Tabah Emmanuel Dissertation

IMPACTS OF INCESSANT CRISIS ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN GOKANA AND ELEME LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF RIVERS STATE BY TABAH EMMANUEL B.Ed Adult and Non-formal Education / Political Science University of Port Harcourt G2014/M.ED/AN/FT/393 A Dissertation Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Master of Education (M.Ed) (Community Development) in the Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt Supervisor: Dr. E.O. Aruma December, 2017. ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine the impacts of incessant crisis on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. Its objectives include among others to identify the common forms, causes, effects, possible strategies for ameliorating the impacts of crisis in the study area and ways in which community development programmes can solve the challenges emanating from incessant crisis in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. Based on the foregoing, five research questions and two hypotheses were drawn out. While a 25-item structured questionnaire was used for data collection. A reliability index was obtained using test-re-test method. Data were collected from sample size of 1,400 drawn from a total of 2,800 members of twenty (20) registered Community Based Organizations in the two local government areas. The data collected were analyzed using mean statistics. Hypotheses were tested with chi-square (x 2) statistics at 0.05 level of significance. Based on the findings, the study recommended that Community Development Committees and other Community Base Organizations in at the community level should on a regular basis organize a routine awareness campaign programme to enlighten community members on the dangers of crime; and that community leaders should ensure close monitoring of partisan activities in the community so as to curtail the influx of small arms and light weapons that has become so rampant in recent times. Key words: Community Development, Development, Crisis, Community, Chieftaincy tussle, Land/Boundary disputes, Cult Rivalry, and Youth Restiveness. 1.1 Introduction This study is a first step in collecting evidence of how the ongoing conflict has affected community growth in Rivers State, specifically in the Gokana and Eleme LGAs. Some academics consider "crisis" to be identical with "stress," "panic," "violence," "conflict," "catastrophe," "disaster," and "potential violence," as stated in the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (1968). Still others, in line with the medical interpretation, see it as a "turning point" between improved and worse health. It's a specific case that may be examined in the context of decision-making theory. According to Okoiye and Adebisi (2016), all societies have to deal with limitations imposed by nature or by humans. Some cultures are blessed by nature with an abundance of arable land, clean water, and other resources, while others are saddled with the waste of past generations and the environmental degradation of overgrazed, eroding land and slumlike towns. However, if these gifts are dispersed inequitably, they may constitute a major cause of instability. This is why Saheed and Egwaikhide (2012) explain how natural catastrophes and human error contribute to the inefficient use of resources in various economies, notably in Africa. A natural hazard like a flood, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide may cause significant damage to property and lives, as shown by the work of Jitendra, Archit, Neeraj, Ramesh, and Saurabh (1991). Human causes may also lead to waste, according to Saheed and Egwaikhide (2012), who include corruption, inter-communal conflicts, crude oil theft, pipeline vandalism, war, genocide, and political crises as examples. Since the first major Ogoni, Andoni, and Okrika crises of the early 1990s, when more than 2,000 people died and property worth millions of Naira was destroyed in the Gokana and Eleme Local Government Locations of Rivers State, the areas under study have been in the headlines. Ogbeifun, as cited in Saheed and Egwaikhide (2012), states that the government's ability to invest in other forms of development is hindered by the expense of repairing damaged infrastructure. They also reemphasized that social crisis have environmental consequences, such as how vandalism of oil pipelines may exacerbate environmental deterioration and waterway contamination. As a result, the conflicts continued reemerging at irregular intervals and in various regions. Hundreds of people, mostly young adults, were killed in the most recent severe violence of 2015 between almost all the villages in Gokana and very few Eleme communities. Refugee camps sprang up in the surrounding Local Government Areas, housing thousands of individuals who had to leave their homes. The magnitude of the damage caused by these crises to the economy and the poor in particular has yet to be quantified, making it difficult to develop effective growth strategies to alleviate the situation. The purpose of this research is to analyze how the ongoing crisis in the study region has affected several aspects of community growth, including but not limited to: agricultural extension education, community education, literacy education, co-ops, rural industries, and health programs. The loss of farms, cattle, markets, homes, and means of transportation are only some of the ways in which the poor are suffering as a result of the current trends in these sectors, which casual observation shows to have highly negative implications leading to increased pauperization. The word "crisis" is often used to refer to any disruptive change in social order that arises when people in a certain area have divergent beliefs, values, or knowledge. To sum up, a crisis may be sparked by any combination of unequal agitation, aggressiveness, demand, or improper transmission of information between equal or unequal participants over an issue of opposing interests. The degree to which a crisis disrupts the harmonious coexistence of a people, particularly when that coexistence is based on shared cultural norms and values, is cause for grave worry. The political, economic, and social overtones of a crisis on this plane rely on the nature of the contradictions that stoke the passionate but one-sided interest that, in order to be framed as such, must have been founded on the prejudiced assessment of one side of a contentious dispute. Accordingly, the boundary adjustments amongst other verifiable reasons and causes of the crisis continue to dominate the lines of argument for the age-long disputes that have distorted the peace of the Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State, making the crisis a near-recurring decimal. Gokana's territorial map, which includes the picturesque shores of Bodo city, the rolling hills and valleys of Deken, the legendary landmarks of Yeghe, and the endowed wetland of Dere, has been plagued by a never-ending land dispute that has claimed countless lives and slowed the progress of local infrastructure and infrastructure development. The community development that might have brought the oil-rich Eleme towns a much-needed boost is likewise diminished in significance by this catastrophe. The quality of its human resources is an important factor in every country's economic growth. All the parts of the social, political, and economic construction of a country are represented there. The Rivers State communities of Gokana and Eleme are rich in both natural and human resources. For example, between 1999 and 2009, over 2,550 people were reportedly killed as a result of an explosion from oil and gas pipeline vandalism, and over 10,000 people have been killed in sectarian and communal attacks in Nigeria, as explained by Shosanya in Saheed and Egwaikhide (2012). (Saheed and Alofun, in Saheed and Egwaikhide, 2012). Therefore, they declare that the expansion and development of the educational sector is essential to human resources, training, and development, and that every country is working to improve the educational standards of its inhabitants. Further, they argue that the frequent shutdown of schools and universities in crisis-prone regions might impede progress toward this crucial goal. Academic activities in the afflicted regions are disrupted, and the education of pupils whose parents are forced to migrate is negatively impacted, according to them. The time spent looking for new schools for pupils might have a detrimental effect on their academic performance, as acknowledged by Babangida in Saheed and Egwaikhide (2012). The loss of life and property, domestic and international investments with ongoing capital flight, and disillusionment with the economy are all widespread effects of social crises, particularly those sparked by religious or ethnic tensions. This might exacerbate poverty in the afflicted region over time. To mitigate the catastrophic effects of the crisis, it is vital to investigate how the continuing situation has affected community development in the Gokana and Eleme LGAs of Rivers State. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Community development efforts by both government and non-government organizations are continuing to be dragged further and further away from achieving their targeted objectives and aim as a result of a spate of destructive acts against democratic principles, which have resulted in the loss of lives and property. However, it has never been mentioned in the history of the world that a crisis engenders economic drive in a system of the interconnected web of social relations. Rather, crises, particularly inter-communal clashes, deter economic prosperity to a large extent. This is to say that the absence of peace in a crisis-prone area such as the area of the study can in no way be a haven for investors to settle down with a relaxed mind for business. But suffice it to say that another concern of this study stems from the alarming rate of youth restiveness, which happens to be one of the multiplier effects of the ongoing crisis and a clog on the wheels of peaceful coexistence as well as economic growth and community development in the Gokana and Eleme local government areas of Rivers State. In other words, suffice it to say that another concern of this study stems from the alarming rate of youth restiveness. In other words, suffice it to say the challenge that the research has yet to solve is how to conduct an examination into the effects that the ongoing conflict has had on community development in the Gokana and Eleme local government districts of Rivers State. 1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study The aim of this study is to examine the impacts of incessant crisis on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. Based on this purpose, the specific objectives of the study are to: identify the common forms of incessant crisis that impact on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. determine the causes of incessant crisis that impact on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State ascertain the impacts of incessant crises on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State ascertain the strategies for curbing incessant crisis that impact on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. 1.4 Research Questions This study was guided by the following research questions: What are the prevalent forms of incessant crisis that impact on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? What are the possible causes of incessant crisis that impact on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? What are the impacts of incessant crises on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? What are the strategies for curbing incessant crises that impact on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? 1.5 Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: Ho1: There is no significant relationship between forms of crises and community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State Ho2: There is no significant relationship between the causes of incessant crises and its impacts on community development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. 1.6 Scope of the Study This research looked at how the ongoing crisis in Rivers State has affected community growth in the Gokana and Eleme LGAs. Constant conflict made the decision to conduct this research in the Gokana and Eleme LGAs of Rivers State inevitable. No additional Rivers State Counties or MLGAs were included in the research. The study's scope was limited to the Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State because of the ongoing turmoil that has a negative effect on community development there. Both the effects of this perpetual crises on local community growth and its root causes were the subject of this investigation. The study's scope included an examination of methods for mitigating the persistent crises that impede community growth in the Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas. 1.7 Significance of the Study Authorities in Rivers State's Gokana and Eleme LGAs would be interested in this study's results. Local government officials want to utilize the study's results to provide seminars for residents of the region to help them understand how the ongoing crisis has affected development in local neighborhoods. This will help them avoid the underlying problems that have been hindering community growth in the region under investigation and ultimately contribute to the crisis that has been going on for so long. Community leaders in Rivers State's Gokana and Eleme LGAs will be able to use this study's results to better serve their constituents. With the help of the community development committee, the local community leadership will utilize the study's results to provide seminars for different community-based groups on the persistent crises that impede community development in the region. Similarly, the study's findings might be used by non-governmental groups working to foster community development in Rivers State's Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas. The results will be used by non-governmental organization management to plan seminars for community development stakeholders in the region of the study, with the goal of educating them on the need of peaceful coexistence for long-term community growth. 1.8 Area of Study This research was conducted in the Rivers State municipalities of Gokana and Eleme, which are located in the southeast Senatorial District. Nigeria's Rivers State is home to a town called Gokana. The city of Kapor is home to its headquarters. As of the census in 2006, its population was 228,828 and it covered an area of 126 km2. There are sixteen separate towns in Gokana, each of which is ruled by a monarch known as a Mene Bon. There are smaller settlements inside each of the sixteen towns. The sixteen municipalities have a same ancestor. Five days make up a Gokana week: Maa, Bon, Zua, chon, and Kor (pronounced cur). Christianity and African Traditional Religion are widely practiced. A lot of its rituals and celebrations have died out because of urbanization and rural-urban migration, but a few have persisted. Sometime between the end of March and the beginning of April, the "Naa-Bira-dee" celebration is held in honor of the goddess of the night. During its duration (about 15 days or three weeks in the local time zone), no females, minors, or non-initiated adult males are permitted outside of their homes with the exception of members of the armed forces and other essential personnel. However, Bishop Gberegbara's efforts in the Deken Community led to the cancellation of the NaaBira-dee celebration. The most common language spoken is Gokana, which belongs to the Ogonoid group of the Cross-River branch of the extensive Niger-Congo language family. The ruler of the Gokana Kingdom is known as the Gbere Mene. Eleme Local Government Area, on the other hand, can be found about east of Port Harcourt. It is a part of the metropolitan area of Port Harcourt. Under the leadership of Honourable