Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Advances in Space Research 42 (2008) 235–237 www.elsevier.com/locate/asr Journey to the Moon: Recent results, science, future robotic and human exploration Bernard H. Foing a,*, Pascale Ehrenfreund b a ILEWG Executive Director and ESTEC/SCI-S, Postbus 299, 2200 AG Noordwijk, The Netherlands b Leiden University, P.O. Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Received 11 January 2008; received in revised form 26 February 2008; accepted 11 March 2008 Abstract The upcoming fleet of lunar missions, and the announcement of new lunar exploration initiatives, show an exciting ‘‘Journey to the Moon”, covering recent results, science, future robotic and human exploration. We review some of the questions, findings and perspectives given in the papers included in this issue of Advances in Space Research. Ó 2008 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: ILEWG; Moon; SMART-1; Lunar exploration; Lunar science 1. From SMART-1 to the next steps of exploration Lunar science investigations include studies of the chemical composition of the Moon, of geophysical processes (volcanism, tectonics, cratering, erosion, polar regions) for comparative planetology, and high resolution studies in preparation for future steps of lunar exploration. The missions address several topics such as the accretional processes that led to the formation of rocky planets, and the origin and evolution of the Earth–Moon system. SMART-1 was the first of Small Missions for Advanced Research and Technology as part of the ESA science programme ‘‘Cosmic Vision”. Its objective was to demonstrate Solar Electric Primary Propulsion (SEP) for future cornerstones (such as Bepi-Colombo) and to test new technologies for spacecraft and instruments. The spacecraft was launched on 27 Sept. 2003, as an Ariane-5 auxiliary passenger, and spiraled out towards lunar capture on 15 November 2004. It then spiraled down towards lunar science orbit (300–3000 km) until March 2005. The SMART-1 mission orbited the Moon for a nominal period of six months, with * Corresponding author. E-mail address: Bernard.Foing@esa.int (B.H. Foing). one year extension until end of mission impact on 3 September 2006. The spacecraft carried out a complete program of technology and science measurements. There was an experiment (KaTE) aimed at demonstrating deep-space telemetry and telecommand communications in the X and Ka-bands, a radio-science experiment (RSIS), a deep space optical link (laser-link experiment), and the validation of a system of autonomous navigation (OBAN). For lunar science, the payload included a miniaturized high-resolution camera (AMIE) for lunar surface imaging, a near-infrared point-spectrometer (SIR) for lunar mineralogy investigation, and a very compact X-ray spectrometer (D-CIXS) with a new type of detector and micro-collimator which provided fluorescence spectroscopy and imagery of the Moon’s surface elemental composition. 2. Upcoming fleet of lunar orbiters and landers Launched on 14 September 2007, the Kaguya spacecraft was inserted in lunar elliptical orbit with apolune altitude 13,000 km on 18th September. Kaguya was injected into the 100 km orbit on 4 October, a great event to celebrate 50 years of space age. After the mother spacecraft released two small satellites for data relay and gravity (RSAT and 0273-1177/$34.00 Ó 2008 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2008.03.011 236 B.H. Foing, P. Ehrenfreund / Advances in Space Research 42 (2008) 235–237 VRAD), and a two-month period of successful check-out of the 14 instruments, the mission entered its nominal operations phase on 21 December. Launched on 24 October 2007 by CNSA, Chang’e-1 represents the first step in the Chinese ambition to land robotic explorers on the Moon before 2020. It operates from a low, circular lunar orbit, just 200 km above the surface. ESA is collaborating with the Chinese on this mission by providing ground operations support services. To be launched in spring 2008, Chandrayaan-1 will be the first Indian scientific mission leaving Earth’s vicinity. It will study the Moon in great detail. Europe is supplying three instruments for the mission, for the first collaborative space mission with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The USA is providing two instruments. The US Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is due to be launched around 28 October 2008, together with the LCROSS impactor. LRO has for objectives to finding safe landing sites, locate potential resources, characterize the radiation environment, and demonstrate new technology. It is the first mission in NASA’s Vision for Space Exploration, a plan to return to the moon and then to travel to Mars and beyond. The objectives of the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) include confirming the presence or absence of water ice in a permanently shadowed crater at either the Moon’s north or south pole. A number of concept studies for lunar landers have been conducted. The goal is to demonstrate lunar landing, survival and exploration technologies for the future, geochemical studies of the piles, and search for ice in permanent shadows. They defined the top objectives, mission analysis, design and associated lander and rover, the possible payload complement in discussion with the community. Finally, they discuss the required advances in planetary robotics, required for both the polar lunar lander and for the sample return missions. 