo35
6
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
Albizia
Saponins, flavonoids
7
Albizia chinensis
(Osbeck) Merr.
Albizia
References
[72]
[73]
[74,75]
Quercetin (Flavonoid)
Myeloid leukemia
[76,77]
Leukemia
[78–80]
Breast cancer in rats
[81]
[82]
8
Albizia Julibrissin Baker
Albizia
9
Astragalus
Astragalus
Flavonoids
Not specified
Astragalus
Flavonoids, saponins
Breast cancer
[83]
12
Astragalus ovinus Boiss.
Astragalus spinosus (Forssk.)
Muschl.
Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.)
Bunge
Bauhinia acuminata L.
Alkaloids, saponins, and
flavonoids
Phenolics, flavonoids
Bauhinia
Alkaloids, flavonoids
[84]
13
Bauhinia variegata (L.) Benth.
Bauhinia
Alkaloids, Kaempferol
galactoside, saponins
14
15
16
Bauhinia purpurea L.
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb
Bauhinia
Butea
Caesalpinia
Lung cancer
Liver, lung, breast cancer (both
in vitro and in vivo), and human
ovarian cancer (in vivo)
MCF-7 (breast cancer)
Liver cancer
Not specified
17
Caesalpinia gilliesii (Hook.)
D.Dietr
Caesalpinia
18
Caesalpinia pluviosa DC.
Caesalpinia
Caesalpinioflavone
19
Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw.
Caesalpinia
Catechin, Gallic acid,
quercetin, Rutin
10
11
Lectin
Butrin
Alkaloids
Isorhamnetin, Isorhamnetin3-O-rhamnoside
(flavonoids)
[85–87]
[88]
[51]
[89]
MCF-7 (breast cancer) and
HepG2 cancer (liver cancer)
[90]
A549 (lung adenocarcinoma),
MCF-7, and Hst578T (breast
cancer)
[91]
Breast cancer
[92]
CaCo-2 (colorectal) HeLa
(cervical), and MCF-7 (breast
cancer) cancer
Not specified
HCT-15, SW-620 (colon cancer),
OVCAR-5 (ovarian cancer), SiHa
(cervical cancer), PC-3 (prostate
cancer, and MCF-7 (breast cancer)
20
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.
Cajanus
Flavanones
21
Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC.
Canavalia
Lectin
22
Cassia occidentalis (L.) Link
Cassia
Alkaloids, flavonoids,
saponins
Castanospermum
Castanospermine
Not specified
[98]
Ceratonia
Cicer
Conyza
Cytisus
Flavonoids
Isoflavones
Lectin
Flavonols, flavones
Not specified
Breast cancer
Not specified
Breast and colon cancer
[99]
[40]
[63]
[100]
23
24
25
26
27
Castanospermum australe A.Cunn.
eX mudie
Ceratonia siliqua L. (carob)
Cicer arietinum L.
Conyza bonariensis L.
Cytisus villosus Pourr.
[93–95]
[62]
[96,97]
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
11 of 21
Table 1. Cont.
S. No.
Species
Genus
Phytochemicals
Targeted Cancer
References
HT29 (colon cancer)
[95,101]
28
Derris scandens Roxb. (Benth.)
Derris
Glyurallin, derrubone,
derriscandenon B and C
(isoflavones)
29
Dioclea lasiocarpa Mart. eX Benth.
Dioclea
Lectin DLasiL
30
Eriosema chinense Vogel
Eriosema
Isoflavone, flavonols
31
Eriosema griseum Baker
Eriosema
Flavonols, flavanones
32
Erythrina senegalensis DC
Erythrina
Alkaloids, flavonoids
33
Gleditsia triacanthos L.
Gleditsia
Flavones
34
35
Gleditsia caspica Desf.
Gleditsia sinensis Lam.
Gleditsia
Gleditsia
Saponins
Saponins
Lectin, genistein
(Isoflavones), saponins
Isoliquiritigenin
Alkaloids, flavonoids,
saponins
Lectin-1
Flavonoids, phenolic
compounds, Saponins
Flavonoids, saponins,
terpenoids
Alkaloids, flavonoids,
saponins
Alkaloids, flavonoids,
saponins
Alkaloids, flavonoids, lectin
Cytisine
Saponins
Alkaloids, millepurpan,
medicarpin (flavonoids),
saponins
36
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
Glycine
37
Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. eX DC.
Glycyrrhiza
38
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Glycyrrhiza
39
Griffonia simplicifolia (DC.) Baill.
Griffonia
40
Indigofera tinctoria L.
Indigofera
41
Indigofera cassioides Rottl. Ex. Dc.
Indigofera
Indigofera aspalathoides (Vahl.)
Indigofera
42
44
45
46
Indigofera cordifolia B.Heyne eX
Roth
Indigofera suffruticosa Mill.
Laburnum anagyroides Medik.
Medicago arabica (L.) Huds.
Indigofera
Laburnum
Medicago
47
Medicago Sativa L.
Medicago
48
Medicago truncatula Gaertn.
Medicago
Tricin (flavone)
49
50
Melilotus officinalis (Linn.) Pall.
Melilotus indicus (L.) All.
Melilotus
Melilotus
51
Parkia javanica Lam.
Parkia
Saponins
Flavonoids
Alkaloids, flavonoids,
saponins
43
52
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
53
54
Indigofera
Phaseolus
Galic acid, lectin
Phaseolus Acutifolius A. Gray
Phaseolus
Physostigma venenosum Balf.
Physostigma
55
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.
Prosopis
56
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce
Prosopis
Lectin
Physostigmine alkaloid or
eserine
Alkaloids
Alkaloids, flavonoids,
phenolic aicd, saponins
Flavanones, flavones,
isoflavone
57
Pseudarthria hookeri Wight & Arn.
Pseudarthria
58
Psoralea corylifolia L.
Psoralea
59
Senna alexandrina Mill.
Senna
60
Sesbania grandiflora (L.) poiret
Sesbania
61
Sophora tonkinensis Gagnep.
Sophora
Neobavaisoflavone
(flavonoids)
Flavonoids
Alkaloids, flavonoids, and
saponins
Isoflavones
62
Sophora flavescens Aiton
Sophora
Oxymatrine (Alkaloid)
63
64
65
66
67
Spatholobus suberectus Dunn
Tephrosia purpurea L.
Trifolium repens L.
Trifolium spinosa L.
Trifolium pretense L.
Spatholobus
Tephrosia
Trifolium
Trifolium
Trifolium
Flavonoids, phenolic acid
Flavonoids
Flavonoids, alkaloids
Flavonoids, alkaloids
Flavonoids
68
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Trigonella
Apigenin, luteolin (flavone)
69
70
71
Vicia faba L.
Wisteria sinensis (Sims) DC.
Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC.
Vicia
Wisteria
Wisteria
Flavonoids
Flavonoids
Lectin
Breast, prostate, and ovarian
cancer
Lung cancer and oral epidermal
carcinoma
Lung cancer and oral epidermal
carcinoma
Breast, cervical, colon, liver, lung
cancer, and leukemia
Liver, breast, cervical, larynx, and
colon cancer
MCF-7 (breast cancer)
MCF-7 (breast cancer)
[77]
[104]
[65]
[43]
[43]
[102]
[103]
Breast and liver cancer
[60,67]
Human lung cancer (in vitro)
Breast, colon, liver, and prostate
cancer
Breast cancer
[50,106]
Lung cancer
[107–109]
Breast and colon cancer (in vitro
and in vivo)
[110]
[105]
[67]
Cervical cancer
[111]
Human breast, cervical, liver, and
lung cancer
Not specified
Lung cancer
HeLa (cervical cancer)
[113]
[114]
[115]
Breast and cervical cancer
[46,116–118]
[112]
Breast cancer, intestinal
carcinogenesis and prostate
cancer
Prostate cancer
Hepatocellular carcinoma
[119]
[120]
Human liver cancer
[121]
Breast cancer, colon cancer,
Epithelial colorectal
adenocarcinoma, liver cancer,
and nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Colon cancer
Not specified
[48]
[45,58]
[64]
[122]
Leukemia
[123,124]
Hepatocellular carcinoma
[125,126]
Epithelial colorectal
adenocarcinoma (CaCo-2),
Leukemia, lung adenocarcinoma
(A549), and human ovarian
carcinoma (Skov-2)
[127]
Colon cancer and leukemia
[128]
Liver cancer
[129]
Colon cancer
[130,131]
Breast cancer
Cervical, colorectal, gastric,
human hepatoma carcinoma,
lung, pancreatic, and laryngeal
cancer
Not specified
MCF-7 (breast cancer)
Not specified
Not specified
Breast cancer
Breast, colon, esophageal
squamous cell carcinoma, lung,
and prostate cancer
MCF-7 (breast cancer), HCT 116
Hepatocellular Carcinoma
MCF-7 (breast cancer)
[132]
[76,133–141]
[142]
[143]
[144]
[144]
[145]
[146,147]
[23]
[148]
[88]
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
12 of 21
4.3. Saponins
Several members of the Fabaceae family including peanut, soybean, and lentil are
rich in saponins and reported to exhibit anti-cancer properties. Various researchers around
the globe have confirmed that saponins isolated from members of the Fabaceae family
are effective against colon cancer, melanoma cells, and cervical cancer. Saponins can
follow various mechanisms to suppress the progression of cancer by cell cycle arrest, the
inhibition of cellular invasion, anti-oxidant activity, and the induction of autophagy and
apoptosis [149]. Rochfort and Panozzo [150] stated that the intake of legume saponins
enhances the immunity against various types of cancer including cervical and colon cancer.
