European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety
13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
ISSN: 2347-5641
Effect of Natural Fermentation Period on Nutritional,
Anti Nutritional, I Total Phenols, Flavonoids and
Antioxidant Contents of Finger Millet Flour
V. F. Abioye1 J. A. Adejuyitan1*, A. O. Adeoye1 and I. O. Gbadegesin1
1
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food and Consumer Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University
of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Authors VFA and JAA designed the
study, performed the statistical analysis, wrote the protocol and wrote the first draft of the manuscript.
Authors AOA and IOG managed the analysis of the study. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/EJNFS/2021/v13i330392
Editor(s):
(1) Dr. Rasha Mousa Ahmed Mousa, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Reviewers:
(1) Borşa Andrei, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Romania.
(2) Dele Raheem, University of Lapland,Finland.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/67609
Original research Article
Received 02 March 2021
Accepted 06 May 2021
Published 24 June 2021
ABSTRACT
Aims: This study determined the changes in the chemical and nutritional composition of naturally
fermented finger millet studied at ambient temperature (28±2°C) for 72 h.
Study Designs: Finger millet seeds were cleaned and fermented (72 h; 28±2°C). Samples were
taken at 24 h interval and dried at 50°C for 48 h.
Methodology: The fermented finger millet samples were analyzed for microbial, biochemical
changes, chemical, proximate and mineral composition.
Results: Biochemical changes showed a drop in pH from 6.74 to 6.04 while titratable acidity (lactic
acid equivalent) increased from 0.04 to 0.62% after 72 h. The moisture, protein, ash, fat, fibre and
carbohydrate were in the ranges of 7.08-9.449%; 5.31-7.274%; 1.10-3.392%, 1.296-2.47%, 1.1542.46% and 77.44-81.58%, respectively. Significant increase were observed in the mineral
composition with phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sodium, and iron identified in the fermented
finger millet flour in the ranges of 93.5-176 mg/100 g; 171-247.5 mg/100 g; 87.04-196.5 mg/100 g;
1.30-3.075 mg/100 g and 5.28-11.95 mg/100 g, respectively. Tannin, oxalate, phytate and trypsin
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: Email: jadejuyitan@lautech.edu.ng;
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
were in the ranges of 1.537 to 3.23 mg/100 g; 0.875 to 1.59 mg/100 g; 0.195 to 0.85 mg/100 g. and
2.731 to 6.23 mg/100 g, respectively. The total phenols and total flavonoids ranged between
11.605-40.29 mg/ 100 g and 63.36 -172.872 mg/100g while the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) of the flour samples ranged between 28.109 and 68.238 mg/ml. Microorganisms identified
were Bacillus cereus, Lactobacillus Plantarum, Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus brevis. This
study shows that fermentation decreased the anti-nutrients, increased the proximate and minerals
contents and also improved the anti-oxidative properties of finger millet flour.
Keywords: Finger millet; fermentation; anti-nutrients; antioxidants.
1. INTRODUCTION
used
in
processing
of
cereals
such
as sorghum and millets. During fermentation,
flour undergoes major biochemical reactions
such as starch hydrolysis, sugar transformation
and softening which have been reported to
improve nutritional quality of cereal grain, reduce
the anti-nutrients and increase bioavailability of
micro nutrients [21,22].
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) commonly
known as ragi and mandua in India is one of the
minor cereals that is grown extensively in various
regions of India and Africa [1,2]. The grains
contain about 5–8% protein, 1–2% ether
extractives, 65–75% carbohydrates, 15–20%
dietary fiber and 2.5–3.5% minerals [3,4]. Finger
millet is considered as one of the most nutritious
cereals with highest content of calcium (344
mg/100g) and potassium (408 mg/100g) [5,6]. It
has nutraceutical properties and it is also
recognized for its health beneficial effects,
such as antidiabetic, antitumorigenic, antidiarrheal, anti inflammatory, atherosclerogenic
effects, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties
[2]. Finger millet is referred to as poor man’s food
due to its ability to be stored safely for many
years without infestation by insects and pests
[7,8,9].
The microbial population and biochemical
changes during the fermentation of finger millet
have been reported [23]. Effects of fermentation
of finger millet on the primary nutrients have also
been reported [24]. However, there is scanty
information on the effects of fermentation on the
nutrients,
anti-nutrients
and
antioxidative
properties of finger millet. This study, therefore,
determined the effect of natural fermentation on
the biochemical changes, proximate, minerals,
anti-nutrients,
phenolic,
flavonoids
and
antioxidant properties of finger millet.
