The Gracie Clan and the Making of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu:
National Identity, Culture and Performance, 1905 - 2003
By Jose Cairus
A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies
of York University in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
©2012
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Abstract
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permission.
ii
iii
Abstract
This dissertation examines the transformation of a modernized Japanese
school of martial arts, alternatively known as jiu-jitsu or Kodokan judo, into a
Brazilian combat sport. It encompasses jiu-jitsu’s introduction in the early 1900s, the
creation of a native style in the following decades and its globalization under the
hybrid form known as “Brazilian jiu-jitsu.”
The adoption of jiu-jitsu in the military is part of a larger project of
modernization conceived by the Brazilian elite aiming to provide the emergent
middle-classes with innovative fitness trends. Around the World War I, however, a
branch of the Gracies, a Scottish cum Rio de Janeiro family with genteel pretensions,
joined a troupe of Japanese martial artists and adopted jiu-jitsu as part of their circus
act.
In the following decades, the Gracies supported by their upper class peers and
by a nationalist regime, launched a comprehensive process of jiu-jitsu reinvention
that evolves into a hybrid combat sport exported worldwide at the end of the
twentieth century.
Using sources such as state and private archives, newspapers and magazines
this study suggests that the making of Brazilian jiu-jitsu through the agency of the
Gracie family reflect historical constructed values stemming from a patriarchal
culture, social and racial inequality and nationalism.
iv
Dedication
To my father, Omar, to my mother, Luiza, to my brothers, Omar Junior and
Marco and to my father-in-law Jorge (all in memoriam).
To my beloved wife, Khadija Brigitte, to my brave son Yunus and to my
daughter, ya nour el-ain, Hana Barjut, all of whom tenaciously shouldered the burden
of this over-stretched journey.
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Acknowledgements
I am in debt to many people who, in a way or another, have contributed to this
dissertation. Yet I would like to thank particularly and foremost my supervisor Anne
G. Rubenstein as well as the members of my advisory committee, Michele A.
Johnson and Nicholas C. Rogers for their invaluable support and guidance along the
way. I am also grateful to Carolyn Podruchny, Director of the Graduate Program in
History, who gave me much needed moral support in the final stages of my
dissertation.
My work made me meet amazing people and profit from their insightful
feedback on my topic. In Toronto, I was fortunate to find help from colleagues (and
friends) like Ricardo Sternberg, David Sheinin, Francis Peddie, Frank de Luce,
Gillian McGillivray, and Orde Morton among many others.
In Brazil my network of friends encouraged me to finish my work and write
the first doctoral dissertation about Brazilian jiu-jitsu. I would like to mention a few
names starting with my longtime friend, Denys Darzi. Then, my dear friends
currently living and teaching in Chicago whose story inspired my Brazilian jiu-jitsu's
showcase: André Terêncio, and his wife, the Brazilian jiu-jitsu virtuosi Hannette
Staack. On the Gracies side, I must mention Robson Gracie for his colorful and
relevant information about his clan. I cannot forget to thank Rildo Eros de Medeiros
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for his sharing of unpublished material on the Gracies and the Japanese in the
Amazon. Another important contributor was the diplomat and Kodokan judo master,
João Gilberto de Souza. He provided me with precious information about the early
stages of jiu-jitsu in Japan and enriched my work by sharing his personal experience
with the Gracies. This became so relevant that I included it in form of vignette placed
in the opening of my last chapter. My special gratitude to my father's friend and
martial arts “lineage disciple,” the army paratrooper lieutenant-colonel (retired)
Manoel Pacheco, who shared with me his personal participation in the martial arts
realm during the military rule in Brazil.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................. iv
Dedication .............................................................................................................. v
Acknowledgements............................................................................................... vi
Introduction............................................................................................................ 1
A Brazilian jiu-jitsu showcase .............................................................................................. 6
The Gracie – jiu-jitsu connection ........................................................................................ 15
Chapter 1 - Modernization and nationalism: the origin of Brazilian jiu-jitsu,
1905-1920 ................................................................................................................... 24
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 24
Round 1: Japanese jiu-jitsu versus Brazilian Capoeira in Rio de Janeiro’s Belle Époque,
1909 .................................................................................................................................... 25
Round 2: Kodokan judo versus Capoeira in the Brazilian Amazon, 1915 ......................... 30
Turn of the century modernization: Navy and Japanese jiu-jitsu........................................ 35
Japanese jiu-jitsu in the Amazon: Enter the Gracies ........................................................... 44
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 58
Chapter 2 - Between tradition and modernity: the birth of Brazilian jiu-jitsu,
1921-1934 ................................................................................................................... 60
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 60
We are refined people! ........................................................................................................ 61
We are authorities! .............................................................................................................. 62
The Gracies’ predicament ................................................................................................... 63
The Gracies’ social redemption through Japanese jiu-jitsu ................................................ 65
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 3 - Nationalism, immigration and identity: the making of Brazilian
jiu-jitsu, 1934-1943 ................................................................................................... 87
Round 1: A “fight of honor,” George Gracie versus Yano Takeo ...................................... 87
Round 2: Jiu-jitsu, football and dictatorship, Rio de Janeiro, 1937 .................................... 89
viii
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 91
The Gracies versus the Japanese martial artists: fighting for jiu-jitsu’s supremacy ........... 93
Public performance, Politics and the Gracies' patriarchy ................................................. 104
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 117
Chapter 4 - Brazilian jiu-jitsu in the mainstream: media, ethnicity and populism,
1951-1960 ................................................................................................................. 120
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 120
Round 1: Hélio Gracie’s “moral victory,” Rio de Janeiro, 1951 ...................................... 122
Round 2: ............................................................................................................................ 125
Y.M.C.A Gymnasium, Rio de Janeiro, 1955 - “The black man with a black soul” ......... 125
The Gracies’ return: Challenging African-Americans pugilists but fighting Japanese
martial artists..................................................................................................................... 126
The final gentrification of jiu-jitsu’s space and style ........................................................ 144
The creation of Hélio Gracie’s patriarchy......................................................................... 149
The racial showdown: Hélio Gracie versus Waldemar Santana ....................................... 152
The “larger-than-life” Gracies: radio, television and comics............................................ 167
Chapter 5 - Authoritarianism, democratization and globalization: hybrid
Brazilian jiu-jitsu, 1963-1993 ................................................................................... 180
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 180
Round 1: A hybrid martial art in a futuristic city: Brasilia, 1981 ..................................... 180
Round 2 -The global breakthrough: Mac Nichols Arena, Denver, Colorado, 1993 ......... 181
Conspiracies and failed globalization ............................................................................... 185
Fall of populism and twilight of Brazilian jiu-jitsu........................................................... 186
The social breakthrough: Middle class Brazilian jiu-jitsu and hybridization ................... 200
Immigration and globalization: exporting violence “made in Brazil” .............................. 215
To Japan and beyond ........................................................................................................ 224
Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 232
Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 237
Appendix............................................................................................................ 255
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Table of images
Figure 1: Rio de Janeiro’s map. Source: rioservicetour.com.br, 2011. ......................... 3
Figure 2: The Cairus family at their dojo in Rio de Janeiro, early 1970s. From the left
to the right: Luiza, Omar senior, Omar junior, Osman and the author. Source: Author
collection. ...................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 3: From left to the right: Peter Mac Nichols Gracie, Maria Carolina Gracie,
Frederico Gracie, Gastão Gracie, Cesarina Gracie, Carlos Gracie, Oswaldo Gracie,
Gastão Gracie Junior, George Gracie and Hélio Gracie carries Carlson Gracie.