Olaka Nwogu, the legislative council relocated its capital from Nchia to Ogale. Ogale, the presumed founding settlement of Eleme, has traditionally been home to the administrative headquarters. The majority of Eleme's population is of Eleme ancestry; the ten largest towns in the region are controlled by His Majesty 'The One Eh Eleme (Chief of Eleme)' and His Majesty chief Oluka Ejire, who has been acting as regent since the death of His Majesty chief Ngei O. Ngei, who reigned for 30 years. The most common language is Eleme, which belongs to the Ogonoid group of the CrossRiver branch of the extensive Niger-Congo language family. Onne, a well-known town in Eleme, is home to the biggest seaport in West Africa, and two of Nigeria's four petroleum refineries as of 2016. As a religious group, Christians make up the majority in this country. Odido and Nichia are two clusters of settlements in Eleme, and each of them speak their own unique language. Nchia and Odido can understand each other well. The western part of Eleme land speaks the Nichia dialect, whereas the eastern and southeastern parts speak the Odido dialect. Nchia, Agbonchia, Akpajo, Alesa, Aleto, Alone, and Ogale are all Eleme-based towns worth exploring. Ebubu, Ekporo, Eteo, and Onne are Odido. Since the Niger Delta's oil was discovered in 1958, the Eleme area has been the site of several oil refineries and fertilizer factories. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Theoretical Framework Theoretical framework, as stated by Nzeneri (2010), helps the researcher to comprehend the nature and scope of the issue. This is why the conflict trap theory and the structural conflict theory were so carefully adapted by the researcher to provide an explanation for the issue at hand. 2.1.1 Conflict Trap Theory According to the Conflict Trap Theory, which was first proposed in 2003, Paul Collier, V. Lani Elliot, Harvard Hegre, Anke Hoeffler, Marta Reynal-Querol, and Nicholas Sambanis are all proponents. It posits that after a conflict has broken out, it often creates circumstances that favor insurgency and other criminal activities in the society and often exacerbates those that favor conflict. According to this notion, serenity is difficult to regain and fleeting even when it is achieved. Conflicts tend to drag on for a long time for a variety of interconnected reasons, some of which have been proposed by the theory's proponents. These reasons include, but are not limited to, a polarized population, multiple ethnic groups, negative sentiment, the vulnerability of parties to the conflict, and divergent interests and goals. The primary premise of the conflict trap hypothesis is that when a population in a plural state feels wronged, they will resort to frequent conflict as a means of airing their grievances. This is especially true in societies where the ruling elite is willing to acquiesce to the populace's demands. In addition, the theory posits a causal link between unmet expectations and violent behavior. This occurs when authorities refuse to give in to the demands of warring parties, most often in an effort to reduce bloodshed elsewhere. What this means is that there may not be enough trust between the warring parties to commit to an agreement with the state. It is claimed that the state lacks the credibility to bind warring factions to terms of agreement, and that the warring factions are worried that the state would back out of any peace deal they make with the state. It is said that if peace agreements are broken between warring parties, tensions and violence would rise again, leading to unintended effects such as increased fear, bloodshed, and population relocation. The expansion of tiny armed organizations with criminal goals hinders community development and makes peace and togetherness even more unattainable. It also assumes that resolving a dispute once it has gotten entrenched in a prolonged pattern would be difficult and complicated. There is also the risk that violence entrepreneurs may use conflict situations for their own financial benefit, making it unable to provide credible compensation that would convince them to embrace peace. Conflicts may be useful for people who regard themselves as community leaders because they allow them to manage their organizations in a hierarchical, militaristic manner with authority concentrated in a small number of people, which is much harder to explain in times of calm. The lack of rule of law in the territories they govern benefits those who consider themselves as extortionists. These heads of state, however, mistakenly believe that their costly military hardware is indispensable until they sign a peace treaty (Collier, 2003). Chieftaincy struggles, illegal bunkering, cult rivalry, wanton destruction of lives and properties, people fleeing their communities for security reasons, and so on are all aftereffects of crises that help prolong conflict inherent to the communities, which is why the conflict trap theory is relevant to this study. Due in part to these factors, many attempts at peaceful mediation in the regions have failed. There has been a steady decline in the number of peaceful people and an increase in the number of people of younger generations who have become complacent in their ownership of weapons. Similarly, in Rivers State, chieftaincy struggles, land/boundary disputes, and similar disagreements are perennial sources of violence throughout many communities. As a result, there is now a direct correlation between violent crises and issues like poverty, unemployment, sickness, and pollution. Similarly, Sunday and Epelle (2011) state that the theoretical and conceptual ramblings of the theory provide several angles from which violence might be appreciated. Notably, these writers argue that although each viewpoint may be superficial, lacking, inadequate, and limited, taken together they are informative and complimentary, providing insight into reasons that maintain conflict in the community. 2.1.2 Structural Conflict Theory Karl Marx put up this idea in 1883 to investigate the origins of violent clashes. According to the thesis, social conflict arises naturally from existing social structures. Inequitable allocations of finite resources, injustice committed against individuals, and exploitative inclinations of the upper class over the bottom class, among other factors, all contribute to a variety of crises in society. The Marxist dialectical school of thought (the radical group) and the liberal structuralist are the two primary proponents of this idea. For the radicals, the root of all social ills stems from the privileged exploiting the poor. Marxists believe that only a revolutionary overthrow of the capitalism can end this kind of strife. But liberals blame conflict, tension, and struggle on political and economic arrangements that favor one group at the expense of another. This perspective is in favor of a policy framework that corrects existing problems. Ademola (2006) argues that the focus of structural theory should be on the ways in which the type and strength of social networks within and between community groups, as well as the social, economic, and political structure of society, come into conflict with one another. Major roots of violent conflict in today's society may be traced back to people's inability to compromise on their competing ideals, power, and resource desires. Even though Haralambos, Holborn, Chapman, and Moore (2013) agree that interestbased conflicts are common, they caution that this does not guarantee that they will always arise. A temporary ceasefire or interest persuasion, as they see it, is possible. It demonstrates that social upheaval is a potential outcome of every war. Deutsch (1991) chimes in to say that a holistic strategy is needed to fully grasp the many different causes of conflict. According to him, disputes may be explained by looking at both the objective and non-objective components inside a social system, with the latter including things like psychological needs, values, perception, and systemic issues. There are flaws in the structural conflict hypothesis. Ademola (2006) argues that the theory, despite its flaws, provides a new lens through which to examine and better comprehend armed conflict. One of the theory's flaws is its dependence on hegemonic structures. There are pros and cons to using structural conflict theory in this investigation. Conflict has the potential to either spur community growth in a good way or to impede it in a negative one, depending on the nature of the violence that it elicits. 