2. MATERIALS
Finger millet is an important cereal due to its
excellent storage properties and the nutritive
value, which is higher than that of rice and equal
to that of wheat [10,8]. It is a good source of
micronutrients (calcium, iron, phosphorus, zinc
and potassium) and essential amino acids
(valine, methionine, isoleucine, threonine and
tryptophan) which are essential for human body
[11,12,13]. It is gluten-free, has low Glycemic
Index and. Millet is used as whole flour mostly for
traditional food preparation and can be
consumed after processing in form of noodles,
biscuit, muffins, vermicelli, pasta and bread
[14,15,16].
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) was obtained
from Jos, Plateau State and identified at Ladoke
Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH),
Ogbomoso, Research Farm Unit.
2.1 Production of Fermented Finger Millet
Flour
About 2500 grams of grains were sorted out by
removing the debris, stones and adhering
substances. The cleaned seeds were shared into
five different portions of 500 g each. Each of the
portion was steeped in water (1:5 w/v) and
allowed to ferment at 28±2 °C for maximum of 72
h. The fermented grains were harvested after 24
h, washed, dried at 50 °C and milled into fine
flour (300 µm). The flours were packaged in zip
lock bags until further uses
Bioavailability of some of these nutrients in finger
millet is limited by the presence of anti-nutrients
such as tannins, phytates, and oxalates
[17,12,18]. Processing methods such as boiling,
soaking, roasting, germination and fermentation
have been reported to reduce the anti-nutrient
content of finger millet and thus enhance the
biological availability of the nutrients [19,20].
Fermentation is one of the oldest methods widely
2.2 Analyses
Lactic acid bacteria were enumerated and
identified using the method described by [25].
75
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
3.2 Proximate
Millet
Ten grams of each of the fermented sample was
homogenized with 90 ml of 0.85% (w/v) saline
and serially diluted. One hundred micro liter of
the sample suspension was spread on MRS agar
media after plating, the sample plates were
incubated anaerobically at 37°C for 48 h.
Colonies were selected and purified by restreaking to obtain purified strains. The pH of
each
of
the
fermented
sample
was
measured using a pH meter (Jenway Model).
The titratable acidity (lactic acid, %) was
determined by measuring the amount of 0.1 N
NaOH necessary to adjust to pH 8.3.
Microbial isolates were carried out as described
by [23]. The fermented flour samples were
analyzed for moisture, ash, crude fibre, protein
(N*6.25), crude fat and the carbohydrate
determined by difference according to the
method described by [26]. The minerals present
in the fermented flour samples were
quantified using the dry-ash techniques
according to (AOAC, 2010). The tannin content
of the flour samples was determined using FolinCiocalteu method as described by [27]. Phytate
content was determined using rapid colourimetry
method as described by [28]. The oxalate
content of the samples was determined using
titration method as described by [29]. Total
Phenolic Content (TPC) of the extracts was
determined
using
spectrophotometry
as
described
by
[30].
Aluminium
chloride
colourimetric
method
was
used
for
flavonoids determination [31]. The DPPH
scavenging activity was carried out by the
method of [32]. The results of the
experiment were subjected to analysis of
variance
(ANOVA)
and
the
means
separated with the use of Duncan’s multiple
range test.
Composition
of
Finger
The proximate composition of the fermented flour
samples is as shown in Table 1. The moisture
content ranged from 7.08% to 9.449% with
increase in moisture content as the fermentation
hours increased. There was increase in the
moisture content with increase in fermentation
time. The protein content of the fermented finger
millet also followed the same trend as the hour of
fermentation rose up. This is in line with previous
reports of other researchers, [33] reported a rise
in protein content of finger millet as the
fermentation hour rose up. Similar reports were
recorded for pearl millet by other researchers
[37,38,39,40,22] while some others reported
increase in some cereals during fermentation
[41,42,43] reported improvement in amino acid
balance as well as the sensory quality and
nutritional value of the cereal grains during
fermentation. Increase in protein content could
be attributed to the loss of dry matter, mainly
carbohydrates or due to the action of
extracellular enzymes produced by the
fermenting microorganisms [44]. The increase
may also be partly as a result of degradation of
complex protein by microorganism thereby
releasing peptides and amino acids [45].