Source: O Cruzeiro, 1956............................................................................................ 17
Figure 4: Pavilhao Internacional known as Concerto Avenida. Source:
rioquepassou.com.br, 2010. ........................................................................................ 27
Figure 5: Morote-Gari: The technique attempted by Sada Miako. Source:
kodokan.org, 2010. ...................................................................................................... 27
Figure 6: Rabo-de-arraia (stingray tail’s sweep), technique applied by Cyríaco.
Source: Gymnastica Nacional (Capoeiragem) Methodizada e Regrada, 1928. ......... 28
Figure 7: “A capoeiragem vencedora do Jiu-Jitsu.” Source: Revista Careta, 1909. ... 29
Figure 8: “Jiu-jitsu Contra Capoeira: Cyríaco o heroe.” O Malho, 1909. .................. 30
Figure 9: Mayeda Mitsuyo as Kodokan judo black belt. Source: Meiji Bankara Kaijin
Den, 1989. ................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 10: Mayeda Mitsuyo, the “Count Koma” performing a reverse armlock (udegarami) as a professional wrestler. Source: Meiji Bankara Kaijin Den, 1989. .......... 34
Figure 11: Troupe Koma” touring in Latin America. Left to right: Mayeda Mitsuyo,
Satake, Ono and Ito. Source: Meiji Bankara Kaijin Den, 1989. ................................. 34
Figure 12: Japanese jiu-jitsu beats French Savate. Source: Le Judo, 1996................. 35
Figure 13: “Jiu-Jitsu Contra Capoeira.” Source: O Malho, 1909. .............................. 42
Figure 14: Wrestling prizefighting in circus, early 20th century. Source: Le Judo,
1996. ............................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 15: Gastão Gracie and his gambling carrousel assembled in the Rio’s
International Exposition. Source: Fon-Fon, 1923. ...................................................... 64
Figure 16: Geo Omori was the first Japanese martial artist to fight the Gracies.
Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1932. ................................................................................. 67
Figure 17: The Gracies’ debut in São Paulo. Source: Folha da Manhã, 1930. ........... 69
Figure 18: The building of the first Gracie Gym (dojo) established in 1930
surprisingly still standing today surrounding by high rise apartments. Source: author
collection, 2010. .......................................................................................................... 72
Figure 19: Kodokan judo ranking belt. Source: http://www.judoyukon.ca/, 2011. .... 73
Figure 20: On the left, Gaucho troops tying their horses around the obelisk at Rio’s
downtown, 1930. On the right, the rise of Getulio Vargas at Palacio do Catete few
blocks from the Gracies’ gym. Source: CPDOC/Fundação Getulio Vargas. ............. 75
x
Figure 21: “Sports activities of Special Police.” Source: O Globo Sportivo, 1934. ... 77
Figure 22: An Impressive Performance: The Special Police formed by sportsmen
parading on the streets of Rio de Janeiro. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1933. .............. 78
Figure 23: On the left, “The Gracie Brothers Arrested and Sentenced to Two Years in
Prison!” On the right: Manoel Rufino dos Santos (picture) assaulted by the Gracies’.
Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1934. ................................................................................. 80
Figure 24: The Gracies against muscular wrestlers. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1933.
..................................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 25: Yano Takeo. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1934. .......................................... 88
Figure 26: “Ono is an outstanding fighter: Captain Luis Souto, Count Koma’s
student.” Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1935................................................................... 98
Figure 27: “Ono wants to fight in Rio: an extraordinary jiu-jitsu master.” Source:
Jornal dos Sports, 1935. ............................................................................................ 100
Figure 28: Osae-komi waza (pin down technique). Kodokan judo rules give the
victory to those able to pin down their opponent for thirty seconds. By contrast, the
Gracies adopted the rule in which victory only could be achieved by submission
(surrender or tapping out). Source: Judo Information, 2011. .................................... 103
Figure 29: Nage-Waza (throwing techniques). According to Kodokan rules, a
“perfect” (clear) throw ends the fight according to the concept of “sudden death”
(knock-out). Source: Judo Information, 2011. .......................................................... 103
Figure 30: The “guard” (do-osae) position hallmarked the Brazilian jiu-jitsu by
emphasizing ground combat. Source: Beginning Bjj Ecourse, 2011. ....................... 103
Figure 31: Copacabana 1930s. Source: Flickr, 2007. ............................................... 105
Figure 32: “Jiu-jitsu and Wrestling Tournament Kick-Off” Copacabana Beach, Rio.
Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1937. ............................................................................... 105
Figure 33: “Sporting Evening at Gracie Academy with the Best Individuals of Our
Society” Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1936. ................................................................ 106
Figure 34: Fascism “made in Brazil.” Integralismo became a patchwork of
nationalistic tendencies (left). Integralistas parading in Rio, 1937, fascist aesthetic
(right). Source: Frente Integralista Brasileira............................................................ 109
Figure 35: “I want to be a champion too!” Eduardo, later renamed as “Carlson,” was a
Carlos Gracie’s first-born child in his clan of Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s fighters. Source: O
Globo Sportivo, 1938. ............................................................................................... 112
Figure 36: Gillette advertisement in 1941. Jiu-jitsu is related to health, hygiene and
masculinity without losing its traditional appeal. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1941. . 116
Figure 37: “Draw between George Gracie and Geo Omori.” The position above
serves as a metaphor of the confrontations between the Gracies and the Japanese
martial artists. The match resulted in a cultural gridlock. Source: Jornal dos Sports,
1935. .......................................................................................................................... 119
Figure 38: Kimura throwing Gracie with a Osoto-gari. Source: Onzuka Brothers,
2011. .......................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 39: First two pages, from the left 1. Helio and Kimura wrestling on the
ground. 2. Brazil’s Vice-President Café Filho greeting Helio and Kimura. Two pages
xi
on the right. 1. The vertical sequence shows the tension of Helio’s wife. 2. The
sequence shows the final moments of the combat. Kimura crushed Helio before the
fatal move: a reverse arm bar (Ude-garami). Next, Carlos Gracie threw the towel and
saved his brother’s arm. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1951. ................................................. 124
Figure 40: “Gracie defeated by his pupil” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. ..................... 126
Figure 41: Carlos Gracie’s book. .............................................................................. 129
Figure 42: “Hélio Gracie challenged Ezzard Charles.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1950. . 130
Figure 43: “Playing with imagination.” Source: O Globo, 1951. ............................. 130
Figure 44: “An ordinary Brazilian family.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1950. ................... 132
Figure 45: In the 1950s, the Gracies shared the pages of “O Cruzeiro” with beauty
pageants and iconic figures such as Carmen Miranda. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1949 and
1955. .......................................................................................................................... 133
Figure 46: Kato throwing Hélio. Hélio pulling the Gracies guard position. Source: O
Cruzeiro, 1952. .......................................................................................................... 136
Figure 47: Contradictory feelings toward Japanese immigrants. Sources: (left)
Okamoto Tetsuo, the “flying-fish”, the Japanese-Brazilian swimmer medalist in the
Pan-American Games held in Buenos Aires in 1951 and in the Olympics Games held
in Helsinki in 1952, a multicultural icon. O Globo Sportivo, 1951.(right) “Os Sete
Samurais de Tupã” (The Seven Samurais of Tupã). ................................................. 137
Figure 48: Coverage shows Hélio Gracie and Kimura, the Nikkei community follow
the fight with great interest. Source: São Paulo Shimbum, 1951.............................. 138
Figure 49: Top left: the fight went to the ground. Bottom left: Helio pulled the guard
preparing the choke from below. Right: Kato knocked-out.” Source: O Cruzeiro,
1951. .......................................................................................................................... 141
Figure 50: Gracie’s Self-Defense System, protection for upper class students against
Brazil’s everyday violence. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1953. ............................................ 146
Figure 51: The Gracies’ Team in the 1950s. Carlson Gracie, (center) the only wearing
a jiu-jitsu full gear and Waldemar Santana, the only Afro-Brazilian black belt.
