Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Advances in Space Research 42 (2008) 235–237
www.elsevier.com/locate/asr
Journey to the Moon: Recent results, science,
future robotic and human exploration
Bernard H. Foing a,*, Pascale Ehrenfreund b
a
ILEWG Executive Director and ESTEC/SCI-S, Postbus 299, 2200 AG Noordwijk, The Netherlands
b
Leiden University, P.O. Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
Received 11 January 2008; received in revised form 26 February 2008; accepted 11 March 2008
Abstract
The upcoming fleet of lunar missions, and the announcement of new lunar exploration initiatives, show an exciting ‘‘Journey to the
Moon”, covering recent results, science, future robotic and human exploration. We review some of the questions, findings and perspectives given in the papers included in this issue of Advances in Space Research.
Ó 2008 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ILEWG; Moon; SMART-1; Lunar exploration; Lunar science
1. From SMART-1 to the next steps of exploration
Lunar science investigations include studies of the chemical composition of the Moon, of geophysical processes
(volcanism, tectonics, cratering, erosion, polar regions)
for comparative planetology, and high resolution studies
in preparation for future steps of lunar exploration. The
missions address several topics such as the accretional processes that led to the formation of rocky planets, and the
origin and evolution of the Earth–Moon system.
SMART-1 was the first of Small Missions for Advanced
Research and Technology as part of the ESA science programme ‘‘Cosmic Vision”. Its objective was to demonstrate
Solar Electric Primary Propulsion (SEP) for future cornerstones (such as Bepi-Colombo) and to test new technologies for spacecraft and instruments. The spacecraft was
launched on 27 Sept. 2003, as an Ariane-5 auxiliary passenger, and spiraled out towards lunar capture on 15 November 2004. It then spiraled down towards lunar science orbit
(300–3000 km) until March 2005. The SMART-1 mission
orbited the Moon for a nominal period of six months, with
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Bernard.Foing@esa.int (B.H. Foing).
one year extension until end of mission impact on 3 September 2006. The spacecraft carried out a complete program of technology and science measurements. There was
an experiment (KaTE) aimed at demonstrating deep-space
telemetry and telecommand communications in the X and
Ka-bands, a radio-science experiment (RSIS), a deep space
optical link (laser-link experiment), and the validation of a
system of autonomous navigation (OBAN). For lunar science, the payload included a miniaturized high-resolution
camera (AMIE) for lunar surface imaging, a near-infrared
point-spectrometer (SIR) for lunar mineralogy investigation, and a very compact X-ray spectrometer (D-CIXS)
with a new type of detector and micro-collimator which
provided fluorescence spectroscopy and imagery of the
Moon’s surface elemental composition.
2. Upcoming fleet of lunar orbiters and landers
Launched on 14 September 2007, the Kaguya spacecraft
was inserted in lunar elliptical orbit with apolune altitude
13,000 km on 18th September. Kaguya was injected into
the 100 km orbit on 4 October, a great event to celebrate
50 years of space age. After the mother spacecraft released
two small satellites for data relay and gravity (RSAT and
0273-1177/$34.00 Ó 2008 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.asr.2008.03.011
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B.H. Foing, P. Ehrenfreund / Advances in Space Research 42 (2008) 235–237
VRAD), and a two-month period of successful check-out
of the 14 instruments, the mission entered its nominal operations phase on 21 December.
Launched on 24 October 2007 by CNSA, Chang’e-1 represents the first step in the Chinese ambition to land robotic
explorers on the Moon before 2020. It operates from a low,
circular lunar orbit, just 200 km above the surface. ESA is
collaborating with the Chinese on this mission by providing ground operations support services.
To be launched in spring 2008, Chandrayaan-1 will be the
first Indian scientific mission leaving Earth’s vicinity. It will
study the Moon in great detail. Europe is supplying three
instruments for the mission, for the first collaborative space
mission with the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO). The USA is providing two instruments.
The US Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is due to
be launched around 28 October 2008, together with the
LCROSS impactor. LRO has for objectives to finding safe
landing sites, locate potential resources, characterize the
radiation environment, and demonstrate new technology.
It is the first mission in NASA’s Vision for Space Exploration, a plan to return to the moon and then to travel to
Mars and beyond.
The objectives of the Lunar Crater Observation and
Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) include confirming the presence or absence of water ice in a permanently shadowed
crater at either the Moon’s north or south pole.