Mudryj et al. [151] examined the anti-carcinogenic activity of legume saponins and reported
that saponins involve different mechanisms such as immune modulatory effects, acid and
neutral sterol metabolism, the normalization of carcinogen-induced cell proliferation, and
cytotoxicity of cancerous cells.
Saponins show growth-repressing effects against colon cancer cells by interacting
with cholesterol or free sterols that occur in the cell membranes and lead to a change
in its permeability [152]. According to Gurfinkel and Rao [153], microorganisms in the
colon hydrolyze saponins to sapogenols, which act as a strong chemopreventive agent
against colon cancer and delimit further cancer progression. Dai et al. [154] stated that
the intake of saponins from Glycine max reduces the risk of and controls breast cancer
growth. The effects were more significant, in particular, in the case of premenopausal
women. Furthermore, saponins from Glycine max also inhibit prostate cancer; however,
more efforts from researchers are required to understand the exact mechanism. Mujoo
et al. [73] demonstrated that saponins are present in substantial amounts in Acacia victoriae
Benth., which inhibit the proliferation of various tumor cell lines with minimal growth
inhibition in immortalized breast epithelial cells, human foreskin fibroblasts, and mouse
fibroblasts at a similar concentration. Mujoo et al. [73] also investigated two saponins
(avicins and Fo35) from A. victoriae and reported that both cause apoptosis of the Jurket
(T-cell leukemia), cell cycles arrest (G1) of the human breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-453),
and apoptosis of cancer cell line (MDA-MB-435).
4.4. Alkaloids
Alkaloids are vital secondary metabolites that are considered a valuable source of
novel drugs. Several studies have confirmed that alkaloids have anti-cancer and antiproliferative properties [155]. Vindesine, vinorelbine, vinblastine, and vincristine are the
best examples of alkaloids, which have already been successfully developed as anti-cancer
drugs. These are effective against different forms of cancer including testicular cancer,
brain cancer, lung cancer, bladder cancer, and melanoma. Over 21,000 different alkaloids
have been identified and most of these alkaloids are a great source of medicines, especially
exhibiting anti-cancer activities [156].
Steroidal alkaloids are the most promising component of phytochemicals as far as the
anti-cancer potential is concerned. Steroidal alkaloids could be used in the discovery of
safer drugs for cancer treatment with the aid of more clinical experiments in the future [157].
Matrine alkaloid found in the members of the genus Sophora showed potential anti-cancer
effects against lung cancer and liver cancer [158]. Oxymatrine is one of the few important
quinolizidine alkaloid compounds extracted majorly from the roots of Sophora flavescens
Aiton. Oxymatrine is reported to increase the anti-tumor immunity against lung cancer and
can be used to enhance the immunity against various other types of cancer [141]. Cytisine is
another alkaloid naturally occurring in two genera of the Fabaceae family including Cytisus
and Laburnum [159]. Cytisine is helpful in the suppression of lung cancer through the
induction of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and cell cycle arrest and suggests potential
anti-cancer activity [114].
Castanospermine is another alkaloid extracted from Castanospermum australe A. Cunn
ex Hook. [98] and is reported to convert protein N-linked high mannose carbohydrates
to complex oligosaccharides. Castanospermine serves as an inhibitor of the glycosidases
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
13 of 21
and leads to the suppression of tumor cell proliferation in nude mice [160]. Physostigmine
alkaloid, also known as eserine, occurs naturally in Physostigma venenosum Balf. and exhibits
anti-tumor activities [122]. Pfitzinger et al. [122] reported that physostigmine treatment
significantly suppresses tumor-associated inflammation in mice. However, alkaloids in the
Fabaceae family have not been explored in the same way as other family members as far
as anti-cancer activities are concerned; therefore, more research is required for the further
discovery of potent anti-cancer drugs from alkaloids that occur in the Fabaceae family.
4.5. Carotenoids
Legume leaves are a vital source of carotenoids, which primarily include carotenes,
while other carotenoids are lutein, neoxanthin, crocetin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin,
and some others in a very low quantity. On the other hand, legume roots are not as rich
in carotenoids as the leaves [161]. Many experimental studies have identified various
mechanisms through which carotenoids may control the development of various types of
cancer in humans. These mechanisms include anti-oxidant actions, retinol, communication
functions, and cell signaling. Therefore, anti-oxidant defense support from the carotenoids
reduces cancer risks [162]. Nishino et al. [163] carried out an extensive study and reported
that β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin can be used as chemopreventative agents. Moreover, beta-cryptoxanthin regulates the expression of the RB gene,
which is a known anti-oncogene. Horvath et al. [164] stated that the carotenoids extracted
from legumes have protective, preventative, and even curative effects against various types
of cancer.
Lutein and zeaxanthin are two vital carotenoids that lower the risk of certain cancers [165]. Cancer is associated with the inflammation processes; therefore, the beneficial
effects of both lutein and zeaxanthin are due to anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties [164,166], but the exact mechanism of lutein and zeaxanthin action is not clearly
understood and needs to be explored in future studies. Beta-carotene markedly inhibits
the growth of esophageal cancerous cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Another significant fact is that the same concentration of beta-carotene is non-toxic to normal esophageal epithelium Het-lA cells, suggesting β-carotene is a potent anti-cancer
agent [167]. PC-SPES is a patented herbal mixture that is utilized in prostate cancer treatment, and this herbal mixture is unique in its composition as it is a combination of eight
herbs, two of which belong to the Fabaceae family, including Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and
G. uralensis Fisch. ex DC [168]. According to Matus et al. [169], terpenoids are significant
inhibitors of the signaling of NF-kB, which is a key regulator in cancer and inflammation.
Carotenoids can use a variety of pathways for their anti-cancer activity; however, the
induction of apoptosis is considered the most common.
Satia et al. [170] reported that the long-term use of retinol, β-carotene, lutein, and
lycopene reduces the risk of lung cancer. Gong et al. [171] stated that legumes are an
important source of lutein and significantly inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cells
and enhance the effect of chemopreventive agents through reactive oxygen species (ROS)mediated mechanisms. Rafi et al. [172] determined the effect of lutein on the proliferation
of human prostate cancer cells (PC3) as well as rat prostate carcinoma cells (AT3 cells).
The anti-cancer activity of lutein was effective against both rat and human prostate cancer.
Kim et al. [173] demonstrated that zeaxanthin in combination with lutein lowers the risk of
colorectal cancer through apoptosis of cancerous cells and anti-oxidant functions.
4.6. Phenolic Acids
Phenolic acids are vital phytochemicals present in considerable amounts in the members of the Fabaceae family. Phenolic acids are non-flavonoid phenolic compounds that
occur in the free, insoluble-bound, and conjugated soluble forms. On the other hand, these
non-flavonoid phenolic compounds are widely distributed in plant species [174]. Natural
phenolic acids present in various members of the Fabaceae family are ferulic acid, vanillic
acid, caffeic acid, benzoic acid, p-hydroxy acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, sinapinic acid,
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
14 of 21
and syringic acid [175]. Phenolic acids are secondary compounds that have been explored
recently against various diseases, particularly cancer. These phenolics reduce the proliferation of cancerous cells, promote apoptosis, and target various aspects of cancer including
growth, development, and metastasis [176]. Recently, phenolic acids have been extensively
studied due to their anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-oxidant activities [177]. Anantharaju et al. [178] demonstrated that the anti-carcinogenic effect of phenolic acids is largely
due to five activities: (1) modulation of ROS levels, (2) inducing cell cycle arrest, (3) promoting the suppression of tumor proteins such as p53, (4) suppressing oncogenic signaling
cascades controlling apoptosis and angiogenesis as well as proliferation, (5) increasing the
ability to differentiate and, finally, transforming into normal cells.