Source: MMM Mano a Mano, 2010. ........................................................................ 147
Figure 52: The Gracies’ new generation on Copacabana Beach: “Celebrities on the
Beach.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1956. ........................................................................... 152
Figure 53: “We must save the housewives,” Carlos Renato’s book. ........................ 154
Figure 54: Hélio Gracie versus Waldemas Santana. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. ...... 156
Figure 55: Santana victorious against Hélio Gracie. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. ..... 156
Figure 56: “The author and the character (David Nasser): Hélio Gracie (on the right)
taught me his defensive techniques.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. ............................. 161
Figure 57: “Waldemar, coward!” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. ................................... 164
Figure 58: “Poor Waldemar: Carlson Gracie defeated, before almost 40,000 people,
the ‘black colossus’ who dominated Rio’s combat sports.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1956.
................................................................................................................................... 165
Figure 59: “The Celebration of the Three Gracies.” Different racial gradations, but
one ideal. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1956. ........................................................................ 166
Figure 60: “The Adventures of the champion” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. .............. 167
xii
Figure 61: “Tenorio, what a great artist!” The violent politician giving up their guns
at the Gracies’ dojo. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. ....................................................... 169
Figure 62: Carlos Gracie’s lineage: (left) Robson and Carlson (right). Source:
amazonvaletudomma.blogspot.com. ......................................................................... 171
Figure 63:“Female spectators enthusiastically watch the fights. The Gracie show is
very much appreciated by women.”Source: O Cruzeiro, 1959. ................................ 173
Figure 64: “The “Heroes in the Ring”: Televised graphic violence for a selected
audience. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1960. ........................................................................ 174
Figure 65: “The “Heroes in the Ring, Waldo (Waldemar Santana’s brother) versus
Euclides Pereira. Source: Blog Mano a Mano, 2012. ............................................... 175
Figure 66: The Santana family (left) appearance in a popular TV show in the late
1950s. Source: Revista Tatame, 2004. ...................................................................... 177
Figure 67: “The Scottish George Gracie had ever imaged that?” Source: O Cruzeiro,
1956. .......................................................................................................................... 177
Figure 68: “The Truth about the Gracies.” Source: Gracie Magazine, 2010. ........... 179
Figure 69: Rickson Gracie (underneath) versus “King Zulu”, 1987. New generation,
same challenges. Source: Portal do Vale-Tudo, 2010............................................... 181
Figure 70: The first Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) created by Rorion and
won by Royce (above), 1993. ................................................................................... 182
Figure 71: The U.S.-Brazil’s dictatorship alliance. Senator Robert F. Kennedy enjoys
Copacabana Beach before his meeting with the new military President Castello
Branco in Rio. Above Robert F. Kennedy was sitting on the sand while his bodyguard rush to stop the photographer. Source: Jornal do Brasil, 1965. ...................... 188
Figure 72: Sungata Sanshiro’s movie poster. Source: Wikipedia, 2010. .................. 189
Figure 73: “Army officers learn jiu-jitsu.” In the 1960s, the military replaced
Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s practice by Kodokan judo. Source: Última Hora, 1956. ........... 193
Figure 74: “Something has changed in the country.” Source: O Globo, 1965. ........ 194
Figure 75: Brazil’s new order celebrating the first anniversary of the military coup in
1965. On the top, left to right: Air-Marshal Eduardo Gomes (Ministry of
Aeronautics), Magalhães Pinto (Minas Gerais state governor and banker), Marshal
Costa Silva (first military president), and José Maria Alckmin (civilian vicepresident). In the back row, right to left in uniforms: Marshal Odilio Denys (Minister
of War) and General Ernesto Geisel (military chief of staff and future president). On
the bottom in the front row, the symbol of a waning era: The once media mogul Assis
Chateaubriand speechless using a wheelchair and running a media empire in decline.
A half-paralyzed “Chateau” wearing a military uniform performed a clumsy salute
using the wrong (left) arm. The Minas Gerais State Police (Polícia Militar de Minas
Gerais) conferred him the rank of honorary colonel. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1965. ..... 195
Figure 76: The Gracies compound (scale model available in the Gracies Museum in
Torrance, California) in their aristocratic mountain resort near Rio de Janeiro.
According to information available on the Gracie Academy website: “Located in the
mountain resort of Terezópolis, Rio de Janeiro, this estate was the Gracie summer
retreat. It had 21 bedrooms and 18 bathrooms. There were 18 uniformed employees
xiii
working at the house, who had amongst themselves 14 children. There were 25 inhouse telephones and a switchboard that enabled 6 people talk at the same time.
There was an in-house laundry with industrial machines that washed 650 gis a week
to provide for the academy in Rio. The tall building in the front was a 15,000-gallon
water reservoir and a meditation room used by Carlos Gracie. At the center grassy
area was the training area for the Gracie family.” Source: Gracie Academy website,
2010. .......................................................................................................................... 198
Figure 77: On the left the cover of “The Judoka.” “Presenting the Brazilian champion
of comic books. Who is he? Where he came from? Who was his master?” On the
right, the promotional poster of the film: “Don’t be scared! We are shooting scenes of
“The Judoka.” Please, help us: Don’t look to the camera, don’t call the police (they
know we are here), act naturally and watch the movie! Thank you, the crew” The
comic book’s character was Japanese and the movie star was a white Brazilian.
Source: Um Blog no Planeta Mongo, 2011 .............................................................. 200
Figure 78: Carlson Gracie’s “middle class” team. Source: Blog Mano a Mano, 2011.
................................................................................................................................... 203
Figure 79: Rolls (left) and Carlson (right) half-brothers performing martial art cross
training. Source: Gracie Magazine, 1999. ................................................................. 206
Figure 80: Sankaku-Jime (triangle choke). This old Japanese technique hallmarks the
process of modernization underwent by Brazilian jiu-jitsu in 1970s-1980s. Source:
deviantart.com, 2011. ................................................................................................ 207
Figure 81: Rolls (right) and Rickson (left) training Russian Sambo under Hélio’s
supervision. Source: Gracie Magazine, 1999. ........................................................... 208
Figure 82: Rolls Gracie (left). Source: Gracie Magazine, 1999. (right) “Ipanema Pier”
in the 1970s: counterculture and dictatorship. .......................................................... 208
Figure 83: The Palestinian-Brazilian Wallid Ismail (top) versus the Afro-Brazilian
Eugenio Tadeu (bottom): Graphic violence on prime time TV. Source: Fight
Magazine, 2011. ........................................................................................................ 215
Figure 84: “He has his own look. Not menacing but devoid of emotion. The
blankness of the supremely confident. Rickson is 29, as muscular as a bodybuilder,
with a Marine's crew cut, the high cheekbones of an Inca Indian and a square jaw. If
Rorion is amiably handsome, Rickson is devastatingly handsome. Source: (picture) O
Rio de Janeiro, 1986.................................................................................................. 216
Figure 85: Rorion Gracie and his “lethal weapon” disciple. Source: Gracie Academy,
2011. .......................................................................................................................... 219
Figure 86: Fernando Collor performing a Karate (Takudai style) routine with his
Japanese master, Tetsuma Higashino. Source: Karateca.net, 2010. ......................... 223
Figure 87: Rickson Gracie’s representations in Japan. Source: Pride, 2010. ........... 226
Figure 88: “We are thankful for the privilege of one more day of training.” Brazilian
jiu-jitsu in Jordan, Islamic aesthetics. Source: Gracie Magazine, 2009. .................. 229
Figure 89: Brazilian jiu-jitsu in United Kingdom. EFN Sports, 2010. ..................... 230
Figure 90: Brazilian jiu-jitsu, China: Cultural Revolution appeal. Haukis.com, 2010.