3. Reports on COSPAR sessions and the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG) activities: The COSPAR scientific session on ‘‘The Moon: recent results, science, future robotic and human exploration”, at the Beijing 2006 COSPAR assembly, took place on 20 July and 21 July, a proper date to celebrate the Apollo 11 landing anniversary. The programme covered the following aspects:  New views of the Moon: recent results and science questions (four talks and 12 poster presentations).  SMART-1 technology and science highlights (eight talks and two poster presentations).  Next orbiters: Selene, Chandrayaan-1 (10 talks, three posters).  Chang’E1 (two talks and eight posters).  Lunar reconnaissance (six talks).  Future lunar landers, rovers and technologies (four talks, five posters presentations).  Astronomy from the Moon, radiation, environment, resources (three talks, five posters).  Future international lunar robotic and human exploration (five talks, two posters).  International lunar exploration space agencies panel (six talks).  ILEWG round table and final discussion. The session was co-sponsored by ESA, NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CNSA, ILEWG, IAU, IAF, and COSPAR’s Space Life Sciences scientific commission and the Panel on Planetary Protection. With 49 oral presentations and 37 posters, the Beijing session attracted a high number of participants around 100 (even more than the Mars session it partly overlapped) with good opportunities for information exchange and collaboration. As debated by tasks groups within the ILEWG forum, and in previous ASR issues (see Foing (1994), Foing et al. (1996), Ip et al. (1999), Foing and Heather (2002), Duke (2003), Ehrenfreund et al. (2006)), there are various relevant aspects for future exploration: Science opportunities: clues on the formation and evolution of rocky planets, accretion and bombardment in the inner solar system, comparative planetology processes (tectonic, volcanic, impact cratering, volatile delivery); records of astrobiology, survival of organics; astronomy and space science; past, present and future life; early Earth samples. New instrumentation: Remote sensing miniaturised instruments; surface geophysical and geochemistry package; instrument deployment and robotic arm, nano-rover, sampling, drilling; sample finder and collector. Technologies for robotic and human exploration: these include Mecha-electronics-sensors; tele control, telepresence, virtual reality; regional mobility rover; atonomy and navigation; artificially intelligent robots, complex systems, man-machine interface and performances. Living off the land: Establishment of permanent robotic infrastructures, environmental protection aspects; solutions to global Earth sustained development; life sciences laboratories; support to human exploration; permanent lunar settlements. 4. Advances in space research: lunar science and exploration This issue of Advances in Space Research includes a selection of papers on Lunar Science and Exploration. The issue starts with a series of reports to COSPAR from the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), and by the Lunar Declarations approved by the participants to the ILEWG International Conferences on Exploration and Utilisation of the Moon (ICEUM) in Udaipur (2004), Toronto (2005), Beijing (2006) and Sorrento (2007). Then a series of lunar science papers describe various aspects: Lunar International Science Coordination/Calibration Targets; Topography; Composition and Mineralogy studies. In the following section are given reports on upcoming missions: an overview of the Japanese B.H. Foing, P. Ehrenfreund / Advances in Space Research 42 (2008) 235–237 lunar mission SELENE: science goals and present status, with individual papers on instruments (such as multiband imager, X-ray spectrometer, high-resolution terrain camera, laser altimeter, gamma-ray spectrometer, lunar gravity field studies). Papers from Chang’E1 Chinese mission describe the gamma-ray sensor, and the microwave detector. Concerning future missions, descriptions of lunar landers studies, navigation and landing, sensors and drilling systems are discussed. The articles underwent extensive refereeing process. We thank the colleagues listed at the end of this issue who served as reviewers for the submitted manuscripts. 237 References Duke, M. The Moon: science, exploration and utilisation. Adv. Space Res. 31 (11), 2291–2466, 2003. Ehrenfreund, P., Foing, B.H., Cellino, A. The Moon and near Earth objects. 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