The ash content of the fermented finger millet
flour ranged from 1.10 9% to 3.392% with
gradual increase with increase in fermentation
time. The result is in line with other reports that
minerals increased with fermentation period
[39,45]. Minerals from plant sources have very
low bioavailability because they are found
complexed with non-digestible material such as
cell wall polysaccharides [46,47]. Fermentation
was also reported to increase bioavailability of
calcium, phosphorous, and iron likely due to
degradation of oxalates and phytates that
complex with minerals thereby reducing their
bioavailability [48].
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Changes in pH and Titratable Acidity
of Finger Millet and Microbial Isolates
There was a decrease in the lipid content of the
finger millet flour from 9.47 to 7.296. This is in
conformity with the findings of [24] who reported
about 42.9% reduction in the total fat content in
fermented finger millet, [40] also reported a
decrease in fat content of pearl millet during
fermentation. The low lipid content observed in
the fermented sample could help in improving the
shelf life of fermented finger millet flour by
decreasing the chances of rancidity and it may
also contribute to the low energy value of the
samples. The carbohydrate content of the
fermented finger millet flour ranged between
The prominent microorganisms identified were
Bacillus
cereus,
Lactobacillus
Plantarum,
Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus brevis. The
pH decreased from 7 to 6.04 with increase in the
hour of fermentation while titratable acidity
increased from 0.04 to 0.3 with increase in the
hour of fermentation as shown in Fig 1.
This report is in line with the report of
other researchers [33,34,35, and 36] that
the
pH
decreased
while
titratable
acidity increased with as fermentation period
increased.
76
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
3.3 Mineral Composition of Finger Millet
Flour
71.435% and 74.59%%. There was gradual
decrease in the carbohydrates with increase in
fermentation time. This is in line with reports of
other researchers who had worked on other
millets such as [49] and [21] who worked on
pearl millet and [24] who reported on foxtail
millet. This observation is in conformity with
previous reports that carbohydrates are a major
carbon source for fermenting microbes [50]. The
fiber content values of the sampled finger millet
flour were between 0.893% and 2.154%.
The mineral contents of the fermented finger
millet are presented in Table 2. The results
indicated increase in the mineral contents with
increase in the fermentation time. This is in line
with other researchers that fermentation
increases the bioavailability of minerals in
cereals [51].
Chart Title
pH and Titable acidity
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0h
24 h
48 h
72 h
fermentation period in h
Ph
titrable acidity
Fig. 1. Changes in pH and total titratable acidity during the natural fermentation of finger millet
Table 1. Proximate composition of finger millet flour (%)
Samples
A
B
C
D
Moisture
Content
7.080±0.282a
8.289±0.001b
9.121±0.001c
9.449±0.001d
Crude
Protein
5.310±0.014b
5.241±0.001a
6.019±0.001c
7.274±0.006d
Ash
Crude Lipid
Crude Fibre
CHO
1.100±0.00a
2.019±0.001b
2.080±0.014c
3.392±0.003d
2.470±0.014d
1.697±0.001c
1.437±0.001b
1.297±0.002a
2.460±0.014d
1.893±0.004c
1.319±0.000b
1.154±0.006a
81.580±0.028d
80.861±0.001c
80.031±0.001b
77.435±0.001a
Values represent means of triplicate reading, follow by different lowercase letter
Means within the same row with different alphabets are significantly different (p≤0.05)
Sample A: Samples that were not fermented (Control); Sample B: Samples fermented for 24 h; Sample C: Samples
fermented for 48 h;Sample D: Samples fermented for 72 h
Table 2. Mineral composition of fermented finger millet flour (mg/100 g)
Samples
A
B
C
D
P
93.500±0.141a
185.000±1.414c
255.000±1.414d
176.000±1.000b
K
171.000±1.414a
228.000±0.000b
239.000±1.414c
247.500±0.141d
Ca
87.040±0.000a
108.800±0.141b
156.200±0.283c
196.500±0.141d
Na
1.300±0.000a
2.649±0.000c
2.351±0.001b
3.008±0.001d
Fe
5.280±0.014a
10.800±0.141b
10.700±0.141b
11.450±0.495b
Values represent means of triplicate reading, follow by different lowercase letter
Means within the same row with different alphabets are significantly different (p≤0.05)