Palko-Labuz et al. [179] stated that phenolic acids exhibit numerous health-related
benefits such as anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory activities. Phenolic acids
have low bioavailability, which often restricts their possible medical applications; however,
conjugation with phospholipids could be helpful to enhance the bioavailability in the
biological system. The results showed that conjugates were effective as apoptosis-inducing,
anti-proliferative, and cell cycle-affecting agents. Moreover, the same concentration was
effective for the majority of metastatic melanoma cell lines and, importantly, did not affect
the normal fibroblasts. Salem et al. [68] isolated bioactive gallic acid from the pod extract of
Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Dilile and reported that gallic acid has anti-tumor properties
due to anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
5. Conclusions and Future Directions
Species of the Fabaceae family are a rich source of phytochemicals including flavonoids,
lectins, saponins, alkaloids, carotenoids, and phenolic acids. The consumption of various species of the Fabaceae family lowers the risk of cancer, as the phytochemicals from
Fabaceae members are effective in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Some of these
phytochemicals have already been utilized against cancer worldwide; however, other
phytochemicals are also gaining importance. These phytochemicals use a variety of mechanisms to control cancer including carcinogen inactivation, the induction of cell cycle arrest,
anti-oxidant stress, apoptosis, and regulation of the immune system. On the other hand,
there is room for more research to be carried out to assess the anti-cancer properties of
phytochemicals of the Fabaceae family. More data are needed relating to the phytochemicals of the Fabaceae family for anti-cancer properties, and these data would lead to the
discovery of novel drugs from these phytochemicals. Similarly, more studies elucidating
the mechanisms behind the anti-cancer properties of phytochemicals are also required in
the future. Despite the effectiveness of different phytochemicals in a plant belonging to the
Fabaceae family, there is a need to elucidate any synergistic impact of different anti-cancer
phytochemicals in a single plant. In the future, any long-term adverse side effects in terms
of physiological changes in patients caused by different anti-cancer phytochemicals found
in the Fabaceae family also require elucidation. Despite many reports about the efficacy
of different anti-cancer phytochemicals, most of these reports are under in vitro or in vivo
experiment conditions, and very few clinical trial reports are available. Therefore, more
clinical trial reports confirming the efficacy of phytochemicals from Fabaceae members with
responsible mechanisms will be indispensable in future studies. To achieve the international
standard, significant standardization of prospective phytochemicals in terms of techniques
for analyzing their bioavailability, efficacy, safety, quality, composition, manufacturing
processes, and regulatory and approval requirements are required.
Author Contributions: Original draft: M.U., A.D. and W.R.K.; review: N.Y., A.D., W.R.K., S.A., G.M.
and K.A.K.; figure and tables: A.D., Z.R., M.N.R. and M.N. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Universiti Putra Malaysia, Grant Number: 5540232.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
15 of 21
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to “Universiti Putra Malaysia” for the provision of
financial support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sample Availability: Samples of the compounds are not available from the authors.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Saini, A.; Kumar, M.; Bhatt, S.; Saini, V.; Malik, A. Cancer causes and treatments. Int. J. Pharm Sci. Res. 2020, 11, 3121–3134.
Subramaniam, S.; Selvaduray, K.R.; Radhakrishnan, A.K. Bioactive compounds: Natural defense against cancer? Biomolecules
2019, 9, 758. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Gezici, S.; Sekeroglu, N. Current perspectives in the application of medicinal plants against cancer: Novel therapeutic agents.
Anti-Cancer Agen. Med. Chem. 2019, 19, 101–111. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Iqbal, J.; Abbasi, B.A.; Mahmood, T.; Kanwal, S.; Ali, B.; Shah, S.A.; Khalil, A.T. Plant-derived anticancer agents: A green
anticancer approach. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2017, 7, 1129–1150. [CrossRef]
Mattiuzzi, C.; Lippi, G. Current cancer epidemiology. J. Epidemiol. Glob. Health 2019, 9, 217. [CrossRef]
Cid-Gallegos, M.S.; Sánchez-Chino, X.M.; Juárez Chairez, M.F.; Álvarez González, I.; Madrigal-Bujaidar, E.; Jiménez-Martínez, C.
Anticarcinogenic activity of phenolic compounds from sprouted legumes. Food Rev. Int. 2020, 2020, 1184058. [CrossRef]
Rizeq, B.; Gupta, I.; Ilesanmi, J.; AlSafran, M.; Rahman, M.M.; Ouhtit, A. The power of phytochemicals combination in cancer
chemoprevention. J. Cancer 2020, 11, 4521. [CrossRef]
Harvey, A.L. Natural products in drug discovery. Drug Discov. 2008, 13, 894–901. [CrossRef]
Zhang, J.; Hu, K.; Di, L.; Wang, P.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, J.; Yue, P.; Song, W.; Zhang, J.; Chen, T.; et al. Traditional herbal medicine and
nanomedicine: Converging disciplines to improve therapeutic efficacy and human health. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2021, 178, 113964.
[CrossRef]
Usman, M.; Ditta, A.; Ibrahim, F.H.; Murtaza, G.; Rajpar, M.N.; Mehmood, S.; Saleh, M.N.B.; Imtiaz, M.; Akram, S.; Khan, W.R.
Quantitative ethnobotanical analysis of medicinal plants of high-temperature areas of Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Plants 2021,
10, 1974. [CrossRef]
Thakore, P.; Mani, R.K.; Kavitha, S.J. A brief review of plants having anti-cancer property. Int. J. Pharm. Res. Dev. 2012, 3, 129–136.
Tariq, A.; Sadia, S.; Pan, K.; Ullah, I.; Mussarat, S.; Sun, F.; Abiodun, O.O.; Batbaatar, A.; Li, Z.; Song, D.; et al. A systematic review
on ethnomedicines of anti-cancer plants. Phytother. Res. 2017, 31, 202–264. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sebastian, R.; Jaykar, B.; Gomathi, V. Current status of anticancer research in Fabaceae family. Pathways 2020, 6, 7.
Samec, M.; Liskova, A.; Koklesova, L.; Samuel, S.M.; Murin, R.; Zubor, P.; Bujnak, J.; Kwon, T.K.; Büsselberg, D.; Prosecky, R.; et al.
The role of plant-derived natural substances as immunomodulatory agents in carcinogenesis. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 2020, 146,
3137–3154. [CrossRef]
Sung, H.; Ferlay, J.; Siegel, R.L.; Laversanne, M.; Soerjomataram, I.; Jemal, A.; Bray, F. Global cancer statistics 2020: Globocan
estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2021, 71, 209–249. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
Thomas, R.; Butler, E.; Macchi, F.; Williams, M. Phytochemicals in cancer prevention and management. Br. J. Med. Pract. 2015,
8, 1–8.
Martinez-Millan, M. Fossil record and age of the Asteridae. Bot. Rev. 2010, 76, 83–135. [CrossRef]
Sharma, A.; Kaur, R.; Katnoria, J.K.; Kaur, R.; Nagpal, A.K. Family Fabaceae: A boon for cancer therapy. In Biotechnology and
Production of Anti-Cancer Compounds; Malik, S., Ed.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 157–175. [CrossRef]
Schrire, B. A review of tribe Indigofereae (Leguminosae–Papilionoideae) in Southern Africa (including South Africa, Lesotho,
Swaziland & Namibia; excluding Botswana). S. Afr. J. Bot. 2013, 89, 281–283.
Messina, M.J. Legumes and soybeans: Overview of their nutritional profiles and health effects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 70,
439s–450s. [CrossRef]
Pastorino, G.; Cornara, L.; Soares, S.; Rodrigues, F.; Oliveira, M.B.P. Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra): A phytochemical and
pharmacological review. Phytother. Res. 2018, 32, 2323–2339. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Batiha, G.E.S.; Beshbishy, A.M.; El-Mleeh, A.; Abdel-Daim, M.M.; Devkota, H.P. Traditional uses, bioactive chemical constituents,
and pharmacological and toxicological activities of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae). Biomolecules 2020, 10, 352. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
El-Feky, A.M.; Elbatanony, M.M.; Mounier, M.M. Anti-cancer potential of the lipoidal and flavonoidal compounds from Pisum
sativum and Vicia faba peels. Egypt. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2018, 5, 258–264. [CrossRef]
Sporn, M.B.; Liby, K.T. Chemoprevention of Cancer: Past, Present, and Future. In Natural Products for Cancer Chemoprevention;
Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 1–18.
Klaunig, J.E.; Wang, Z. Oxidative stress in carcinogenesis. Curr. Opin. Toxicol. 2018, 7, 116–121. [CrossRef]
Klaunig, J.E. Oxidative stress and cancer. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2018, 24, 4771–4778. [CrossRef]
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
16 of 21
Dandawate, P.; Ahmad, A.; Deshpande, J.; Swamy, K.V.; Khan, E.M.; Khetmalas, M.; Padhye, S.; Sarkar, F. Anticancer phytochemical analogs 37: Synthesis, characterization, molecular docking and cytotoxicity of novel plumbagin hydrazones against breast
cancer cells. Bioorganic Med. Chem. Lett. 2014, 24, 2900–2904. [CrossRef]
Ranjan, A.; Ramachandran, S.; Gupta, N.; Kaushik, I.; Wright, S.; Srivastava, S.; Das, H.; Srivastava, S.; Prasad, S.; Srivastava, S.K.