................................................................................................................................... 230
xiv
Figure 91: “One world one fight”. From national sport in Abu Dhabi to New Zealand.
Source: Revista Tatame, 2009................................................................................... 231
Figure 92: Diasporic return to Japan. Source: bjj-asia.com, 2010. ........................... 231
Figure 93: Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s fever in Israel. Source: Gracie Magazine, 2010. ..... 231
xv
Introduction
In the early 1980s, I found myself an orphan in my martial arts practice. My
father shut down his dojo after forty years of activities and I had the option of joining
another judo gym or trying the martial art called Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Of course, I was well
acquainted with Brazilian jiu-jitsu and the Gracies, but they had their operations in Rio’s
Zona Sul (the “south side” of Rio or areas located along the beach), which made their
dojos geographically distant from my middle class neighborhood known as Tijuca,
farther from the coast.
In the late 1980s, after my father left the martial art world, my family moved to
the Zona Sul as a result of our social ascension, and all of a sudden I was close to the
Gracies. Like many young men in my generation, I divided my free time between surfing
and practicing martial arts. One day, I went to Carlson Gracie’s gym located in
Copacabana. A relaxed, mature individual whose persona contrasted starkly with his aura
as a tough fighter warmly welcomed me. The gym was fully booked and a question
puzzled me back then: Why did Brazilian jiu-jitsu only become popular among the
middle class in the 1980s? According to my father, the Gracies had been around for
decades. Nonetheless, they rarely practiced Brazilian jiu-jitsu outside their upper class
circles.
The atmosphere at Carlson Gracie's gym was quite different from that at my
father’s dojo, where the routine resembled military drills. At the same time, there was no
question that every aspect of that peculiar world involved hypermasculinity: from
1
cockfighting, Carlson’s passion, to their students’ penchant for street fighting. Despite
differences in form, the essence was the same. I later practiced Brazilian jiu-jitsu under
Carlson Gracie, and in other dojos in Rio. Although I missed some of the philosophical
and pedagogical aspects of Kodokan judo, I fell in love with the ground combat that is
the technical core of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. I never returned to Kodokan judo out of respect
for my father’s martial arts lineage.1 But I refused to be ranked within the Brazilian jiujitsu ranking system, I was, and would remain forever, a Kodokan judo black belt with
passion for ground combat.
The Gracies and my family shared similar trajectories. Our families came from
immigrant backgrounds, settled in Rio de Janeiro and became involved with martial arts
in the twentieth century. My family, against the pattern usually found among Lebanese
immigrants in Brazil, brought assets from their Levantine homeland, but around the time
of the Great Depression they lost almost everything. The family’s financial decline
prompted my father, prior to World War II, to seek opportunities in Brazil’s
southernmost coffee frontier in Paraná State. The booming region became a magnet for
all kinds of foreign and Brazilian migrants.
During World War II, my father went to the city of São Paulo where he became
part of the first generation of Brazilians to learn Kodokan judo with Japanese immigrants.
Students learning judo during the wartime had to immerse themselves in the Japanese
culture. This involved adopting Japanese dietary habits, learning the language and as
1
The practice of martial arts implies affiliation with a particular tradition, style or school. It means that
students become part of the master’s “lineage” or “lineage disciple.” A martial arts lineage includes its own
set of techniques, pedagogy and philosophy. Lineages also are vital to establish martial arts’ school
credibility. See: Bruce Kumar Frantzis, The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi : Combat and Energy
Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi, and Hsing-I ( Berkeley, Calif.: Energy Arts, 2007), 115-17.
2
much as possible living in a Japanese way. In 1948, my father returned to Rio as an
experienced black belt and opened his own dojo in the middle class neighborhood of
Tijuca, where his family initially settled upon their arrival in Brazil in the early 1900s.
Figure 1: Rio de Janeiro’s map. Source: rioservicetour.com.br, 2011.2
In the post-war period, there were few dojos in Rio and the Gracies’ was one of
them. Interaction among the small number of martial artists was inevitable. Moreover,
tournaments with the participation of judo and jiu-jitsu practitioners were common.
Rivalries easily became violent inside the dojos and on the streets. For one involved with
martial arts, life close to the Gracies could be difficult. Nonetheless, my father and the
Gracies developed a distant and cordial relationship based on mutual respect. After all,
they ran their dojos in two distinct geographic areas of Rio and aimed at different
clienteles. In the 1950s, the Gracies reached the apex of their fame, but their jiu-jitsu
2
"Rio Service Tour," accessed June 6, 2011, http://www.rioservicetour.com.br.
3
remained an elitist combat sport, geographically and socially secluded. On the other
hand, Kodokan judo was expanding amid the urban middle class.
By the late 1950s, my father, like many Brazilians of Syrian-Lebanese descents
enthusiastically embraced ideas embedded in post-colonial pan-Arabism. The local
authorities placed him briefly under arrest for giving local underground support to the
“Algerian Revolution.” Ironically, however, the Brazilian military soon hired him to
teach judo. In the 1960s, the tide turned; the Gracies prestige faded significantly and
Kodokan judo practitioners grew increasingly identified with the military regime imposed
in 1964. Thereafter, my father pioneered the militarization of judo during this dictatorship
by teaching and training troops to fight in counterinsurgency warfare. At this time, he
helped to prepare Brazilian units deployed in Santo Domingo during the crisis in 1963,
working in collaboration with U.S. Special Forces (Green Berets) stationed in Brazil. The
latter invited my father to come to this elite unit headquartered at Fort Bragg, North
Carolina to instruct U.S. forces increasingly involved in the Vietnam War. My father,
perhaps surprisingly, refused to help the American global crusade against communism. A
few years later, I asked him why he turned down the Americans’ offer since I still fondly
remembered loving to eat the U.S. military rations (especially the candies) given to me by
those “gigantic” Green Berets. He once explained his refusal: “This is not my war. I have
no quarrel with the Vietcong.” Kodokan Judo, expanded at every level of Brazil’s
military as sport, as a complement to combat training and to help boost esprit-de-corps.
Afterwards, towards the late 1960s, my father worked closely with the military
4
establishment during infamously known “years of lead” which marked the height of the
underground war between government forces and left-wing insurgent groups
The nature of my upbringing, therefore, made me familiar with patriarchal rule, hypermasculine behavior, nationalism and violence. Furthermore, similar to the Gracies, my
family proudly cultivated their roots in a country in which immigrants had a privileged
status. By sharing similar values and background with the Gracies, I have witnessed, as
part of my personal experience, outbursts of public violence, attachment to
authoritarianism, veiled racist attitudes and a sense of nostalgia related to a loss of status.