Sample A: Samples that were not fermented (Control);Sample B: Samples fermented for 24 h;Sample C: Samples
fermented for 48 h;Sample D: Samples fermented for 72 h
77
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
Table 3. Anti-nutritional factor of finger millet flour (mg/100g)
Samples
A
B
C
D
Oxalate
1.590±0.014d
1.325±0.001b
1.410±0.014c
0.875±0.000a
Trypsin
6.230±0.014d
5.338±0.001c
3.121±0.001b
2.731±0.001a
Phytate
0.850±0.014d
0.594±0.003c
0.204±0.003b
0.195±0.001a
Tannin
3.230±0.014d
2.431±0.001c
1.896±0.000b
1.537±0.001a
Values represent means of triplicate reading, follow by different lowercase letter
Means within the same row with different alphabets are significantly different (p≤0.05)
Sample A: Samples that were not fermented (Control); Sample B: Samples fermented for 24 h; Sample C: Samples
fermented for 48 h; Sample D: Samples fermented for 72 h
Chart Title
250
200
150
100
50
0
A
B
C
Total Phenols mg/100 g
Total Flavonoids
D
DPPH
Fig. 2. Total phenols, total flavonoids and the antioxidant content of finger millet flour
Sample A: Samples that were not fermented (Control);Sample B: Samples fermented for 24 h;Sample C:
Samples fermented for 48 h;Sample D: Samples fermented for 72 h
3.4 Antinutritional composition of Finger
Millet
the free nutrients which improves
availability of these nutrients [52,53,54].
The result of anti-nutritional contents of the
fermented finger millet is as shown in Table 4.
Finger millet has been reported to contain the
highest amount of anti-nutrients among other
millets. There was significant reduction (p<0.05)
in phytate and tannin content. Phytic acid has
been reported as one of the antinutritional factors
common in cereals responsible for binding
minerals and thus making them not readily
bioavailable (52, 42). The phytate in the finger
millet decreased from 0.85 mg/100 g to 0.195
mg/100 g, the result is in line with other
researchers who reported decrease in phytic acid
with fermentation (52; Anthony and Chandra,
1998,
Osman,
2011).
The
fermenting
microorganisms are responsible for the
cleavages of tannin-protein, tannic acid-starch
and tannin-iron complexes thereby releasing
3.5 Antioxidant Properties of Finger Millet
Flour
the
The total phenols, total flavonoids and the
antioxidant content in the flour samples are as
shown in Fig 2. The total phenols, total
flavonoids and the antioxidant content were in
the ranges of 11.605-40.29 mg/ 100 g, 63.36 172.872 mg/100g and 28.109 and 68.238 mg/ml,
respectively. The total phenolic contents
decreased with increase in fermentation time The
effects of fermentation on phenolic compounds
were reported to be a factor of grain types,
microorganism
species
and
fermentation
conditions (temperature, pH, and time) [55,56].
The flavonoids content increased with increase in
fermentation time, this agrees with findings of
[40] that fermentation enhanced the flavonoids
78
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
content in fermented pearl millet food. Antioxidants are substances that neutralize the
harmful free radicals in our bodies. Anti-oxidant
act as free “radical scavengers” and hence
prevent or slow the damage done by free
radicals. Anti-oxidants are also used to prevent
food quality meanly because the slow oxidative
deterioration of lipids. Anti-oxidants function as
reducing agents, ultimately removing free radical
intermediates and preventing further oxidation
[57].
5.
6.
4. CONCLUSION
This study has revealed that fermentation of
finger millet can increase the protein, mineral
content with significant reduction in the
antinutrients thereby increasing the bioavalability
of these nutrients. Fermentation also enhanced
the polyphenols potentials of the crop.
7.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledged the financial support
granted by TETFUND in carrying out this
research work
8.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have
interests exist.
declared
that
no
competing
9.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Gull A, Jan R, Nayik GA, Prasad K, Kumar
P. Significance of finger millet in nutrition,
health and value added products: a review.
Journal
of
Environmental
Science,
Computer Science and Engineering and
Technology. 2014;3(3):1601-1608.
Chandra S, Pallavi, Sharma AK. Review of
finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.)
Gaertn): A power house of health
benefiting nutrients. Food Science and
Human Wellness. 2016;(5):149–155.