Role of phytochemicals in cancer prevention. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 4981. [CrossRef]
Nedeljkovic, M.; Damjanovic, A. Mechanisms of chemotherapy resistance in triple-negative breast cancer—How we can rise to
the challenge. Cells 2019, 8, 957. [CrossRef]
Meguid, R.A.; Hooker, C.M.; Taylor, J.T.; Kleinberg, L.R.; Cattaneo, S.M., II; Sussman, M.S.; Yang, S.C.; Heitmiller, R.F.;
Forastiere, A.A.; Brock, M.V. Recurrence after neoadjuvant chemoradiation and surgery for esophageal cancer: Does the pattern
of recurrence differ for patients with a complete response and those with partial or no response? J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 2009,
138, 1309–1317. [CrossRef]
Chan, C.W.; Law, B.M.; So, W.K.; Chow, K.M.; Waye, M.M. Novel strategies on personalized medicine for breast cancer treatment:
An update. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 2423. [CrossRef]
Koh, Y.C.; Ho, C.T.; Pan, M.H. Recent advances in cancer chemoprevention with phytochemicals. J. Food Drug Anal. 2020, 28,
14–37. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Dewanjee, S.; Das, S.; Joardar, S.; Bhattacharjee, S.; Chakraborty, P. Carotenoids as Anticancer Agents. In Carotenoids: Structure and
Function in the Human Body; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; p. 475.
Iqbal, J.; Abbasi, B.A.; Ahmad, R.; Batool, R.; Mahmood, T.; Ali, B.; Khalil, A.T.; Kanwal, S.; Shah, S.A.; Alam, M.M.; et al. Potential
phytochemicals in the fight against skin cancer: Current landscape and future perspectives. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2019, 109,
1381–1393. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Steward, W.P.; Brown, K. Cancer chemoprevention: A rapidly evolving field. Br. J. Cancer 2013, 109, 1–7. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Hassan, L.E.A.; Ahamed, M.B.K.; Majid, A.S.A.; Baharetha, H.M.; Muslim, N.S.; Nassar, Z.D.; Majid, A.M.A. Correlation of
antiangiogenic, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities of some Sudanese medicinal plants with phenolic and flavonoid contents.
BMC Complement. Med. Ther. 2014, 14, 406. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Agbo, M.O.; Uzor, P.F.; Nneji, U.N.A.; Odurukwe, C.U.E.; Ogbatue, U.B.; Mbaoji, E.C. Antioxidant, total phenolic and flavonoid
content of selected Nigerian medicinal plants. Dhaka Univ. J. Pharm. Sci. 2015, 14, 35–41. [CrossRef]
Krishna, P.M.; KNV, R.; Banji, D. A review on phytochemical, ethnomedical, and pharmacological studies on genus Sophora,
Fabaceae. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2012, 22, 1145–1154. [CrossRef]
Kleemann, R.; Verschuren, L.; Morrison, M.; Zadelaar, S.; van Erk, M.J.; Wielinga, P.Y.; Kooistra, T. Anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anti-atherosclerotic effects of quercetin in human in vitro and in vivo models. Atherosclerosis 2011, 218, 44–52.
[CrossRef]
Wang, J.; Yu, H.; Yili, A.; Gao, Y.; Hao, L.; Aisa, H.A.; Liu, S. Identification of hub genes and potential molecular mechanisms of
chickpea isoflavones on MCF-7 breast cancer cells by integrated bioinformatics analysis. Ann. Transl. Med. 2020, 8, 86. [CrossRef]
Sarkar, F.H.; Li, Y. Soy isoflavones and cancer prevention: Clinical science review. Cancer Invest. 2003, 21, 744–757. [CrossRef]
Cornwell, T.; Cohick, W.; Raskin, I. Dietary phytoestrogens and health. Phytochemistry 2004, 65, 995–1016. [CrossRef]
Ateba, S.B.; Njamen, D.; Krenn, L. The genus Eriosema (Fabaceae): From the ethnopharmacology to an evidence-based phytotherapeutic perspective? Front. Pharmacol. 2021, 12, 641225. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Aregueta-Robles, U.; Fajardo-Ramírez, O.R.; Villela, L.; Gutiérrez-Uribe, J.A.; Hernández-Hernández, J.; del Carmen LópezSánchez, R.; Scott, S.P.; Serna-Saldívar, S. Cytotoxic activity of a black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) extract and its flavonoid fraction
in both in vitro and in vivo models of lymphoma. Rev. Investig. Clin. 2018, 70, 32–39. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ombra, M.N.; d’Acierno, A.; Nazzaro, F.; Riccardi, R.; Spigno, P.; Zaccardelli, M.; Pane, C.; Maione, M.; Fratianni, F. Phenolic
composition and antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of the extracts of twelve common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) endemic
ecotypes of Southern Italy before and after cooking. Oxid. Med. Cell Longev. 2016, 2016, 1398298. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Gatouillat, G.; Magid, A.A.; Bertin, E.; Morjani, H.; Lavaud, C.; Madoulet, C. Medicarpin and millepurpan, two flavonoids
isolated from Medicago sativa, induce apoptosis and overcome multidrug resistance in leukemia P388 cells. Phytomedicine 2015, 22,
1186–1194. [CrossRef]
Bora, K.S.; Sharma, A. Phytochemical and pharmacological potential of Medicago sativa: A review. Pharm. Biol. 2011, 49, 211–220.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
Stochmal, A.; Kowalska, I.; Oleszek, W. Medicago sativa and Medicago truncatula as plant sources of the chemopreventive flavone
tricin. Planta Med. 2007, 73, 304. [CrossRef]
Custodio, L.; Fernandes, E.; Escapa, A.L.; López-Avilés, S.; Fajardo, A.; Aligué, R.; Alberício, F.; Romano, A. Antioxidant activity
and in vitro inhibition of tumor cell growth by leaf extracts from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua). Pharm. Biol. 2009, 47, 721–728.
[CrossRef]
Fu, Y.; Hsieh, T.C.; Guo, J.; Kunicki, J.; Lee, M.Y.; Darzynkiewicz, Z.; Wu, J.M. Licochalcone-A, a novel flavonoid isolated from
licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra), causes G2 and late-G1 arrests in androgen-independent PC-3 prostate cancer cells. Biochem.
Biophys. Res. Commun. 2004, 322, 263–270. [CrossRef]
Choedon, T.; Shukla, S.K.; Kumar, V. Chemopreventive and anti-cancer properties of the aqueous extract of flowers of Butea
monosperma. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 129, 208–213. [CrossRef]
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
17 of 21
Fu, L.L.; Zhou, C.C.; Yao, S.; Yu, J.Y.; Liu, B.; Bao, J.K. Plant lectins: Targeting programmed cell death pathways as antitumor
agents. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 2011, 43, 1442–1449. [CrossRef]
Yau, T.; Dan, X.; Ng, C.C.W.; Ng, T.B. Lectins with potential for anti-cancer therapy. Molecules 2015, 20, 3791–3810. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
Gautam, A.K.; Shrivastava, N.; Sharma, B.; Bhagyawant, S.S. Current scenario of legume lectins and their practical applications. J.
Crop. Sci. Biotechnol. 2018, 21, 217–227. [CrossRef]
Bhutia, S.K.; Panda, P.K.; Sinha, N.; Praharaj, P.P.; Bhol, C.S.; Panigrahi, D.P.; Mahapatra, K.K.; Saha, S.; Patra, S.; Mishra, S.R.; et al.
Plant lectins in cancer therapeutics: Targeting apoptosis and autophagy-dependent cell death. Pharmacol. Res. 2019, 144, 8–18.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
Majeed, M.; Hakeem, K.R.; Rehman, R.U. Mistletoe Lectins: From interconnecting proteins to potential tumor inhibiting agents.
Phytomed. Plus 2021, 1, 100039. [CrossRef]
De Mejia, E.G.; Prisecaru, V.I. Lectins as bioactive plant proteins: A potential in cancer treatment. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2005,
45, 425–445. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Fang, E.F.; Lin, P.; Wong, J.H.; Tsao, S.W.; Ng, T.B. A lectin with anti-HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, antitumor, and nitric oxide
inducing activities from seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris cv. extralong autumn purple bean. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 2221–2229.