2.2 Conceptual Review 2.2.1 Concept of Crisis A crisis may be seen as a sudden change in how two or more people who share many similar characteristics and few significant differences think about or act on a given issue. Except in the rare case where one of the equal or unequal partners' interests and ambitions override the initial targeted outcome, putting that person at a disadvantage that, in turn, justifies a violent reciprocity, crises only arise when there is a departure from the supposed plan and agreement in conformity with societal norms and standards. Crisis, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2010), is a period of extreme danger, difficulty, or confusion when significant choices must be taken. It's also the moment at which a problem or condition is thought to be at its most severe. In other terms, a crisis is a turning point in a series of events that definitively determines the course of those events or circumstances, for better or for worse. "specific, unexpected, and non-routine incidents or sequence of events that (cause) significant degrees of uncertainty and danger or perceived threat to an organization's top priority objectives," as defined by Seeger, Sellnow, and Ulmer (1998), are the four hallmarks of a crisis. This means that the first three properties of the event are that it is: 1, Unanticipated (i.e., a surprise) 2) It raises questions. Third, it poses a danger to fundamental aims. Reason No. 4 for Alteration To call the event a success if there is no need for transformation is misleading. While certain crises, such as volcanic eruptions or tsunamis, are beyond human control, the vast majority of problems we confront are of human origin. Therefore, the need of their being "unexpected" hinges on the fact that human beings tend to ignore the emergence of critical situations. Denial and other psychological reactions that give solace and safety for our emotions contribute to our incapacity to detect crises before they become serious. Other times, individuals miss the beginnings of crises because they let themselves be fooled into doing things for the wrong reasons. Simply said, individuals are acting in the wrong ways with the best intentions. It's possible, for instance, that we may think we're addressing the dangers posed by climate change by participating in commercial trade activity that has no discernible effect on the environment. However, according to Aja (2009), at times of crisis, parties may increase their use of light weapons, have meetings at odd hours, and engage in unusual patterns of mobility. In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (1968), Wiener and Kahn listed twelve typical aspects to crises: (1) A crisis may mark a pivotal juncture in an otherwise linear progression of events. (2) In a time of crisis, everyone involved must move quickly. Third, the participants' aims and ambitions are threatened by the crisis. (4) The crisis is resolved, and then something significant happens whose outcomes affect the individuals' futures. (5) A crisis is a new situation brought about by a confluence of events. Sixth, during a crisis, it is difficult to appraise the situation and come up with viable solutions. Seven) In times of crisis, our ability to influence outcomes is diminished. Anxiety and tension are common responses to the heightened sense of urgency that accompanies a crisis. (9). A crisis is a situation in which the information available to the players is very sparse. Ten) Time constraints are exacerbated in a crisis. (11), Relationships among people shift during a crisis. Twelve) People involved in the crisis are more likely to be on edge, and this is particularly true with political crises that involve many countries. 2.2.2 Concept of Incessant Crisis When anything has a decimal that keeps repeating, it gets annoying. Since the settlement pattern in the region of study enables for communities to be interwoven, a crisis develops when the parties involved make it a habit to identify grounds for a conflict of interest and of property ownership. In other words, constant crisis is and always has been an ongoing disagreement between individuals who share fundamental traits and other commonalities. 2.2.3 Concept of Development Here is how Hassan and Oyebamiji (2012) break down the idea of progress: The term "physical development" has expanded to include not only the distribution of resources (such as land and money) but also the supply of services (such as drinkable water, electricity, schools, primary health clinics, roads, bridges, and recreational facilities). Supply of resources including money, plants, and implements, as well as instruction on their use The second step is to define progress entirely in terms of per capita income increase, which we call "economic development." The third level of development relates to the individual who is the direct recipient of the previous two levels. At this stage, progress is being made with the individual in mind rather than the accumulation of stuff. In addition, the development and expansion of his country's economy do not fall within this category. At this point, development is seen as a means by which one's character is molded in such a way that he or she is able to plan for and implement his or her own personal growth in accordance with the aforementioned resources. Similarly, Alen and Akinpelu in Hassan & Oyebamiji (2012) write that development is not simply a matter of planning or technical assistance, and of building dams and of providing tractors to farmers or new boats to fishermen, but that development is about education and training at the heart of its changing attitudes. Final accomplishment of this phase is the alteration of individual character. Here, learning is crucial. According to Onyeozu (2007), development is a multi-faceted process that requires a whole rethinking of the nation's social, economic, and cultural structures. He argues that in order to increase productivity and living standards, fundamental changes in society's norms, values, and systems of governance must take place. Similarly, Rogers in Oyebamiji and Adekola (2008) argue that development is a process of intentional change that requires two primary components: planning and execution. The term "activity" refers to the mobilization and sensitization of community members to take positive steps to improve their living situations, while "planning" emphasizes that development is aimed at guiding the process of change in the society with stated objectives. According to Ebong (1991), development should be evaluated using a broader set of metrics than just those related to changes in aggregate variables, production statistics, per capita income, and quality of life. According to Onokerkoraye and Okafor (1994), development is the process through which a society steadily improves its material well-being. According to Ezeh (1999), growth takes occur when there is a positive change in standing through time. 2.2.4 Concept of Community The term "community" is defined as "the sense of sharing things with and belonging to a group in one's locality" in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2010). Anyanwu (1992) shares this view, stressing the importance of the physical boundaries of a community as the major social group that exists within a more or less defined geographical area and is founded on the feelings that individuals have for one another. Community is defined in a variety of ways by experts in many disciplines of study. Ojoko (2001) defines a community as a group of people who live in the same area and who have