Figure 2: The Cairus family at their dojo in Rio de Janeiro, early 1970s. From the left to the right: Luiza,
Omar senior, Omar junior, Osman and the author. Source: Author collection.
The global promotion of Brazilian jiu-jitsu realized by the Gracies since the 1980s
is a work in progress. The space given to the Gracies in the international media
compensate the lack of statistics about the popularity of the sport. In addition, the
5
economic impact of Brazilian jiu-jitsu and the corporate business based on “mixed
martial arts” that evolved from the concept conceived by the Gracies on a global scale is
considerable.3 The anecdote below provides a glimpse of Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s global
popularity.4
A Brazilian jiu-jitsu showcase
In 2007, the Sovereign Bank Arena in Trenton, New Jersey, held the “Abu Dhabi
Combat Club Submission Wrestling Championship” (ADCC). Over the previous nine
years the event had become the world’s most important grappling contest. The Abu
Dhabi’s Crown Prince Tahnoon Bin Zayed al-Nahyan created and sponsored the event.
The main event held on a rotating basis in Abu Dhabi, Brazil, the United States, Europe
and qualifying trials draft competitors around the world.
I left Toronto to attend the event with no expectation other than to watch great
fights. On the first day of the competition, outside the Sovereign Bank Arena in Trenton,
while waiting for the gates to open, I observed an atmosphere rather uncommon in New
Jersey. In the crowd, I could identify Americans, Latin Americans and Japanese. In
addition to English, Portuguese was a second language, but trendier than English. Those
3
Matthew Miller, "Ultimate Cash Machine: The Fertitta Brothers Built a Violent Fight Club into a BillionDollar Sports Empire," Forbes Magazine, accessed 10/11/2010, http://www.forbes.com/.
4
The Biography Channel produced a documentary about Hélio Gracie after his death in 2009. According to
the documentary's director Rodrigo Astiz "Hélio Gracie was one of the four most representative faces of
Brazil along with Gilberto Gil (one of the founders of Tropicalismo), the scholar and former Brazilian
president Fernando Henrique Cardoso, and former tennis champion Gustavo “Guga” Kuerten (a three-time
winner of French Open). Marcelo Dunlop, "Helio Gracie, One of 4 Faces of Brazil According to Tv
Channel," accessed October 11, 2011, http://www.graciemag.com/2010/08/helio-gracie-one-of-4-faces-ofbrazil-according-to-tv-channel/.
6
who did not speak Portuguese used a less glamorous alternative of English mixed with
Brazilian jiu-jitsu jargon. Clothes, mannerisms and behavior displayed the cultural blend.
An invisible hierarchy was created by the Gracies that placed on top those wearing madein-Brazil jiu-jitsu outfits preferably purchased at Brazilian jiu-jitsu training camps in Rio
de Janeiro.
Inside, however, the impeccable organization follows American standards. The
American atmosphere was noticeable by the presence of a U.S. Marines recruiting booth
and through the patriotic notes of the “Star Spangled Banner” at the opening ceremony.
Despite the American signs, the real stars were Brazilians and the superstars were the
Gracie family. The media and fanatic fans followed the Gracies everywhere, and they
were very comfortable under the spotlight. I could not help noticing their transformation
from Rio de Janeiro locals into cosmopolitan world celebrities. Surrounded by privileges,
the Gracies enjoyed their role in the invention and globalization of Brazilian jiu-jitsu.
There was an exclusive Gracies’ warm-up area separated from the other fighters. No one
doubted their privilege. The contest, for me, was more than a competition among the best
fighters on the planet, but a celebration of the growing success of Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s
globalization. I also sensed that I was witnessing new aspects of Brazil’s self-image
abroad. Brazilians at the event displayed significant self-confidence usually displayed in
international soccer competitions and carnival performances. Brazil had its self-image
tarnished after the end of the “economic miracle” in the late 1970s, by a failure to combat
inequality, persistent economic crisis and booming crime rates. It contributed a great deal
to the beginning of Brazilian emigration. Conversely, Brazilian jiu-jitsu seems to be the
7
most successful Brazilian cultural export to America since Bossa Nova in the 1960s.
Coincidently, both are cultural products of Rio de Janeiro’s upper class neighborhoods
exported successfully worldwide. I wonder if anyone else recognized that what appeared
so natural that weekend was the product of a long historical process.
In my dissertation, I examine the transformation of a modernized school of
Japanese martial arts into a Brazilian combat sport throughout the twentieth century.
Brazilian jiu-jitsu5 is a hybrid combat sport rooted in a martial arts school developed in
the Meiji period in Japan and introduced by the military in Brazil as part of a larger
project to promote “modernization” after the establishment of the Republican regime. My
dissertation is a comprehensive analysis of how a particular segment of Brazil’s elite
reinvented a Japanese cultural element in its own image during the process of
construction of a national identity. I also examine how the contemporary transnational
and diasporic inroads taken by this martial art and embedded in hyper-masculine rituals
responded to a global demand for violent performances.
The blending of Native, African and European cultural manifestations to form a
national identity hallmarks a dominant multicultural discourse during the 1920s. In the
following decade, during the heyday of nationalism, the local jiu-jitsu style invented by
the Gracies also received the cultural sanction from the authoritarian establishment.
5
This dissertation uses the term "Brazilian" jiu-jitsu because the Japanese term "jiu-jitsu" is too generic and
therefore does not identify any particular school or style, as for example: Daito-ryu aiki jujutsu, Tenjin
shinnyo-ryu or Kodokan judo. Yet there are other denominations such as "Gracie" jiu-jitsu or simply "jiujitsu" (notably in Brazil). Rorion, the Gracie pioneer in the United States, trademarked the denomination
"Gracie jiu-jitsu." He claim that it was a strategy to emphasize the distinction between martial disciplines
under the term "jiu-jitsu." On the internet, one finds slightly over 4 million results for "Gracie jiu-jitsu" and
almost 6 million for "Brazilian jiu-jitsu." I choose "Brazilian jiu-jitsu" using the school as a proper name
(capitalized) followed by the generic name "jiu-jitsu" as a common non-capitalized noun.
8
My dissertation enters a dialogue with the historiographical trend debating the
importance of race in the interpretation of modern Brazil.6 Yet my argument suggests that
historically constructed hierarchies embedded on Luso-Brazilian mindset are also
relevant to analyze core aspects of the national identity in modern Brazil. Within the
framework of a social environment permeated by inequality race and class are imbricated
categories. This
arrangement that evolves over the longue durée generates an
“aristocratic” culture in which an “elusive whiteness” became a desirable trait among
others.7 As Stuart B. Schwartz observed , in colonial Brazil the legitimization of a noble
status (fidalguia) implied dissociation from heretic practices, manual labor and
connections with “infected races.”8 But some members of Brazilian elite were not free of
such associations. It made them “sensitive to the nuances of color and status hierarchies
operated in the Portuguese colonial world.”9 Furthermore, the system of domination
developed in Brazil cloaked in discourses of “racial democracy” engendered a category
that Elisa Larkins Nascimento defined as “virtual whiteness” which is a “fulcrum of
identity intrinsically intermeshed with issues of gender and patriarchy.”10
6
Thomas E. Skidmore, Black into White : Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought, (Durham: Duke
University Press, 1993).; Jerry Dávila, Diploma of Whiteness : Race and Social Policy in Brazil, 19171945, (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003).; Peter M. Beattie, The Tribute of Blood : Army, Honor,
Race, and Nation in Brazil, 1864-1945, (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001).; Robert Stam, Tropical
Multiculturalism : A Comparative History of Race in Brazilian Cinema and Culture, (Durham: Duke
University Press, 1997).; Roberto da Matta, Carnivals, Rogues, and Heroes : An Interpretation of the
Brazilian Dilemma, (Notre Dame: University of Indiana Press, 1991).