Chethan S, Malleshi NG. Finger millet
polyphenols: Characterization and their
nutraceutical potential. America Journal
Food Technology. 2007;2:582–592.
Devi PB, Vijayabharathi R, Priyadarisini
VB.. Health benefits of finger millet
(Eleusine coracana L.) polyphenols and
dietary fiber: a review. J Food Sci Technol.
2014;51(6):1021–1040.
DOI: 10.1007/s13197-011-0584-9
10.
11.
12.
13.
79
Shobana S, Krishnaswamy K, Sudha V,
Malleshi NG, Anjana RM, Palaniappan L,
Mohan V. Finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine
coracana L.): a review of its nutritional
properties, processing, and plausible
health benefits. Adv Food Nutr Res.
2013;69:1‐39.
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-410540-9.000016
Kumar A, Metwal M, Kaur S, Gupta
AK, Puranik S, Singh S, Singh M,
Gupta S, Babu BK, Sood S, Yadav R
Nutraceutical value of finger millet
[Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], and
their
improvement
using
Omics
Approaches. Front. Plant Sci. 2016;7:934.
DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00934
Bekele AF, Getahun DW, Derejem
AB. Determination of optimumratesof
nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization
for
finger
millet
(Eleusine
coracana L. Gaertn) production at Assosa
Zone, in Benishangul – Gumuz Region of
Ethiopia. Advances in Sciences and
Humanities. 2016;2(1):1-6.
DOI: 10.11648/j.ash.20160201.1
Gull A, Gulzar Ahmad N, Prasad K, Kumar
P.
Technological,
processing
and
nutritional approach of finger millet
(Eleusine coracana) - A mini review. J
Food Process Technol. 2016;7:593.
DOI: 10.4172/2157-7110.1000593
Aisoni
JE,
Yusha’u
M,
Orole
OO.Processing effects on physicochemical
and proximate composition of finger millet
(Eleusine coracana). Greener Journal of
Biological Sciences. 2018;8(2):014-020.
Van Wyk BE, Gericke N. People’s plants.
A Guide to Useful Plants of Southern
Africa.
Pretoria:
Briza
Publications.
2000;23-25.
FAO. Amino acid scoring pattern. In:
Protein quality evaluation, FAO/WHO Food
and Nutrition Paper, Italy. 1991;12-24.
Mbithi-Mwikya S, Ooghe W, Van Camp J,
Nagundi D, Huyghebaert A. Amino acid
profile after sprouting, Autoclaving and
lactic acid fermentation of finger millet
(Eluesine coracana) and kidney beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) J. Agric. Food
Chem. 2000;48 (8):3081-3085.
Thapliyal V, Singh K. Finger millet:
Potential millet for food security and power
house of nutrients. International Journal of
Research in Agriculture and Forestry.
2015;2(2):22-33.
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Krishnan R, Dharmaraj U, Manohar RS,
Malleshi NG. Quality characteristics of
biscuits prepared from finger millet seed
coat‐based
composite
flour. Food
Chem. 2011;129(2):499– 506.
Gull A, Prasad K, Kumar P. Nutritional,
antioxidant, microstructural and pasting
properties of functional pasta. Journal of
the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences.
2016;17(2):147-153.
Rathore T, Singh R, Kamble DB,
Upadhyay A, Thangalakshmi S. Review on
finger millet: Processing and value
addition. The Pharma Innovation Journal.
2019;8(4):283-291.
Gibbs-Russell P, Deosthale YG. In vitro
availability of iron and zinc in white and
coloured ragi (Eleusine coracana): role of
tannin and phytate. Plant Foods Human
Nutrition. 1989;38:35-41.
Popova A, Mihaylova D. Antinutrients in
plant-based foods: A review. The Open
Biotechnology Journal. 2019;13(1):68-76.
Hotz C, Gibson RS.Traditional foodprocessing and preparation practices to
enhance
the
bioavailability
of
micronutrients in plant-based diets. The
Journal of Nutrition. 2007;137(4):1097–
1100.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.4.
1097Nkhata et al., 2018
Abioye VF, Ogunlakin GO, Taiwo G. Effect
of germination on anti-oxidant activity, total
phenols, flavonoids and anti-nutritional
content of finger millet flour. J. Food
Process Technol. 2018;9:719.
DOI: 10.4172/2157-7110.1000719
Osman
MA.