[CrossRef]
Lam, S.K.; Ng, T.B. Isolation and characterization of a French bean hemagglutinin with antitumor, antifungal, and anti-HIV-1
reverse transcriptase activities and an exceptionally high yield. Phytomedicine 2010, 17, 457–462. [CrossRef]
Ye, X.J.; Ng, T.B. Antitumor and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activities of hemagglutinin and a protease inhibitor from
mini-black soybean. Evid.-Based Complement Altern. Med. 2011, 2011, 12. [CrossRef]
Gautam, A.K.; Gupta, N.; Narvekar, D.T.; Bhadkariya, R.; Bhagyawant, S.S. Characterization of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) lectin
for biological activity. Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants 2018, 24, 389–397. [CrossRef]
Une, S.; Nonaka, K.; Akiyama, J. Lectin isolated from Japanese red sword beans (Canavalia gladiata) as a potential cancer
chemopreventive agent. J. Food Sci. 2018, 83, 837–843. [CrossRef]
Cavada, B.S.; Silva, M.T.L.; Osterne, V.J.S.; Pinto-Junior, V.R.; Nascimento, A.P.M.; Wolin, I.A.V.; Heinrich, I.A.; Nobre, C.A.S.;
Moreira, C.G.; Lossio, C.F.; et al. Canavalia bonariensis lectin: Molecular bases of glycoconjugates interaction and antiglioma
potential. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017, 106, 369–378. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Arteaga, I.T.; Guillen, J.C.; Olaya, E.M.; Gasca, T.G.; Zaragoza, M.V.Á.; García-Santoyo, V.; Castillo, J.T.; Aguirre, C.; Phinney, B.;
Blanco-Labra, A. Characterization of two non-fetuin-binding lectins from Tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius) seeds with differential
cytotoxicity on colon cancer cells. J. Glycobiol. 2016, 5, 1–7.
Gondim, A.C.; Romero-Canelon, I.; Sousa, E.H.; Blindauer, C.A.; Butler, J.S.; Romero, M.J.; Sanchez-Cano, C.; Sousa, B.L.;
Chaves, R.P.; Nagano, C.S.; et al. The potent anti-cancer activity of Dioclea lasiocarpa lectin. J. Inorg. Biochem. 2017, 175, 179–189.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
Lagarda-Diaz, I.; Guzman-Partida, A.M.; Vazquez-Moreno, L. Legume lectins: Proteins with diverse applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci.
2017, 18, 1242. [CrossRef]
Korourian, S.; Siegel, E.; Kieber-Emmons, T.; Monzavi-Karbassi, B. Expression analysis of carbohydrate antigens in ductal
carcinoma in situ of the breast by lectin histochemistry. BMC Cancer 2008, 8, 136. [CrossRef]
Salem, M.M.; Davidorf, F.H.; Abdel-Rahman, M.H. In vitro anti-uveal melanoma activity of phenolic compounds from the
Egyptian medicinal plant Acacia nilotica. Fitoterapia 2011, 82, 1279–1284. [CrossRef]
Afsar, T.; Razak, S.; Khan, M.R.; Mawash, S.; Almajwal, A.; Shabir, M.; Haq, I.U. Evaluation of antioxidant, anti-hemolytic and
anticancer activity of various solvent extracts of Acacia hydaspica R. Parker aerial parts. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2016,
16, 258.
Gedara, S.R.; Galala, A.A. New cytotoxic spirostane saponin and biflavonoid glycoside from the leaves of Acacia saligna (Labill.)
HL Wendl. Nat. Prod. Res. 2014, 28, 324–329. [CrossRef]
Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Kubica, P.; Ekiert, H.; Al-Mana, F.A.; Al-Yafrsi, M.A. Antioxidant and biological activities of Acacia
saligna and Lawsonia inermis natural populations. Plants 2020, 9, 908. [CrossRef]
Patel, A.; Hafez, E.; Elsaid, F.; Amanullah, M. Anti-cancer action of a new recombinant lectin produced from Acacia species. Int. J.
Med. Sci. 2014, 5, 1–11.
Mujoo, K.; Haridas, V.; Hoffmann, J.J.; Wächter, G.A.; Hutter, L.K.; Lu, Y.; Blake, M.E.; Jayatilake, G.S.; Bailey, D.; Mills, G.B.; et al.
Triterpenoid saponins from Acacia victoriae (Bentham) decrease tumor cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. Cancer Res. 2001,
61, 5486–5490. [PubMed]
Desai, T.H.; Joshi, S.V. Anticancer activity of saponin isolated from Albizia lebbeck using various in vitro models. J. Ethnopharmacol.
2019, 231, 494–502. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Kavitha, C.N.; Raja, K.D.; Rao, S.K. Antitumor activity of Albizia lebbeck L. against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in vivo and HeLa and
A549 cell lines in vitro. J. Cancer Res. Ther. 2021, 17, 491. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Li, M.; Su, B.S.; Chang, L.H.; Gao, Q.; Chen, K.L.; An, P.; Huang, C.; Yang, J.; Li, Z.F. Oxymatrine induces apoptosis in human
cervical cancer cells through guanine nucleotide depletion. Anti-Cancer Drugs 2014, 25, 161–173. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
77.
18 of 21
Melek, F.R.; Aly, F.A.; Kassem, I.A.; Abo-Zeid, M.A.; Farghaly, A.A.; Hassan, Z.M. Three further triterpenoid saponins from
Gleditsia caspica fruits and protective effect of the total saponin fraction on cyclophosphamide-induced genotoxicity in mice. Z.
Naturforsch. C 2015, 70, 31–37. [CrossRef]
78. Kanadaswami, C.; Lee, L.T.; Lee, P.P.H.; Hwang, J.J.; Ke, F.C.; Huang, Y.T.; Lee, M.T. The antitumor activities of flavonoids. In Vivo
2005, 19, 895–909.
79. Majewska-Wierzbicka, M.; Czeczot, H. Anticancer activity of flavonoids. Pol. Merkur. Lek. Organ Pol. Tow. Lek. 2012, 33, 364–369.
80. Kokila, K.; Priyadharshini, S.D.; Sujatha, V. Phytopharmacological properties of Albizia species: A review. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm.
Sci. 2013, 5, 70–73.
81. Mehraban, F.; Mostafazadeh, M.; Sadeghi, H.; Azizi, A.; Toori, M.A.; Gramizadeh, B.; Barati, V.; Sadeghi, H. Anticancer activity
of Astragalus ovinus against 7, 12 dimethyl Benz (a) anthracene (DMBA)-induced breast cancer in rats. Avic. J. Phytomed. 2020,
10, 533.
82. Nayeem, N.; Imran, M.; Asdaq, S.M.B.; Rabbani, S.I.; Alanazi, F.A.; Alamri, A.S.; Sampaio, M.U.; Jochum, M.; Oliva, M.L.V. Total
phenolic, flavonoid contents, and biological activities of stem extracts of Astragalus spinosus (Forssk.) Muschl. grown in Northern
Border Province, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Sci. J. Biol. Sci. 2022, 29, 1277–1282. [CrossRef]
83. Zhou, R.; Chen, H.; Chen, J.; Chen, X.; Wen, Y.; Xu, L. Extract from Astragalus membranaceus inhibit breast cancer cells proliferation
via PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. BMC Complement Altern. Med. 2018, 18, 83. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Sebastian, D.; Shankar, K.G.; Ignacimuthu, S.; Sophy, A.R.; Vidhya, R.; Anusha, J.R. Bauhinia acuminata L. attenuates lung cancer
cell proliferation: In vitro, in vivo, and in silico approaches. Phytomed. Plus 2022, 2, 100173. [CrossRef]
85. Tu, L.Y.; Pi, J.; Jin, H.; Cai, J.Y.; Deng, S.P. Synthesis, characterization, and anticancer activity of kaempferol-zinc (II) complex.
Bioorganic Med. Chem. Lett. 2016, 26, 2730–2734. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Suzuki, K.; Yano, T.; Sadzuka, Y.; Sugiyama, T.; Seki, T.; Asano, R. Restoration of connexin 43 by Bowman-Birk protease inhibitor
in M5076 bearing mice. Oncol. Rep. 2005, 13, 1247–1250. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Ullah, A.; Munir, S.; Badshah, S.L.; Khan, N.; Ghani, L.; Poulson, B.G.; Emwas, A.H.; Jaremko, M. Important flavonoids and their
role as a therapeutic agent. Molecules 2020, 25, 5243. [CrossRef]
88. Agrawal, S.B.; Gupta, N.; Bhagyawant, S.S.; Gaikwad, S.M. Anticancer activity of lectins from Bauhinia purpurea and Wisteria
floribunda on breast cancer MCF-7 cell lines. Protein Pept. Lett. 2020, 27, 870–877. [CrossRef]
89. Iheagwam, F.N.; Ogunlana, O.O.; Ogunlana, O.E.; Isewon, I.; Oyelade, J. Potential anti-cancer flavonoids isolated from Caesalpinia
bonduc young twigs and leaves: Molecular docking and in silico studies. Bioinform. Biol. Insights 2019, 13, 1177932218821371.