some kind of shared interest, background, or ambitions. This means that a certain group of individuals must have a shared culture and strive for the same objectives. According to Deekor and Nnodim (2005), a community is a collection of people who share cultural traits such as a language, a manner of wearing and eating, a method of interacting socially, a set of customary rules, a common profession, and musical styles. According to Ihejirika (2007), a community consists of "a collection of individuals who have a common understanding of one another and who cooperate to attain predetermined goals." What this means is that in order for a group to be considered a community, its members must be exposed to the whole, or at least a large portion, of the culture. "a territorially restricted social structure within which individuals live, having shared social, economic, and cultural aspects," as stated by Frankenberg in Onyeozu (2007). The aforementioned concept of community went beyond a focus on location to include take into account a level of commonality in socioeconomic and cultural factors. According to Oyebamiji and Adekola (2008), a community is a group of people living in close proximity to one another who are dependent on one another and who work together to create and maintain specialized institutions that supply the full range of goods and services required to achieve shared goals and ensure the community's continued existence. The following were outlined as essential features of a community by Oni and Bello in Toruten (2011). 1) Any amount of population Size-independent geographical restrictions (point 2) 3) Shared difficulties or traits in areas social and economic, such as wealth or lack thereof, industrialization or agriculture, a dearth of or plenty of infrastructure, sociability or apathy. 4) A shared sense of identity or community that fosters progress toward shared objectives, such as improving living conditions for all residents. But there are other forms of social organization to explore. Osuji distinguished between Germeinschaft and Gessellschaft in the work of Oyebamiji and Adekola (2008). He elaborated that the term "Gemeninschaft" is used to describe a community of individuals who share a sense of belonging due to their shared history, culture, and blood ties. It is characterized by shared norms, ideals, and a social order that everyone adheres to. Contrarily, a Gessellschaft is a group of friends or associates that work together. The atmosphere is more formal, with interactions governed by hierarchical structures. groups like PTAs, co-ops, and university student groups all fall under this category. However, rural and urban communities are the two primary sorts. 2.2.5 Concept of Community Development To enhance the quality of life for local residents of all ages, community development entails pooling available resources (both human and material) within a specific area. The donors and recipients who care about the welfare of the community and work to ensure its survival into the future may be the ones to launch or bolster such initiatives. Ugwu in Ugwu and Mbalisi (2016) defines community development as an initiative by locals (indigenous people) or interested organizations (non-natives) to plan for the future success of their area. Community development, as defined by Jarvis (1990), is "the process of improving the social, economic, political, and educational life of a physically delineated region," which is often accomplished via community action, community education, and development education. As Anyanwu (1999) emphasized, community development is a process of determining where a community has difficulties, what can be done about those problems, and how to best meet the requirements of that community. The following are some of the perspectives on community development that Hamilton and Cunningham (1986) put forth: Community building is an ongoing process that focuses on the bonds formed between individuals as a consequence of their interactions. People gather because they want to share ideas and have a voice in solving problems. Members get a deeper understanding of the issues at hand, maximize the use of available local resources to address those concerns, and take charge of coordinating any outside aid they may need. The process of community development places a premium on the emotional impact it has on locals as they broaden their network of contacts for educational purposes. This approach is goal-oriented, with the end result being the improvement of a neighborhood or other geographical area. In many cases, it reveals the practices of a particular cult or belief system. Government agencies in the fields of health, education, sanitation, social services, and related fields often hire subject-matter specialists to help with highly specialized programming. Community development, as a movement, is defined as an effort to encourage and support the initiative, self-help, and other resources and services that encourage and assist the improvement of economic, physical, and social conditions in a community in order to raise standards of living. During community growth, neighbors band together to solve everyday problems via cooperative effort. This kind of bottom-up, community-driven activity often leads to improvements in all aspects of residents' lives. According to Ezimah (2004), community development is a "process of special action" in which community members "organize themselves for planning and action; define their common needs and problems; make group and individual plans to meet those needs and resolve those problems; execute those plans with maximum reliance on community resources; and supplement those resources, when necessary, with sources and materials from government and non-governmental agencies." According to Nwangwu (2001), community development is the process through which locals (indigenous people) and interested organizations (non-natives) work together to create a plan for the community's future that will improve its quality of life. According to Paul and Alice (2001), "community development" is the process by which locals take charge of their neighborhoods to improve their economic, physical, and social conditions. According to the Center for Environment, Human Rights, and Development (2012), community development is most effective when it is in response to local initiatives and aspirations, when it helps to improve the community's basic economic and social conditions, and when a large number of people can see the positive effects of the effort's swift, highimpact implementation. 2.2.6 Forms of Incessant Crisis A lot of people die, a lot of buildings burn down, a lot of money is lost on investments, a lot of people go hungry, a lot of people go to war, a lot of people go on strike, and a lot of other social and economic problems arise as a consequence of these crises. Given the frequency of eruptions, almost all of the region under investigation is at risk of some kind of constant community disaster. Thus, there are a variety of shapes that constant crises might take. Issues of I illegal oil bunkering, ii) chieftainship struggles, and iii) cult rivalry Insurgency amongst the young vs. territorial conflicts 2.2.7 Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas, both major oil producers, have been hit hard by illicit oil bunkering in recent years, losing an estimated number of dollars' worth of oil each day in addition to countless deaths. As a result, major pipeline damage occurs, which in turn leads to pollution and production halts at businesses. Theft or sabotage of crude oil, infrastructure, or equipment (including pipeline vandalism, fuel scooping, illicit refining, transportation, and oil terrorism) is also referred to as "illegal bunkering," another name for crude oil theft. The most prevalent kind of oil theft is called "illegal oil bunkering," and it includes the actual tapping of oil. A breach of the Nigerian Marine Sector and the rules provided by the statutory institutions surrounding it constitutes unlawful oil bunkering, despite the