Effect
of
traditional
fermentation process on the nutrient and
antinutrient contents of pearl millet during
preparation of Lohoh. Journal of the Saudi
Society
of
Agricultural
Sciences.
2011;10:1–6.
Gupta RK, Gangoliya SS, Singh NK.
Reduction of phytic acid and enhancement
of bioavailable micronutrients in food
grains.
J
Food
Sci
Technol.
2015;52(2):676–684.
DOI: 10.1007/s13197-013-0978-y
Antony U, Chandra T. Microbial population
and biochemical changes in fermenting
finger millet (Eleusine coracana). World
Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology.
1997;13:533–537.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1023/A:101856
1224777.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
80
Antony U, Sripriya G, Chandra TS. Effect
of Fermentation on the primary nutrients in
finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Journal
of
Agricultural
and
Food
Chemistry. 1996;44(9):2616-2618.
DOI: 10.1021/jf950787q.
Sangita B, Apoorva S, Manisha M, Satish
KS. Isolation and characterization of lactic
acid bacteria from fermented foods.
Vegetos. 2013;26(2):325-330.
AOAC, Association of official Analytical
Chemists. Official methods of analysis,
th
18 ed. Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, Washington, D. C; 2010.
Hailer M, Kang WH. Antioxidant activity,
total polyphenol, flavonoid and tannin
contents of fermented green coffee beans
with selected yeasts. Fermentation.
2019;5:29:1-13.
Latta M, Eskin M. A Simple and rapid
colorimetric
method
for
phytate
determination. J. Agric. Food Chem.
1980;28:313-315.
Debi PM, Nivedita M, Harshal BM, Pinaki
S, Sidharth M, Devi PS. Determination of
seasonal and developmental variation in
oxalate content of Anagallis arvensis plant
by
titration
and
spectrophotometric
method. The Pharma Innovation Journal.
2017;6(6):105-111.
Singleton VL, Orthofer R, LamuelaRaventos RM. Analysis of total phenols
and other oxidation substrates and
antioxidants by means of Folin–Ciocalteau
reagent. Method. Enzymol. 1999;299:152–
178.
Luximon-Ramma
AT,
Bahorun MA,
Soobratte,
Aruoma
OI. Antioxidant
activities of phenolic, proanthrocyanidin
and flavanoid components in extracts
of Cassia fistula. J. Agric. Food Chem.
2002;50:5042-5047.
Blois MS. Antioxidant determination by use
of
stable
free
radicals.
Nature.
1985;29:1199–1200.
Antony U, Chandra T. Antinutrient
reduction and enhancement in protein,
starch, and mineral availability in
fermented flour of finger millet (Eleusine
coracana). Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry. 1998;46(7):2578-2582.
DOI: 10.1021/jf9706639
Arora S, Jood S, Khetarpaul N, Goyal R.
Effect of germination and fermentation on
pH. Titratable acidity and chemical
composition of pearl millet based food
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
blends. Acta Alimentaria. 2009;38(1):107115.
Jood S, Kheterpaul N, Goyal R. Effect of
germination and probiotic fermentation on
pH, titratable acidity, dietary fibre, β-glucan
and vitamin content of sorghum based
food mixtures. Journal of Nutrition and
Food Sciences. 2012;2:9.
DOI: 10.4172/2155-9600.1000164
Ilango S, Antony U. Assessment of the
microbiological quality of koozh, a
fermented millet beverage Shankar.
2014;8(3):308-312.
Ali AM, El-Tinay HA, Abdalla HA. Effect of
fermentation on the in vitro digestibility of
pear millet. Food Chem. 2003;80:51–54.
Hassan AB, Mohamed Ahmed IA, Osman
NM, Eltayeb MM, Osman GA, Babiker EE.
Effect of processing treatment followed by
fermentation on protein content and
digestibility of pearl millet (Pennisetum
typhoideum) cultivars. Pakistan J. Nutr.
2006;5(1):86–8.
Inyang CU, Zakari UM. Effect of
germination and fermentation of pearl
millet on proximate, chemical and sensory
properties of instant, Fura–Nigerian cereal
food; 2008.
Gupta V, Nagar R. Effect of cooking,
fermentation, dehulling and utensils on
antioxidants present in pearl millet rabadi a traditional fermented food. J Food Sci
Technol. 2010;47(1):73‐76.