[CrossRef]
90. Osman, S.M.; Khalek, S.M.A.; Koheil, M.A.; El-Haddad, A.E.; Wink, M. A new steroidal compound (β-sitosterol-3-O-butyl)
isolated from Caesalpinia gilliesii flowers. Int. J. Appl. Res. Nat. Prod 2015, 8, 14–19.
91. Zanin, J.L.; Massoni, M.; Santos, M.H.D.; Freitas, G.C.D.; Niero, E.L.; Schefer, R.R.; Lago, J.H.; Ionta, M.; Soares, M.G. Caesalpinioflavone, a new cytotoxic biflavonoid isolated from Caesalpinia pluviosa var. peltophoroides. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 2015, 26,
804–809.
92. Sakle, N.S.; More, S.A.; Mokale, S.N. A network pharmacology-based approach to explore potential targets of Caesalpinia
pulcherima: An updated prototype in drug discovery. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 17217. [CrossRef]
93. Pal, D.; Mishra, P.; Sachan, N.; Ghosh, A.K. Biological activities and medicinal properties of Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp. J. Adv. Pharm.
Technol. Res. 2011, 2, 207. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. Tang, R.; Tian, R.H.; Cai, J.Z.; Wu, J.H.; Shen, X.L.; Hu, Y.J. Acute and sub-chronic toxicity of Cajanus cajan leaf extracts. Pharm.
Biol. 2017, 55, 1740–1746. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Ohiagu, F.O.; Chikezie, P.C.; Chikezie, C.M.; Enyoh, C.E. Anticancer activity of Nigerian medicinal plants: A review. Future J.
Pharm. Sci. 2021, 7, 70. [CrossRef]
96. Bhagat, M.; Saxena, A.K. Evaluation of Cassia occidentalis for in vitro cytotoxicity against human cancer cell lines and antibacterial
activity. Indian J. Pharmacol. 2010, 42, 234. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
97. Taiwo, F.O.; Akinpelu, D.A.; Aiyegoro, O.A.; Olabiyi, S.; Adegboye, M.F. The biocidal and phytochemical properties of leaf extract
of Cassia occidentalis Linn. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 2013, 7, 3435–3441.
98. Kato, A.; Hirokami, Y.; Kinami, K.; Tsuji, Y.; Miyawaki, S.; Adachi, I.; Hollinshead, J.; Nash, R.J.; Kiappes, J.L.; Zitzmann, N.; et al.
Isolation and SAR studies of bicyclic iminosugars from Castanospermum australe as glycosidase inhibitors. Phytochemistry 2015,
111, 124–131. [CrossRef]
99. Gregoriou, G.; Neophytou, C.M.; Vasincu, A.; Gregoriou, Y.; Hadjipakkou, H.; Pinakoulaki, E.; Christodoulou, M.C.; Ioannou,
G.D.; Stavrou, I.J.; Christou, A.; et al. Anti-cancer activity and phenolic content of extracts derived from Cypriot carob (Ceratonia
siliqua L.) pods using different solvents. Molecules 2021, 26, 5017. [CrossRef]
100. Bouziane, A.; Bakchiche, B.; Dias, M.I.; Barros, L.; Ferreira, I.C.; AlSalamat, H.A.; Bardaweel, S.K. Phenolic Compounds and
Bioactivity of Cytisus villosus Pourr. Molecules 2018, 23, 1994. [CrossRef]
101. Ito, C.; Matsui, T.; Miyabe, K.; Hasan, C.M.; Rashid, M.A.; Tokuda, H.; Itoigawa, M. Three isoflavones from Derris scandens (Roxb.)
Benth and their cancer chemopreventive activity and in vitro antiproliferative effects. Phytochemistry 2020, 175, 112376. [CrossRef]
102. Fofana, S.; Ouédraogo, M.; Esposito, R.C.; Ouedraogo, W.P.; Delporte, C.; Van Antwerpen, P.; Mathieu, V.; Guissou, I.P. Systematic
Review of Potential Anticancerous Activities of Erythrina senegalensis DC (Fabaceae). Plants 2021, 11, 19. [CrossRef]
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
19 of 21
103. Mohammed, R.S.; Abou Zeid, A.H.; El Hawary, S.S.; Sleem, A.A.; Ashour, W.E. Flavonoid constituents, cytotoxic and antioxidant
activities of Gleditsia triacanthos L. leaves. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2014, 21, 547–553. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
104. Cai, Y.; Zhang, C.; Zhan, L.; Cheng, L.; Lu, D.; Wang, X.; Xu, H.; Wang, S.; Wu, D.; Ruan, L. Anticancer effects of Gleditsia sinensis
extract in rats transplanted with hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Oncol. Res. 2019, 27, 889. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Jung, S.K.; Lee, M.H.; Kim, J.E.; Singh, P.; Lee, S.Y.; Jeong, C.H.; Lim, T.G.; Chen, H.; Chi, Y.I.; Kundu, J.K.; et al. Isoliquiritigenin
induces apoptosis and inhibits xenograft tumor growth of human lung cancer cells by targeting both wild type and L858R/T790M
mutant EGFR. J. Biol. Chem. 2014, 289, 35839–35848. [CrossRef]
106. Mohamed, K.M.; Salwa, B.E.M.; Nadia, T.S.; Eshak, M.E.H.; Heba, A.B. Study of antioxidants and anticancer activity of licorice
[Glycyrrhiza glabra] extracts. Egypt. J. Nutri. 2008, 23, 177–203.
107. Renukadevi, K.P.; Sultana, S.S. Determination of antibacterial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity effect of Indigofera tinctoria on lung
cancer cell line NCI-h69. Int. J. Pharmacol. 2011, 7, 356–362. [CrossRef]
108. Srinivasan, S.A.; Wankhar, W.A.; Rathinasamy, S.H.; Rajan, R.A. Larvicidal potential of Indigofera tinctoria (Fabaceae) on dengue
vector (Aedes aegypti) and its antimicrobial activity against clinical isolates. Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res. 2015, 8, 316–319.
109. Vijayan, R.; Joseph, S.; Mathew, B. Indigofera tinctoria leaf extract mediated green synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles and
assessment of their anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and catalytic properties. Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol. 2018, 46,
861–871. [CrossRef]
110. Kumar, R.S.; Rajkapoor, B.; Perumal, P. In vitro and in vivo anticancer activity of Indigofera cassioides Rottl. Ex. DC. Asian Pac. J.
Trop. Med. 2011, 4, 379–385. [CrossRef]
111. Ramya, V.; Madhu-Bala, V.; Prakash-Shyam, K.; Gowdhami, B.; Sathiya-Priya, K.; Vignesh, K.; Vani, B.; Kadalmani, B. Cytotoxic
activity of Indigofera aspalathoides (Vahl.) extracts in cervical cancer (HeLa) cells: Ascorbic acid adjuvant treatment enhances the
activity. Phytomed. Plus 2021, 1, 100142. [CrossRef]
112. Thangavel, D.; Govindasamy, J.; Kumar, R.S. In vitro antioxidant and anticancer activities of various extracts of Indigofera cordifolia
Roth. J. Pharm. Biol. 2014, 4, 85–93.
113. Leite, S.P.; Silva, L.L.S.; Catanho, M.T.J.A.; Lima, E.O.; Lima, V.L.M. Anti-inflammatory activity of Indigofera suffruticosa extract.
Rebrasa 2003, 7, 47–52.
114. Xu, W.T.; Li, T.Z.; Li, S.M.; Wang, C.; Wang, H.; Luo, Y.H.; Piao, X.J.; Wang, J.R.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, T.; et al. Cytisine exerts
anti-tumor effects on lung cancer cells by modulating reactive oxygen species-mediated signaling pathways. Artif. Cells Nanomed.