7
Catherine Rottenberg, Performing Americanness : Race, Class, and Gender in Modern African-American
and Jewish-American Literature (Hanover, N.H.: Dartmouth College Press, 2008), 40.
8
Stuart B. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550-1835
(Cambridgeshire: Cambridge University Press,1985), 274.
9
Ibid.
10
Elisa Larkin Nascimento, “Kilombismo, Virtual Whiteness, and the Sorcery of Color,” Journal of Black
Studies 34, No. 6, (Jul., 2004): 1.
9
These approaches provided me with the analytical tools to understand the making
of Brazilian jiu-jitsu alongside miscegenation and extramarital affairs that occurred
within the Gracie family during the twentieth century. This interweaving of tradition and
modernity is critical to my argument.
Chapter One describes the introduction of Japanese jiu-jitsu in Rio de Janeiro in
the early 1900s and how the Gracies learned it from the Japanese in the Brazilian
Amazon during the World War I. The adoption of a Japanese martial arts by the military
as a school of physical education followed the emergence of Japan as a global power. The
association of Japan with modernity facilitated jiu-jitsu’s acceptance by the military.
Before long, however, Afro-Brazilian Capoeira and Japanese jiu-jitsu clashed. I analyze
this tension at two different moments in time. In 1909, Capoeira emerged as “national”
combat sport in Rio de Janeiro supported by intellectuals who sought to relate its practice
to the racial category of mulatto to mollify the problems of racism that would have
emerged through a candid consideration of Capoeira’s lineage as an Afro-Brazilian
martial art. In the second moment, which occurred in the Amazon in 1915, jiu-jitsu
became a leading martial art through the agency of the Japanese martial artists who
opened gymnasiums for the Amazonian elite. A branch of the Gracies, a Scottish cum
Rio family with genteel pretensions, joined the Japanese and adopted jiu-jitsu as part of
their circus act. Thereafter, the Gracies virtually monopolized the practice of this
Japanese martial art in Brazil. Their monopoly over jiu-jitsu became a critical aspect to
understand the idiosyncrasies surrounding the creation of a local fighting system.
10
Chapter Two examines how déclassé aristocrats like the Gracies recovered their
status in modern Brazil through their martial arts skills. Here, I add to the current
historiography an important political affiliation, which is that the Gracies, as members of
a traditional Rio de Janeiro’s elite, developed a growing symbiosis with Getulio Vargas’
authoritarian state after 1930. As pioneers of jiu-jitsu and aristocratic aspirants, the
Gracies were part of the security state apparatus against a backdrop of conflicting ideas
about nationalism and multiculturalism. This chapter hallmarks the close association of
the new regime with the structures it claimed to replace.
Chapter Three focuses on the series of public matches pitting the Gracies and
Japanese martial artists against a background of political radicalization that led to the
installation of the Estado Novo dictatorship in 1937. In order to compensate the Japanese
superior skills in standing combat, the Gracies decided to put emphasis in ground
techniques. In addition, the Gracies backed by the authoritarian state and under strong
nationalist influence sought to replace Japanese rituals with cultural traits related to the
local customs. Here I found helpful Arjun Appadurai’s work on the indigenization of
British cricket in colonial India. The creation of a local jiu-jitsu encompasses a wide
range of changes concerning techniques, philosophy, and rituals in which I employed
Arjun Appadurai’s binary study of acculturation involving hard and soft forms.
According to him, “the former are those that come with a set of links between value,
meaning, and embodied practice that are difficult to break and hard to transform.” 11 The
11
Arjun Appadurai, "Playing with Modernity: The Decolonization of Indian Cricket," in Modernity at
Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, ed. Arjun Appadurai (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1996), 90.
11
latter, by contrast, “that permits relatively easy separation of embodied performance from
meaning and value, and relatively successful transformation at each level.”12 Appadurai’s
model therefore proves to be suitable to analyze the early stages of jiu-jitsu
indigenization in Brazil because similarly to what happen to British Cricket in India it
had occurred along a binary framework. It involves changing of rituals and meanings
(soft forms) and changing of style (hard forms) promoted by the Gracies from the 1930s
onward.
Chapter Four analyzes the role of the mass media in creating a modern Brazil in
the post-war period, a role that was critical to the fortunes of the Gracies and to the
further transformation of Brazilian jiu-jitsu into an elite-oriented combat sport.
In the 1950s, the Gracies moved from being present in just sport sections to the
pages of the most popular media vehicles in Brazil including the high-profile magazine O
Cruzeiro. The association of the Gracies with the populist regime and its developmentist
ideologies became complete. As the Gracies’ visibility increased, a transnational rivalry
developed pitting them and martial artists from Japan. This occurred in the wake of
Japan’s re-emergence as a global player and upon the return of Getulio Vargas. It
contributed to the debate in which Brazilians in the 1950s coped with mixed feelings
toward immigrant groups that many regarded as inassimilable. In this continuing
discussion of race, I highlight the struggle between the Gracies and their Afro-Brazilian
pupil, Santana, to shape discourses of “racial democracy” in Brazil. I use the articles
written by the Brazilian literati, Nelson Rodrigues, to analyze the pervasiveness of racism
12
Ibid.
12
in modern Brazil. While analyzing the process by which the Gracies strengthened their
role as national icons through their massive media exposure during the post-war.
Chapter Five has three interwoven sections that describe Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s
marginalization, expansion into a middle class realm and globalization. In the first, I
analyze how the military rulers marginalized the Gracies and their jiu-jitsu. In keeping
with recent works on Brazil’s dictatorship and the traditional historiography, the 1964
coup d'état is seen to have combined long-sought military ambitions to take power with
the external dynamic of the Cold War.13 Moving closer to the United States’ hemispheric
interests meant the adoption of U.S. military standards, including ones prescribing
Japanese judo as the martial art of choice in both military establishments.
In the second section, I exam two intertwined processes that occurred in the 1970s and
1980s. The first process deals with the technical improvement of ground combat that
made Brazilian jiu-jitsu a hybrid combat sport in its own right. Here I found useful
Eduardo Archetti’s findings analyzing the emergence of creole versions of foreign
codifications in Argentina as a result of a dialectical relationship between globalization
and nationalism.14 Furthermore, Brazilian jiu-jitsu similar to Argentinian football and
Polo, symbolizes a manifestation of cultural creativity developed through a dichotomous
process involving change and continuity.15 Yet, unlike Archetti’s periodization, I suggest
that it took five decades to Brazilian jiu-jitsu to became a hybrid martial art. The 1980s
13
See: Thomas E. Skidmore, The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964-85, (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1988).; James Naylor Green, We Cannot Remain Silent : Opposition to the Brazilian
Military Dictatorship in the United States, (Durham: Duke University Press).
14
Eduardo P. Archetti, Masculinities: Football, Polo, and the Tango in Argentina,(Oxford: Berg, 1999),
xv-xvii.