A number of concept studies for lunar landers have been
conducted. The goal is to demonstrate lunar landing, survival and exploration technologies for the future, geochemical studies of the piles, and search for ice in permanent
shadows. They defined the top objectives, mission analysis,
design and associated lander and rover, the possible payload complement in discussion with the community.
Finally, they discuss the required advances in planetary
robotics, required for both the polar lunar lander and for
the sample return missions.
3. Reports on COSPAR sessions and the International Lunar
Exploration Working Group (ILEWG) activities:
The COSPAR scientific session on ‘‘The Moon: recent
results, science, future robotic and human exploration”, at
the Beijing 2006 COSPAR assembly, took place on 20 July
and 21 July, a proper date to celebrate the Apollo 11 landing
anniversary. The programme covered the following aspects:
New views of the Moon: recent results and science questions (four talks and 12 poster presentations).
SMART-1 technology and science highlights (eight talks
and two poster presentations).
Next orbiters: Selene, Chandrayaan-1 (10 talks, three
posters).
Chang’E1 (two talks and eight posters).
Lunar reconnaissance (six talks).
Future lunar landers, rovers and technologies (four
talks, five posters presentations).
Astronomy from the Moon, radiation, environment,
resources (three talks, five posters).
Future international lunar robotic and human exploration (five talks, two posters).
International lunar exploration space agencies panel (six
talks).
ILEWG round table and final discussion.
The session was co-sponsored by ESA, NASA, JAXA,
ISRO, CNSA, ILEWG, IAU, IAF, and COSPAR’s Space
Life Sciences scientific commission and the Panel on Planetary Protection. With 49 oral presentations and 37 posters, the Beijing session attracted a high number of
participants around 100 (even more than the Mars session
it partly overlapped) with good opportunities for information exchange and collaboration.
As debated by tasks groups within the ILEWG forum,
and in previous ASR issues (see Foing (1994), Foing
et al. (1996), Ip et al. (1999), Foing and Heather (2002),
Duke (2003), Ehrenfreund et al. (2006)), there are various
relevant aspects for future exploration:
Science opportunities: clues on the formation and evolution of rocky planets, accretion and bombardment in the
inner solar system, comparative planetology processes (tectonic, volcanic, impact cratering, volatile delivery); records
of astrobiology, survival of organics; astronomy and space
science; past, present and future life; early Earth samples.
New instrumentation: Remote sensing miniaturised
instruments; surface geophysical and geochemistry package; instrument deployment and robotic arm, nano-rover,
sampling, drilling; sample finder and collector.
Technologies for robotic and human exploration: these
include Mecha-electronics-sensors; tele control, telepresence, virtual reality; regional mobility rover; atonomy
and navigation; artificially intelligent robots, complex systems, man-machine interface and performances.
Living off the land: Establishment of permanent robotic
infrastructures, environmental protection aspects; solutions to global Earth sustained development; life sciences
laboratories; support to human exploration; permanent
lunar settlements.
4. Advances in space research: lunar science and exploration
This issue of Advances in Space Research includes a
selection of papers on Lunar Science and Exploration.
The issue starts with a series of reports to COSPAR from
the International Lunar Exploration Working Group
(ILEWG), and by the Lunar Declarations approved by
the participants to the ILEWG International Conferences
on Exploration and Utilisation of the Moon (ICEUM) in
Udaipur (2004), Toronto (2005), Beijing (2006) and Sorrento (2007). Then a series of lunar science papers describe
various aspects: Lunar International Science Coordination/Calibration Targets; Topography; Composition and
Mineralogy studies. In the following section are given
reports on upcoming missions: an overview of the Japanese
B.H. Foing, P. Ehrenfreund / Advances in Space Research 42 (2008) 235–237
lunar mission SELENE: science goals and present status,
with individual papers on instruments (such as multiband
imager, X-ray spectrometer, high-resolution terrain camera, laser altimeter, gamma-ray spectrometer, lunar gravity
field studies). Papers from Chang’E1 Chinese mission
describe the gamma-ray sensor, and the microwave detector. Concerning future missions, descriptions of lunar landers studies, navigation and landing, sensors and drilling
systems are discussed.
The articles underwent extensive refereeing process. We
thank the colleagues listed at the end of this issue who
served as reviewers for the submitted manuscripts.
237
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