fact that oil bunkering is a necessary for maritime commerce inside the maritime sector. Oil bunkering is the shipping industry's name for the sale of gasoline from ships specifically suited to carry out this operation, also known as the transfer of fuel from one ship to another (heavy, medium and light fuel, gas oil and marine diesel) After being established in Nigeria in 1979 while permits were given by the DPR, bunkering was suspended in 2000 because to the government's subsidy on petroleum products, which Fatai (2014) claims provided operators with windfall earnings that did not reach the government. In the hands of young people who lack the maturity to manage the complexities of the refining processes, illegal bunkering may become a never-ending disaster. As a result of increased water pollution, fire breakouts, etc., the riverbanks become hazardous for both aquatic life and humans. However, Nigerian Navy (2013) described the effects of illicit bunkering as a kind of ongoing issue, which include: Impacts of Unauthorized Oil Storage on the Environment ii. The Social Consequences of Unauthorized Oil Storage Potential Effects of Unauthorized Oil Storage on Human Health Effects of Illegal Oil Bunkering on Governmental Structures and Procedures The Effects of Unauthorized Oil Bunkering on the Environment 1) Oil spills due to illegal bunkering, in particular the hacking of pipelines and the operations of illicit refineries, is a major contributor to environmental deterioration since it results in the uncontrolled release of Carbon into the atmosphere. When oil leaks into the ground, it poisons the water supply, ruins farmland, kills fish and cattle, and speeds up the demise of mangrove forests. Two) The Effects on Society from Unauthorized Oil Storage Even with the amnesty program instituted by the previous government, illegal oil bunkering and militancy continue to be a serious impediment to the Local Government Areas of Gokana and Eleme. Governments, institutions, and businesses have thus disregarded their duty to the region. Another concerning development is the growing number of school-aged children who are being denied access to formal education and aspiration by various militant groups who see them as potential recruits for their illegal trade, thereby introducing them to a criminal lifestyle marked by crisis and restlessness, adolescent parenthood, and anti-social tendencies. Thirdly, Potential Health Effects of Unauthorized Oil Storage The health situation in the Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State is worsening, and illegal oil bunkering is a major contributor. Malaria, diarrhea, and other waterborne illnesses have all been linked to the improper disposal or treatment of liquid, solid waste and residues from dumps, which contaminate domestic water supplies; another percentage of the illnesses in this region's population can be traced back to uncontrolled emissions and flaring, which cause respiratory illnesses. Fourthly, the effects of illegal oil bunkering on government administration Our administration faces increased pressure to safeguard Nigeria's credibility and image with other countries and multinational groupings as a result of the worldwide spotlight being shone on the country as a result of numerous activities of crude oil theft and illegal bunkering. An even bigger part of this illicit oil traffic is likely being coordinated and controlled by warlords, who then resort to weapons dealing and agreements with criminal groups to guarantee supply and protection for their local gangs. Reasons for Illegal Oil Bunkering The following are the causes of illegal oil bunkering in the research region that have been identified so far: 1. a robust underground economy Ignorance, illiteracy, underemployment, bribery, corruption, outside markets for illicit oil, and a lack of resources all play a role. VIII. unemployment Answers to the Problem of Illegal Oil Bunkering I. Raising public awareness of crude oil theft and encouraging collaboration between citizens, industry leaders, and law enforcement at all levels (both locally and internationally) Allowing laws, specialized courts, and expedited prosecution of criminals and their enablers Third, there must be accounting for oil theft by careful tracking and disclosure of relevant financial data. Crude oil fingerprinting and other standardized scientific processes should be used as industry standards. Assuring that security agencies have the money, tools, and supplies they need to do their jobs Consistent and well-planned participation by all relevant parties (Section VI) Free vocational training provided Section VII: More jobs made available Section VIII: Programs that help people learn new skills IX. Empowerment Community Development in Rivers State's Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas: Effects of Persistent Crisis and Possible Solutions 2.2.14 State Morris and Onu (2009) provide a concise summary of the several approaches that may be taken to lessen the effects of a continuing crisis: One definition of negotiation is "the process through which two or more parties in actual or prospective disagreement or conflict strive to achieve a consensual decision on subjects of common concern." In mediation, a neutral third party acts as a facilitator to assist parties work out their differences and make plans for a transaction, but does not have the authority to enforce a decision. Third, conciliation refers to a kind of conflict resolution in which the disputing parties are not physically present with one another, like mediation. That way, the mediator may approach each party involved in the peacemaking gesture with a level of diplomacy that would otherwise be difficult to achieve. Fourth, facilitation refers to the use of an outsider to aid in the coordination of a group's activities, function as a facilitator during a meeting, or aid in the management of conflict and the efficient arrival at a conclusion. On a scale from light group coordination and meeting management to heavy multi-party conflict resolution, the facilitator's position may be thought of as a point along that scale. Fifth, "adjudication" refers to the process by which a dispute is resolved, which may take place in a court of law, before an administrative or quasi-judicial tribunal, a commission constituted by the appropriate authorities, or before an arbitrator. The adjudicator's ruling is final, binding, and enforceable upon the parties to the dispute. Sixth, in non-binding arbitrations, the parties present their case to a neutral third party who makes a decision or suggestion, offers assistance, and encourages the parties to settle their dispute. Strategies for Preventing Recurrent Crises that Stifle Community Growth in the Gokana and Eleme LGAs of Rivers State 2.2.15 Agriculture, irrigation, rural industries, education, health, housing, social welfare, youth, roads, women's programming, employment, cooperatives, and training of leaders are all vital parts of community development plans, as stated by Zuofa (2004). Therefore, according to Uchechukwu Nnaike (2016), the lack of development in the knowledge economies of least developed countries; huge migrant populations; and the lack of well- equipped Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) centers to provide young workers with high-quality and in-demand skills are all contributing factors. He listed corruption, examination malpractices, advance fee fraud (419), cultism, drug and child trafficking, militancy and insurgency as some of the negative outcomes of high youth unemployment alongside armed robbery, kidnapping, a sharp rise in prostitution, street begging, hawking, cyber-crimes, and the proliferation of "baby manufacturing" dens. He suggested that in order to fix the problem, Nigeria should promote technologies and innovative learning and teaching methods; vigorously pursue public-private partnership in virtually all areas of our economy; connect youth with the labor market (exposing them to career and entrepreneurship meetings or workshops); and build skills that are appropriate and effective for the 21st century and close the skills gap between community development and the world of work. Scholarship programs, staff exchanges, assessment, and incubator/accelerator centers should all be developed or implemented via collaborations between businesses and community organizations so that more people, particularly young people, may learn the skills necessary to become entrepreneurs. It is important to investigate the possibility of establishing centers for industry and institutional interaction for the purposes of technology transfer and the development of an entrepreneurial mindset. 