15
Ibid., 103.
13
marked the climax of a process of hybridization that started in the 1930s with jiu-jitsu’s
indigenization. My approach on how Brazilian jiu-jitsu became a hybrid combat sport is
grounded in evidence that I found analyzing the Gracies’ performances against worldclass opponents in Brazil and abroad from the 1980s onwards. At this point, Brazilian jiujitsu was no longer considered an exotic version of a Japanese martial art created by an
idiosyncratic group of individuals. It achieved afterwards international recognition and
only by then, as Archetti observed in Argentina, Brazil starts to export male performers
draped in jiu-jitsu gis on a global scale.16 I provide a detailed explanation of this process
in the beginning of the chapter five.
The second process analyzes how Brazilian jiu-jitsu became a middle class
martial art practiced against a background of democratization, economic downturn and
growth of urban violence in Brazil’s main cities.
The last section describes the of Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s transnational breaktrough
that result in its territorialization in the United States, Japan and beyond. In the 1980s, the
Gracies likewise hundred of thousands of other Brazilians emigrate to the United States.
The martial arts brought to the United States by the Gracies combined well with the
political climate of the Ronald Regan era and the creation of the hyper-masculine icons
by the Hollywood film industry. Against this backdrop, the Gracies adapted their
performances to new media technologies by creating a confrontation of disciplines in real
time and televised by cable TV. Simultaneously, they succeeded in making Brazilian jiujitsu the martial art of choice for the U.S. military and security forces to fight new threats
16
Archetti, Masculinities: Football, Polo, and the Tango in Argentina, 15.
14
posed by terrorism and counterinsurgency warfare. Finally, the practice of Brazilian jiujitsu spread from Japan to the Middle East, generating a millionary industry of violent
performances.
I initially planned to combine archival research and oral history to produce the
dissertation. However, the nature of the topic made me change my plans. Oral history,
particularly regarding the Gracies, turned out to be unfruitful. Due to their status as
international celebrities and the clannish rivalries related to powerful economic interests,
whenever questioned, they answer by repeating a standard “invented tradition” that can
be easily found on the internet. They jealously protected valuable family sources and
relics from outsiders. As was the case throughout their trajectories, they only disclose
family sources to produce reports that eulogize the Gracies’ past and present. In other
words, apart from informal conversations related to my Brazilian jiu-jitsu practice and
my personal experience more broadly, my work is exclusively the product of archival
research. My sources consist of newspapers, magazines, government and genealogical
records held in archives (private and public) in Brazil, United States, Japan and Scotland.
By virtue of the symbiotic relationship developed between the Gracies and
Brazilian jiu-jitsu I decided to provide a brief description of the Gracies’ past before they
discovered the Japanese martial art.
The Gracie – jiu-jitsu connection
15
In 1956, Hélio Gracie gave a six-page interview to the magazine O Cruzeiro
about his family past. There, the Lebanese-Brazilian journalist David Nasser unveiled the
Gracies’ aristocratic roots in an article entitled “The Gracie Dynasty” (A Dinastia
Gracie).
17
Nasser enthusiastically went back to the Gracies’ origins in Scotland and
thoroughly described their family story from the nineteenth century until the 1950s.
The pages of O Cruzeiro, which at the time was the most influential media
vehicle in Brazil, displayed pictures of bankers, nobles, diplomats and upper-class ladies
of the Gracie family. Most revealing of all were the words of Helio Gracie in the
headlines: “My dear Nasser, this article is addressed to those who find the Gracies
arrogant. Are not there reasons for this? Your pen has unveiled the secret of our success
that so far has been explained solely by our martial arts skills.”18
The article made clear that the past was the key to understanding how the Gracies
became the principal actors in the process of reinvention of Japanese jiu-jitsu in Brazil.
After all, Helio’s remarks left the impression that the Gracies were nothing but aristocrats
draped in jiu-jitsu gis.19 But in what sense were the Gracies aristocratic? What did it
mean to be rooted in Brazil’s elite?
17
David Nasser, "A Dinastia Gracie," O Cruzeiro, October 20, 1956, 102-08.
Ibid.
19
Jiu-jitsu’s outfit or uniform.
18
16
Figure 3: From left to the right: Peter Mac Nichols Gracie, Maria Carolina Gracie, Frederico Gracie, Gastão
Gracie, Cesarina Gracie, Carlos Gracie, Oswaldo Gracie, Gastão Gracie Junior, George Gracie and Hélio
Gracie carries Carlson Gracie. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1956. 20
On July 18 1795, James Gracie, a banker in Dumfries, sent his pony trap to
transport Robert Burns to the latter’s home. Burns was gravely ill and spent the following
two days in delirium before finally passing away on July 21. From the friendship that
developed during the Scottish bard’s last years, one poem in particular immortalized
James Gracie:
Gracie, thou art a man of worth,
O be thou Dean forever!
May he be damn'd to Hell henceforth
Who faults thy weight or measure!21
In the early nineteenth century, Scotland began to feel the impact of events abroad
and growing pressure from within. Externally, there was the threat of Napoleon;
internally, industrialization began to erode old traditions. Rapid urbanization brought
disease and poverty and increased pressure on the social fabric.22 The Gracies were
involved in financial business around the time of George Gracie’s birth. Information from
James Gracie’s will indicates that he was an accountant in Dumfries and prior to that was
involved in banking activities. Many Gracies had connections to trade, banking and
finance, although their business fortunes were volatile, which might be the reason that
they consistently appeared in court proceedings. Indeed, James Gracie’s fortunes appear
to have declined. From being a manager of a bank and a prominent citizen in Dumfries, a
20
Nasser, "A Dinastia Gracie," 102-03.
Robert Burns, The Poems and Songs of Robert Burns, (New York: P. F. Collier & Son, 1909), 513.
22
T. M. Devine, The Scottish Nation : A History, 1700-2000, (New York: Viking, 1999), 225-27.
21
17
lowland town with links to the Atlantic world through the tobacco trade, he was bankrupt
by the time of his death in 1814.23
George Gracie was born to James Gracie and Jean Patterson on August 4, 1801 at
Carronbridge, Parish of Morton, in the County of Dumfries.24 He was a son of James
Gracie’s second family, and with his father’s declining fortunes predictably looked to the
Atlantic world for new opportunities. He settled in Rio de Janeiro during the 1820s
following Brazil’s independence in 1822. He left behind a modernizing world for a
recently independent colony of the fading Portuguese Empire, where slavery was
pervasive, and where the Catholic establishment only tolerated Calvinists like himself.25
Despite this difficult transition, he became strategically placed to spearhead the interests
of British informal imperialism in Latin America. Later in life, he was to participate
actively in the early stages of economic modernization that followed the abolition of the
Atlantic slave trade in Brazil in the early 1850s.
The first Brazilian-born Gracies, including Peter Gracie, upheld their Scottish
roots. Yet the process of assimilation started with their conversion to Catholicism and
their integration into the local elite of businessmen. By late 1800s, the second generation
was Catholic and elitist, bankers and middlemen in the coffee and sugar trade. In the
wake of the structural crisis that ravaged Rio de Janeiro’s agricultural export-based
23
William McDowall, History of the Burgh of Dumfries : With Notices of Nithsdale, Annandale, and the
Western Border, (Edinburgh: A. & C. Black, 1867), 835.