Biotechnol. 2020, 48, 84–95. [CrossRef]
115. Avato, P.; Migoni, D.; Argentieri, M.; Fanizzi, F.P.; Tava, A. Activity of saponins from Medicago species against HeLa and MCF-7
cell lines and their capacity to potentiate cisplatin effect. Anti-Cancer Agents Med. Chem. 2017, 17, 1508–1518. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
116. Fantini, M.; Benvenuto, M.; Masuelli, L.; Frajese, G.V.; Tresoldi, I.; Modesti, A.; Bei, R. In vitro and in vivo antitumoral effects of
combinations of polyphenols, or polyphenols and anticancer drugs: Perspectives on cancer treatment. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16,
9236–9282. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
117. Zagorska-Dziok, M.; Ziemlewska, A.; Nizioł-Łukaszewska, Z.; Bujak, T. Antioxidant activity and cytotoxicity of Medicago sativa
L. seeds and herb extract on skin cells. BioRes. Open Access 2020, 9, 229–242. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
118. Wang, G.; Wang, J.; Liu, W.; Nisar, M.F.; El-Esawi, M.A.; Wan, C. Biological Activities and Chemistry of Triterpene Saponins from
Medicago Species: An Update Review. Evid.-Based Complement Altern. Med. 2021, 2021, 6617916. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
119. Liu, Y.T.; Gong, P.H.; Xiao, F.Q.; Shao, S.; Zhao, D.Q.; Yan, M.M.; Yang, X.W. Chemical constituents and antioxidant, antiinflammatory and anti-tumor activities of Melilotus officinalis (Linn.) Pall. Molecules 2018, 23, 271. [CrossRef]
120. El-Hafeez, A.; Ali, A.; Khalifa, H.O.; Elgawish, R.A.; Shouman, S.A.; El-Twab, A.; Hussein, M.; Kawamoto, S. Melilotus indicus
extract induces apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells via a mechanism involving mitochondria-mediated pathways.
Cytotechnology 2018, 70, 831–842. [CrossRef]
121. Chanu, K.V.; Leishangthem, G.D.; Srivastava, S.K.; Thakuria, D.; Kataria, M.; Telang, A.G. Phytochemical analysis and evaluation
of the anticancer activity of Parkia javanica seeds. Pharm. Innov. 2018, 7, 305.
122. Pfitzinger, P.L.; Fangmann, L.; Wang, K.; Demir, E.; Gürlevik, E.; Fleischmann-Mundt, B.; Brooks, J.; D’Haese, J.G.; Teller, S.;
Hecker, A.; et al. Indirect cholinergic activation slows down pancreatic cancer growth and tumor-associated inflammation. J. Exp.
Clin. Cancer Res. 2020, 39, 289. [CrossRef]
123. Raghavendra, M.P.; Satish, S.; Raveesha, K.A. Alkaloids isolated from leaves of Prosopis juliflora against Xanthomonas pathovars.
Arch. Phytopathol. Plant. Prot. 2009, 42, 1033–1041. [CrossRef]
124. Henciya, S.; Seturaman, P.; James, A.R.; Tsai, Y.H.; Nikam, R.; Wu, Y.C.; Dahms, H.U.; Chang, F.R. Biopharmaceutical potentials of
Prosopis spp. (Mimosaceae, Leguminosa). J. Food Drug Anal. 2017, 25, 187–196. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
125. Robertson, S.; Narayanan, N.; Raj Kapoor, B. Antitumor activity of Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce against Ehrlich ascites carcinomainduced mice. Nat. Prod. Res. 2011, 25, 857–862. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
126. Asati, V.; Srivastava, A.; Mukherjee, S.; Sharma, P.K. Comparative analysis of antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of crude
and purified flavonoid enriched fractions of pods/seeds of two desert legumes Prosopis cineraria and Cyamopsis tetragonoloba.
Heliyon 2021, 7, e07304. [CrossRef]
127. Dzoyem, J.P.; Tchamgoue, J.; Tchouankeu, J.C.; Kouam, S.F.; Choudhary, M.I.; Bakowsky, U. Antibacterial activity, and cytotoxicity
of flavonoids compounds isolated from Pseudarthria hookeri Wight & Arn. (Fabaceae). S. Afr. J. Bot. 2018, 114, 100–103.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
20 of 21
128. Wang, Y.; Hong, C.; Zhou, C.; Xu, D.; Qu, H.B. Screening antitumor compounds psoralen and isopsoralen from Psoralea corylifolia L.
seeds. Evid.-Based Complement Altern. Med. 2011, 2011, 363052. [CrossRef]
129. Al-Dabbagh, B.; Elhaty, I.A.; Al Hrout, A.; Al Sakkaf, R.; El-Awady, R.; Ashraf, S.S.; Amin, A. Antioxidant and anticancer activities
of Trigonella foenum-graecum, Cassia acutifolia and Rhazya stricta. BMC Complement Altern. Med. 2018, 18, 240. [CrossRef]
130. Sreelatha, S.; Padma, P.R.; Umasankari, E. Evaluation of anticancer activity of ethanol extract of Sesbania grandiflora (Agati
Sesban) against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 134, 984–987. [CrossRef]
131. Ponnanikajamideen, M.; Nagalingam, M.; Vanaja, M.; Malarkodi, C.; Rajeshkumar, S. Anticancer activity of different solvent
extracts of Sesbania grandiflora against neuroblastoma (imr-32) and colon (ht-29) cell lines. Eur. J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci. 2015, 2,
509–517.
132. Cai, Y.Z.; Sun, M.; Xing, J.; Luo, Q.; Corke, H. Structure–radical scavenging activity relationships of phenolic compounds from
traditional Chinese medicinal plants. Life Sci. 2006, 78, 2872–2888. [CrossRef]
133. Chen, H.; Zhang, J.; Luo, J.; Lai, F.; Wang, Z.; Tong, H.; Lu, D.; Bu, H.; Zhang, R.; Lin, S. Antiangiogenic effects of oxymatrine
on pancreatic cancer by inhibition of the NF-κB-mediated VEGF signaling pathway. Oncol. Rep. 2013, 30, 589–595. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
134. Guo, B.; Zhang, T.; Su, J.; Wang, K.; Li, X. Oxymatrine targets EGFRp-Tyr845 and inhibits EGFR-related signaling pathways
to suppress the proliferation and invasion of gastric cancer cells. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 2015, 75, 353–363. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
135. Wu, C.; Huang, W.; Guo, Y.; Xia, P.; Sun, X.; Pan, X.; Hu, W. Oxymatrine inhibits the proliferation of prostate cancer cells in vitro
and in vivo. Mol. Med. Rep. 2015, 11, 4129–4134. [CrossRef]
136. Ying, X.J.; Jin, B.; Chen, X.W.; Xie, J.; Xu, H.M.; Dong, P. Oxymatrine downregulates HPV16E7 expression and inhibits cell
proliferation in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma Hep-2 cells in vitro. Biomed Res. Int. 2015, 2015, 150390. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
137. Liang, L.; Huang, J. Oxymatrine inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition through regulation of NF-κB signaling in colorectal
cancer cells. Oncol. Rep 2016, 36, 1333–1338. [CrossRef]
138. Lin, B.; Li, D.; Zhang, L. Oxymatrine mediates Bax and Bcl-2 expression in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Die Pharm. Int. J.
Pharm. Sci. 2016, 71, 154–157.
139. Liu, Y.; Bi, T.; Dai, W.; Wang, G.; Qian, L.; Gao, Q.; Shen, G. RETRACTED: Effects of oxymatrine on the proliferation and apoptosis
of human hepatoma carcinoma cells. Technol. Cancer Res. Treat. 2016, 15, 487–497. [CrossRef]
140. Pei, Z.; Zeng, J.; Gao, Y.; Li, F.; Li, W.; Zhou, H.; Yang, Y.; Wu, R.; Chen, Y.; Liu, J. Oxymatrine inhibits the proliferation of CaSki
cells via downregulating HPV16E7 expression. Oncol. Rep. 2016, 36, 291–298. [CrossRef]
141. Ye, J.; Zou, M.M.; Li, P.; Lin, X.J.; Jiang, Q.W.; Yang, Y.; Huang, J.R.; Yuan, M.L.; Xing, Z.H.; Wei, M.N.; et al. Oxymatrine and
cisplatin synergistically enhance the anti-tumor immunity of CD8+ T cells in non-small cell lung cancer. Front. Oncol. 2018, 8, 631.
[CrossRef]
142. Zhang, L.; Khoo, C.; Koyyalamudi, S.R.; Pedro, N.D.; Reddy, N. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities of
ethanol-soluble organics from water extracts of selected medicinal herbs and their relation with flavonoid and phenolic contents.
Pharmacologia 2017, 8, 59–72.
143. Gulecha, V.; Sivakuma, T. Anticancer activity of Tephrosia purpurea and Ficus religiosa using MCF 7 cell lines. Asian Pac. J. Trop.