2.3 Review of Related Empirical Studies Using Plateau State as a case study, Agu, Amujuri, and Okwo (2009) investigated the factors contributing to and repercussions of religiously motivated violence on national progress. Eight hundred (800) people were chosen at random to participate in the study and asked eleven research questions. They come from nine LGAs in Plateau State, Nigeria, and include 400 males and 400 girls, each making up 50% of the total. Percentages, means, and standard deviations were used to assess the responses to the survey. According to the findings, national growth is stymied by ethno-religious crises, which are in turn exacerbated by social, political, and economic issues. This is relevant to the current research since it also looked at how a national crisis affected economic growth. The two studies are not comparable, however, since the former covers a wider geographical region while the latter has a smaller sample size. Babatunde Moreso (2009) investigated Oil Exploitation and Conflict in Ilaje Ondo State, Nigeria, which is located in the Niger-Delta. One hundred (100) participants were asked to reply to three research questions, and their opinions were gathered via conversations in focus groups. Pearson Chi Square (x2) and a 5% threshold of significance were utilized to analyze the data and draw conclusions. The major findings showed that the discovery of oil in the Ileja subgroups had broken the historical bond between the communities and sown discord between them as a result of the oil companies' preferential treatment of some communities over others in terms of compensation, reparation, community development projects, and employment opportunities. In its last section, the report argues for the need of enacting realistic and pragmatic regulations to mitigate the detrimental effects of oil extraction on oil and gas producing towns. In addition, it was suggested that oil firms avoid using divide-and-rule strategies in oil and gas producing towns, since this contributes to the proliferation of violence in the region. Due of its similar emphasis on potential Niger Delta conflict triggers, this report is relevant to the current investigation. However, the current study differs from the preceding ones in many key respects, including the instrument used for data collecting (as in, focus groups) and the location of the research. Albert (2011) investigated the impact of land disputes on community strife in South Western Nigeria. The investigation was based on fifteen research questions. Eight villages with a history of inter-communal violence were chosen for the survey, with questionnaires sent to 10% of all households in the area. The sample size for the study was 721 people (721). Data were analyzed using the Chi-Square (X2) test. The majority of locals blame land disputes for regional tensions, according to the study's findings. According to the research, most of the region's disputes probably occurred because of the government's lax control over the land there. This research is similar to the current one in that it investigates the root reasons of community strife, but it employs a different methodology and set of statistical tools to reach its conclusions. 2.4 Synopsis of Existing Research Some people want to avoid crises at all costs for fear of hurt feelings and retaliation. Crises, however, are an inevitable element of being human, since all societies have inherent contradictions that inevitably lead to disruptions in social harmony. In this chapter, we took a look back at the relevant literature to examine the main factors of the topic. Community development and related concepts were discussed in this chapter, as they were seen as important for achieving the chapter's overarching goal of helping readers understand that efforts to bring about positive changes in society, especially at the subnational level, are highly unlikely to succeed in the face of violent crisis. The idea of the conflict trap established the fact that there is a high likelihood of another crisis erupting, and as a result, criminal behavior is more likely to occur, hindering the possibility of community growth. On the other hand, the structural conflict theory explains why and how disputes arise in social groups. Additional insights into the root causes of war were supplied by this idea. In spite of this, it has been made abundantly clear that community growth is impossible without harmonious cohabitation. Illegal oil bunkering, Chieftaincy tussles, Cult Rivalries, Youth Unrest, and Land/Boundary Disputes were all regarded to be types of crises that present in the studied locations. Community development, agricultural extension education, literacy education, rural industry development, and health promotion initiatives were also examined, alongside the reasons of the Incessant Crisis, the notion of development, the concept of community, and the concept of community development. The chapter also explored in depth the effects of the ongoing crises on community development in the Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. Later, experts' thoughts, perspectives, and observations on how to reduce the frequency and severity of crises via Community Development became relevant as a topic for discussion. Based on the preceding, it is clear that war is bad news for everyone. Conflict resolution strategies were analyzed throughout the evaluation to better inform the management of societal conflicts. However, more work has to be done to elaborate the concept and knowledge of the consequences of crises on community development, therefore the current efforts cannot be said to be an entire and definitive study of the subject matter. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design For this study, researchers mostly relied on a descriptive survey approach. Nwankwo (2010) explains that the goal of a descriptive survey is to provide the facts as they were discovered throughout the study process. The results of descriptive survey research are extrapolated from a small data set to apply to the full population. In order to characterize and clarify the effects of the persistent crises on community development in the Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State, this study utilized this research approach. 