DOI: 10.1007/s13197-010-0018-0
Day CN, Morawicki RO. Effects of
fermentation by yeast and amylolytic lactic
acid bacteria on grain sorghum protein
content and digestibility. Hindawi Journal
of Food Quality. 2018;1–8.
DOI: 10.1155/2018/3964392
Nkhata SG, Ayua E, Jean‐Bosco S.
Fermentation and germination improve
nutritional value of cereals and legumes
through
activation
of
endogenous
enzymes. Food Sci Nutr. 2018;6:2446–
2458.
Ramashia SE, Tonna AA, Eastonce TG,
Stephen MT, Afam IOJ. Processing,
nutritional composition and health benefits
of finger millet in sub-saharan Africa. Food
Sci. Technol. 2019;39(2).
Available:https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.25017
Hamad AM, Fields ML. Evaluation of the
protein quality and available lysine of
germinated and fermented cereal. Journal
of Food Science. 1979;44:456–459.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1979.tb03811.x
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
81
Pranoto Y, Anggrahini S, Efendi Z.
Effect
of
natural
and Lactobacillus
plantarum fermentation on invitro protein
and starch digestibilities of sorghum
flours. Food Bioscience. 2013;2:46–52.
DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2013.04.001
Torre M, Rodriquez R, Saura‐Calixto
F. Effects of dietary fiber and phytic acid
on mineral availability. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition. 1991;30:1–22.
DOI: 10.1080/10408399109527539
Claire H, Peter R, Cathrina HE, Myriam
ML, Gundy. Plant cell walls: Impact on
nutrient bioaccessibility and digestibility.
Advanced Research in Food digestion.
2020;9(2)201.
Sripriya G, Antony U, Chandra TS.
Changes in carbohydrate, free amino acids
phytate and HCL extractability of minerals
during germination and fermentation of
finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Food
Chemistry. 1997;58:345–350.
DOI: 10.1016/S0308-8146(96)00206Khetarpaul N, Chauhan BM. Effect of
germination and fermentation on In vitro
starch and protein digestibility of pearl
millet. Journal
of
Food
Science. 1990;55:883–884.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.tb05261.x
Adams MR. Topical aspects of fermented
foods. Trends Food Sci Tech. 1990;1:141–
144.
DOI: 10.1016/0924-2244(90)90111-B
Makokha AO, Oniango RK, Njoroge SM,
Kamar
OK.
Effect
of
traditional
fermentation and malting on phytic acid
and
mineral
availability
from
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and funger
millet (Eleusine caracana) grain varieties
grown
in
Kenya. Food
Nutr
Bull.
2002;23:241–245.
Liang J, Han BZ, Nout MJR, Hamer RJ.
Effects of soaking, germination and
fermentation on phytic acid, total and in
vitro soluble zinc in brown rice. Food
Chemistry. 2008;110:821–828.
DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.064
Sharma A, Kapoor AC. Levels of
antinutritional factors in pearl millet as
affected by processing treatments and
various types of fermentation. Plant Food
Hum Nutr. 1996;49;241–252.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01093
221
Onweluzo
JC,
Nwabugwu
CC.
Fermentation
of
millet
(Pennisetum
americanum)
and
pigeon
pea
Abioye et al.; EJNFS, 13(3): 74-82, 2021; Article no.EJNFS.67609
55.
(Cajanuscajan) seeds for flour production:
Effects on composition and selected
functional properties. Pakistan Journal of
Nutrition. 2009;8(6):737-744.
Onuoha EC, Orukotan AA, Ameh JB.
Effect of fermentation (natural and starter)
on the physicochemical, anti-nutritional
and proximate composition of pearl millet
used for flour production, American Journal
of
Bioscience
and
Bioengineering.
2017;5(1)12-16.
56.
57.
DOI: 10.11648/j.bio.20170501.13
Oseni K. A review on the status of the
phenolic compounds and antioxidant
capacity of the flour: Effects of cereal
processing, International Journal of Food
Properties. 2017;20:sup1:S798-S809.
DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2017.1315130
Rice-Evans CA, Miller NJ, Bolwell. The
relative antioxidant activities of plant
derived phenolic flavonoid. Free Radic.
Res. 1995;22:375-383.
© 2021 Abioye et al.; This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Peer-review history:
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/67609
82