Med. 2011, 4, 526–529. [CrossRef]
144. Lellau, T.F.; Liebezeit, G. Cytotoxic and antitumor activities of ethanolic extracts of salt Marsh plants from the Lower Saxonian
Wadden Sea, Southern North Sea. Pharm. Biol. 2003, 41, 293–300. [CrossRef]
145. Khazaei, M.; Pazhouhi, M. Antiproliferative effect of Trifolium pratens L. extracts in human breast cancer cells. Nutr. Cancer 2019,
71, 128–140. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
146. Liu, H.; Dong, A.; Gao, C.; Tan, C.; Xie, Z.; Zu, X.; Qu, L.; Jiang, Y. New synthetic flavone derivatives induce apoptosis of
hepatocarcinoma cells. Bioorganic Med. Chem. 2010, 18, 6322–6328. [CrossRef]
147. Khan, A.U.; Dagur, H.S.; Khan, M.; Malik, N.; Alam, M.; Mushtaque, M. Therapeutic role of flavonoids and flavones in cancer
prevention: Current trends and future perspectives. Eur. J. Med. Chem. Rep. 2021, 3, 100010. [CrossRef]
148. Mohamed, M.A.; Hamed, M.M.; Abdou, A.M.; Ahmed, W.S.; Saad, A.M. Antioxidant and cytotoxic constituents from Wisteria
sinensis. Molecules 2011, 16, 4020–4030. [CrossRef]
149. Elekofehinti, O.O.; Iwaloye, O.; Olawale, F.; Ariyo, E.O. Saponins in Cancer Treatment: Current Progress and Future Prospects.
Pathophysiology 2021, 28, 250–272. [CrossRef]
150. Rochfort, S.; Panozzo, J. Phytochemicals for health, the role of pulses. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 7981–7994. [CrossRef]
151. Mudryj, A.N.; Yu, N.; Aukema, H.M. Nutritional and health benefits of pulses. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2014, 39, 1197–1204.
[CrossRef]
152. Singh, B.; Singh, J.P.; Singh, N.; Kaur, A. Saponins in pulses and their health-promoting activities: A review. Food Chem. 2017, 233,
540–549. [CrossRef]
153. Gurfinkel, D.M.; Rao, A.V. Soyasaponins: The relationship between chemical structure and colon anticarcinogenic activity. Nutr.
Cancer 2003, 47, 24–33. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
154. Dai, Q.; Franke, A.A.; Jin, F.; Shu, X.O.; Hebert, J.R.; Custer, L.J.; Cheng, J.; Gao, Y.T.; Zheng, W. Urinary excretion of phytoestrogens
and risk of breast cancer among Chinese women in Shanghai. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2002, 11, 815–821.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3863
21 of 21
155. Najjaa, H.; Abdelkarim, B.A.; Doria, E.; Boubakri, A.; Trabelsi, N.; Falleh, H.; Tlili, H.; Neffati, M. Phenolic composition of some
Tunisian medicinal plants associated with an anti-proliferative effect on human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Eurobiotech J. 2020, 4,
104–112. [CrossRef]
156. Mondal, A.; Gandhi, A.; Fimognari, C.; Atanasov, A.G.; Bishayee, A. Alkaloids for cancer prevention and therapy: Current
progress and future perspectives. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2019, 858, 172472. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
157. Dey, P.; Kundu, A.; Chakraborty, H.J.; Kar, B.; Choi, W.S.; Lee, B.M.; Bhakta, T.; Atanasov, A.G.; Kim, H.S. Therapeutic value of
steroidal alkaloids in cancer: Current trends and future perspectives. Int. J. Cancer 2019, 145, 1731–1744. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
158. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, H.; Yu, P.; Liu, Q.; Liu, K.; Duan, H.; Luan, G.; Yagasaki, K.; Zhang, G. Effects of matrine against the growth of
human lung cancer and hepatoma cells as well as lung cancer cell migration. Cytotechnology 2009, 59, 191–200. [CrossRef]
159. Zhu, X.M.; Du, L.D.; Du, G.H. Cytisine. In Natural Small Molecule Drugs from Plants; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2018;
pp. 685–689.
160. Wojtowicz, K.; Januchowski, R.; Sosińska, P.; Nowicki, M.; Zabel, M. Effect of brefeldin A and castanospermine on resistant cell
lines as supplements in anticancer therapy. Oncol. Rep. 2016, 35, 2896–2906. [CrossRef]
161. Sri, K.S.; Erdman, J.W., Jr. Legume carotenoids. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1987, 26, 137.
162. Fiedor, J.; Burda, K. Potential role of carotenoids as antioxidants in human health and disease. Nutrients 2014, 6, 466–488.
[CrossRef]
163. Nishino, H.; Tokuda, H.; Murakoshi, M.; Satomi, Y.; Masuda, M.; Onozuka, M.; Yamaguchi, S.; Takayasu, J.; Tsuruta, J.;
Okuda, M.; et al. Cancer prevention by natural carotenoids. Biofactors 2000, 13, 89–94. [CrossRef]
164. Horvath, G.; Csikós, E.; Andres, E.V.; Bencsik, T.; Takátsy, A.; Gulyás-Fekete, G.; Turcsi, E.; Deli, J.; Szőke, É.; Kemény, Á.; et al.
Analyzing the Carotenoid Composition of Melilot (Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall.) Extracts and the Effects of Isolated (All-E)-lutein-5,
6-epoxide on Primary Sensory Neurons and Macrophages. Molecules 2021, 26, 503. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
165. Krinsky, N.I.; Johnson, E.J. Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol. Asp. Med. 2005, 26, 459–516.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
166. Bhatt, D.L. Anti-inflammatory agents, and antioxidants as a possible “third great wave” in cardiovascular secondary prevention.
Am. J. Cardiol. 2008, 101, S4–S13. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
167. Zhu, X.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Q.; Yang, L.; Zhang, N.; Ma, S.; Zhang, K.; Song, J.; Guan, F. β-Carotene Induces Apoptosis in Human
Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cell Lines via the Cav-1/AKT/NF-κB Signaling Pathway. J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol. 2016,
30, 148–157. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
168. El Gaafary, M.; Büchele, B.; Syrovets, T.; Agnolet, S.; Schneider, B.; Schmidt, C.Q.; Simmet, T. An α-acetoxy-tirucallic acid isomer
inhibits Akt/mTOR signaling and induces oxidative stress in prostate cancer cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2015, 352, 33–42.
[CrossRef]
169. Matus, M.F.; Jorquera-Román, M.; Zúñiga-Hernández, J. Anti-proliferative effect of terpenes on human prostate cancer cells:
Natural sources and their potential role as chemopreventive agents. Rev. Chil. Nutr. 2017, 44, 371–382. [CrossRef]
170. Satia, J.A.; Littman, A.; Slatore, C.G.; Galanko, J.A.; White, E. Long-term use of β-carotene, retinol, lycopene, and lutein
supplements and lung cancer risk: Results from the Vitamins and Lifestyle (VITAL) study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2009, 169, 815–828.
[CrossRef]
171. Gong, X.; Smith, J.R.; Swanson, H.M.; Rubin, L.P. Carotenoid lutein selectively inhibits breast cancer cell growth and potentiates
the effect of chemotherapeutic agents through ROS-mediated mechanisms. Molecules 2018, 23, 905. [CrossRef]
172. Rafi, M.M.; Kanakasabai, S.; Gokarn, S.V.; Krueger, E.G.; Bright, J.J. Dietary lutein modulates growth and survival genes in
prostate cancer cells. J. Med. Food 2015, 18, 173–181. [CrossRef]
173. Kim, J.; Lee, J.; Oh, J.H.; Chang, H.J.; Sohn, D.K.; Kwon, O.; Shin, A.; Kim, J. Dietary lutein plus zeaxanthin intake and DICER1
rs3742330 A > G polymorphism relative to colorectal cancer risk. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 3406. [CrossRef]
174. Kumar, N.; Goel, N. Phenolic acids: Natural versatile molecules with promising therapeutic applications. Biotechnol. Rep. 2019,
24, e00370. [CrossRef]
175. Behbahani, M.; Abolhasani, J.; Amini, M.M.; Sadeghi, O.; Omidi, F.; Bagheri, A.; Salarian, M. Application of mercapto ordered
carbohydrate-derived porous carbons for trace detection of cadmium and copper ions in agricultural products. Food Chem. 2015,
173, 1207–1212. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
176. Rashmi, H.B.; Negi, P.S. Phenolic acids from vegetables: A review on processing stability and health benefits. Food Res. Int. 2020,
136, 109298. [CrossRef]
177. Al Jitan, S.; Alkhoori, S.A.; Yousef, L.F. Phenolic acids from plants: Extraction and application to human health. Stud. Nat. Prod.
Chem. 2018, 58, 389–417.
178. Anantharaju, P.G.; Gowda, P.C.; Vimalambike, M.G.; Madhunapantula, S.V. An overview on the role of dietary phenolics for the
treatment of cancers. Nutr. J. 2016, 15, 99. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
179. Palko-Labuz, A.; Gliszczyńska, A.; Skonieczna, M.; Poła, A.; Wesołowska, O.; Środa-Pomianek, K. Conjugation with phospholipids
as a modification increasing anticancer activity of phenolic acids in metastatic melanoma–In vitro and in silico studies. Int. J. Mol.
Sci. 2021, 22, 8397. [CrossRef]