3.2 Research Population Humans are not the only potential subjects; everything that is the focus of the research may be included in the sample. Two thousand eight hundred (2,800) members of twenty (20) community-based organizations (social organizations, community development committees, local government departments, non-governmental organizations, and others) in Gokana and Eleme local government areas of Rivers State made up the study's population. Table 3.1 Population of the Study Distribution of Membership of Community Based Organizations in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State S/N Community Based Organizations Communities/LGA Population of members 1 Gokana Youth Council Gokana 400 2 Leboonalo Kegbara Dere Reality Farmers Kegbara Dere 120 3 Kagote Gokana 80 4 Community Development Committee Biara 120 5 National Union of Gokana Students Gokana 270 6 Deeyor Tertiary Student Union Deeyor 160 7 Kibaagha Traders Corporative Gokana 75 8 Community Development Committee Deken 10 9 Bodo Council of Chief Bodo 15 10 Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People Nwe-ol 150 Gokana Total 1400 Eleme 1 Eleme Youth Council Eleme 260 2 National Union of Eleme Students Eleme 408 3 Civil Society Network on HIV/AIDS (CISNAN) Eleme 160 4 Community Development Committee Ogale 10 5 Onne Graduate Council Onne 270 6 Community Development Committee Ebubu 12 7 Community Development Committee Aleto 84 8 Community Development Committee Alode 12 9 Community Development Committee Nchia 120 10 Community Development Committee Agbeta 64 Total 1400 Grand Total 2,800 Source: Respective Community Based Organization’s Membership Register, 2016 3 Sample and Sampling Technique The study adopted proportionate sampling technique of which fifty percent (50%) of the population in each of the 20 community based organizations were randomly selected. Table 3.2 below shows the composition and distribution of the sampled population. Table 3.2 The Composition of the Sample and the Distribution L.G.As Youth organizations Population members Gokana Gokana Youth Council 400 200 Leboonalo Kegbara Dere Reality Farmers 120 60 Kagote 80 40 Community Development Committee 120 60 National Union of Gokana Students 270 134 Deeyor Tertiary Student Union 160 80 Kibaagha Traders Corporative 75 38 Community Development Committee Deken 10 5 Bodo Council of Chief 15 8 Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People 150 75 1400 700 Eleme Youth Council 260 130 National Union of Eleme Students 408 204 Total Eleme of Selected (50%) sample Civil Society Network on HIV/AIDS (CISNAN) 160 80 Community Development Committee Ogale 10 5 Onne Graduate Forum Onne 270 135 Community Development Committee Ebubu 12 6 Community Development Committee Aleto 84 42 Community Development Committee Alode 12 6 Community Development Committee Nchia 120 60 Community Development CommitteeAgbeta 64 32 Total 1400 700 Grand Total 2,800 1,400 3.4 Instrumentation Information was gathered by an oral interview with the illiterate and a standardized questionnaire termed "Questionnaire on Impacts of Incessant Crisis on Community Development" (QIICCDEP). These strategies were used to encourage honest responses from participants regarding demographic information (such as age, marital status, and education level) and other study variables. Strongly Agree [SA], Agree [A], Disagree [D], and Strongly Disagree [SD] were the four (4) point likert scales used in the questionnaire. There were parts A and B to the questionnaire. In Section A, we asked respondents to provide some basic biographical information, including their age, gender, education level, employment status, and general familiarity with the neighborhood. The respondent's degree of engagement and knowledge on the Impact of Persistent Crisis on Community Development is detailed in Section B. 3.5 Validity of the Instrument Before administering the research instrument, the researcher had it reviewed by his supervisor and two other community development specialists from the University of Port Harcourt's Department of Adult and Non-formal Education for face and content validity. 3.6 Reliability of the Instrument Before administering the research instrument, the researcher had it reviewed by his supervisor and two other community development specialists from the University of Port Harcourt's Department of Adult and Non-formal Education for face and content validity. 3.7 Method of Data Collection The researcher used two research assistants from the two different local government regions to aid with the administration of the instrument. Participants in the study's community-based groups' meetings were given one of 1,400 questionnaires. 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Port Harcourt: Hisis Press. APPENDIX I Department of Adult and Non-formal Education, Faculty of Education, School of Graduate Studies, University of Port Harcourt Choba, Port Harcourt. Dear Madam/Sir QUESTIONNAIRE ON IMPACTS OF INCESSANT CRISIS ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN GOKANA AND ELEME LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF RIVERS STATE (QIICCDEP) I am a post graduate student of the afore named institution, the enclosed questionnaire is in respect to my research project which deals with The Impacts of Incessant Crisis on Community Development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State. The research is purely academic and any information provided will be kept strictly confidential. Thanks for your anticipated co-operation! Yours Faithfully, Tabah Emmanuel G2014/MED/AN/FT/393 SECTION A Personal Data: Instruction: Please tick { } in the appropriate area as it applies to you. 1. Sex Male { } Female { } 2. Age category Below 30 years { } 31 – 40 years { } 46 – 59 years { } 60 & above { } 3. Marital status Single { } Married { } Divorced/ Widow { } 4. Educational qualification O’level { } OND, NCE, { } HND, BSc, B.A { } M.A, MSc, MBA, Ph.D { } Professional qualification { } 5. Occupation Civil Servant { } Trading { } Farming { } Fishing { } Others { } 6. Position of respondents Community Youth Leader { } Community Chief { } Member CDC { } Women group { } Others { } 7. Knowledge of the community Excellent { } Good { } Average { } Below average { } Poor { } SECTION B INSTRUCTION: please tick { } one of the spaces, provided the option corresponds to your opinion in any of the question. Where: SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree D = Disagree SD = Strongly Disagree RQ1: What are the Prevalent Forms of Crises Experienced in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? S/No Statement Response 1. Illegal oil bunkering is the most prevalent form SA of incessant crisis in the community 2. One of the most disastrous form of community crisis is Chieftaincy tussle 3. Crisis in the community often come in the form of cult rivalries 4. Youth restiveness is one of the commonest forms of community crisis 5. Land/boundary disputes shapes the community into violent conflict more than other forms of incessant crisis A D SD RQ2 What are the Possible Causes of Incessant Crises in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? S/No Statement Response 1. Mismanagement of limited resources is the SA cause of crisis 2. One of the major causes of community crisis is the alarming rate of unemployment 3. Ignorance among various groups communities causes community crisis 4. Proliferation of small arms and light weapons causes crisis 5. The cause community crisis is nothing but boundary disputes and land ownership A D and RQ3 What are the Impacts of Incessant Crises on Community Development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? S/No Statement Response SD 1. Conflicts bring about destructive and foul SA languages that discourage cordial relationship for community development process. 2. Communities facing violent conflict often suffer from some psychological and physiological consequences which affect attitudes and behaviours to community participation 3. Conflict situation is capable of creating more violence in the community whereby human and material resources necessary for community improvement are wantonly destroyed. 4. Crisis situation produces immediate effect of movement restrictions on persons for development programmes 5. Fear of being attacked coupled with already tensed situation in the community is responsible for inadequate participation in community development programmes. A D RQ4 What are the Strategies for Curbing Incessant Crises that Impact on Community Development in Gokana and Eleme Local Government Areas of Rivers State? S/No Statement Response SD 1. Well-equipped technical and vocational SA education and training centres to provide young workers with high quality and in-demand skills would be a panacea to challenges posed by crisis 2. Free agricultural education and incentives could help to curb youth restiveness 3. Promoting technological and innovative learning and teaching methods would be a remedy to the impact of crisis 4. Connecting youths with the labour market by exposing them to career and entrepreneurship meetings and workshops would curb the impact of crisis on community development 5. Education for wealth creation help to curb the negative impact of crisis A D SD