24
“Marriage Certificate of James Gracie and Jane (Jean) Patterson (1798),” Old Parochial Register,
Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages (Scotland) Act 1965, s. 47, General Register Office, New
Register House, National Archives of Scotland, Edinburgh.
25
The Constitution of 1824 in its article number 5 declared Catholicism Brazil’s official religion. Other
Christian denominations had the right of cult since performing their cults in private. “Constituição Política
do Império do Brazil” (March 25 1824).
18
economy based on slave labor, the Gracies’ decadence became more visible. Finding
themselves in financial dire straits, they attempted to uphold their status by acting as
diplomats in the new republic of 1889. These new enterprises allowed the Gracies to
survive severe setbacks, and enabled them to preserve social capital fundamental for their
future ventures in the twentieth century.
The trajectories of the Gracies in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
demonstrated their attempts to uphold their status in a new political regime. They also
display the Gracies’ struggle to retain their aristocratic values and social practices during
the transition to modernity. They entered a new era in which their tradition was gradually
eroding under the effects of modernizing forces. Their economic and social roller coaster
ride at the turn of the century explains how they wound up coming across the martial art
known as Japanese jiu-jitsu.
Gastão Gracie, born on July 30, 1873, was the twelfth child of Peter Gracie and
Mariana Carolina Pinheiro. He was likely named after the Count d’Eu, Gaston d’Orléans,
son-in-law of Emperor Pedro II and husband of Princess Isabel. 26 It seems reasonable to
assume this since his father also was named after the emperor himself and, perhaps more
significantly, his maternal grandfather served in Gaston d’Orléans’ entourage.27
Louis Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston d’Orléans (April 28, 1842-August 28, 1921). After the February
Revolution of 1848 in France, he and his family lived in exile in England. In 1864 he and his brother came
to Brazil to marry the two daughters of Emperor Pedro II.
27
Peter Gracie had business with the Count d’Eu. “Título: Venda de terreno. Outorgante: Conde D'Eu.
Outorgado: Pedro Gracie,” Livro: 312, Folhas: 67 v. (11/10/1878) Ofício: 3º, Seção de filmes- rolo nº:
010.38-79. Arquivo Nacional do Rio de Janeiro.
26
19
Gastão, following the example of his older brothers Alberto and Samuel, went to
Germany to study and subsequently joined the diplomatic corps.28 In August 14, 1897,
Gastão was approved for a consular position in the Foreign Affairs Ministry (Itamaraty).
He was examined in German and Spanish, in addition to the English and French tests he
had already undertaken. In another document from August 23, 1897 addressed to the
Brazilian Plenipotentiary Minister in Berlin, Marcos Antonio de Araujo e Abreu, Gastão
Gracie formally requested his diplomatic credentials to assume the post of GeneralConsul of Brazil to Hamburg.29 Gastão was appointed on August 23 1897, but he never
took his consular post in Hamburg.30 Apparently, he lost his the position because of
political nepotism, which indicates that the Gracies lacked sufficient influence and would
have to adjust themselves to the new order.31
At the close of the century, Gastão Gracie left Rio de Janeiro for the Brazilian
Amazon. In 1901, he married Cesalina Pessoa in Belém, capital of the state of Pará, four
years after he had lost his diplomatic appointment.32 Gasoline Pessoa de Vasconcellos
was a member of a clannish, gentry family from northeast Brazil. Her family, as the other
thousands of northeastern backlanders expelled from drought and famine, settled in the
Alberto became diplomat in 1883 and Samuel became Chile’s consul to Rio de Janeiro in 1905. Gastão
Gracie was chemist trained in Germany according to information given in Gracie’s genealogy. João Simões
Filho, “Gastão Gracie,” Arquivo Paulo Carneiro da Cunha, Colégio Brasileiro de Genealogia, Rio de
Janeiro.
29
“Requisição de ‘exequatur,’ Gastão Gracie ao Ministro Plenipotenciário do Brasil em Berlim
(23/08/1897) Lata 568, maço 1.” Arquivo Histórico do Itamaraty, Rio de Janeiro.
30
Jornal do Brasil, August 24 1897, n.p.
31
Felinto Roriz Vianna de Abreu was the diplomat assigned to replace Gastão Gracie. Brazil. Ministério
das Relações Exteriores., Raul Adalberto de Campos, and Manoel Alvaro de Souza Sá Vianna, eds.,
Relações Diplomaticas Do Brasil, Contendo Os Nomes Dos Representantes Diplomaticos Dos Brasil No
Estrangeiro E Os Dos Representantes Diplomaticos Dos Diversos Paizes No Rio De Janeiro De 1808 a
1912 (Rio de Janeiro, Typ. do "Jornal do commercio," de Rodrigues & c.,: 1913), 3.
32
João Simões Filho, “Gastão Gracie,” Arquivo Paulo Carneiro da Cunha, Colégio Brasileiro de
Genealogia, Rio de Janeiro.
28
20
Amazon to exploit and profit from the rubber boom.33 Unlike scores of poor backlanders,
Cesalina’s family brought resources and social prestige to their new home. Once settled
in the Amazon, her family sought marriages with entrepreneurial outsiders. Gastão
Gracie, who arrived from the nation’s capital, well educated, polyglot, and from a good
family background, seemed to be the perfect bachelor.34
Instead of landing in a sleepy backwater port-town in the Brazilian frontier,
Gastão discovered a tropical urban center experiencing economic expansion and
modernization.35 Euclides da Cunha, a Brazilian intellectual sent to the Amazon on a
diplomatic mission to settle border disputes between Brazil and Peru, during the same
period, described the Haussmannian boulevards that sprawled throughout the city in the
region he called “the land without history”.36 Leaving the nation’s capital for a provincial
center, he opted for the most dynamic region in the country after Brazil’s coffee
powerhouse, São Paulo.37
Between 1902 and 1917, the young couple had eight children: their first-born,
Carlos, was born in 1902 and during their stay in Belém the others followed every three
years or so.38 Gracie’s previous training in Germany led him to start a business importing
33
Charles E. Stokes, The Amazon Bubble : World Rubber Monopoly, (Fort McKavett, Tex.: n.p., 2000), 19.
Cristina Donza Cancela, "Casamento E Relacoes Familiares Na Economia Da Borracha (Belem, 18701920)", Ph.D. Dissertation, Universidade de Sao Paulo, 2006, 305-10.
35
By the turn of the century, the population of Belém was around 100,000 inhabitants. The city of São
Paulo, for example, receiving an already massive number of immigrants had 260,000 inhabitants.
36
Euclides da Cunha, Ronald W. Sousa, and L cia Sá, eds., The Amazon : Land without History,
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), xi.
37
Ana Maria Daou, A Belle Epoque Amazonica, (Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar Editor, 2000), 23.
38
Carlos Gracie was born on September 15 1902 and Hélio Gracie was born on November 1 1912. The
other brothers and sisters respectively born in the following order: Oswaldo Gracie (August 29 1903)
Gastão Gracie Filho (April 11 1906) Helena Gracie (August 13 1906) George Gracie (1911) Mary Gracie
(February 3 1915) and Ilka Gracie (1917). João Simões Filho, Arquivo Paulo Carneiro da Cunha, Colégio
Brasileiro de Genealogia, Rio de Janeiro.
34
21
dynamite. His skills with explosives made him momentarily famous during the violent
political disputes that rocked the city in 1912.39 In that year the political rivalry for
control of the state of Pará reached a climax. Gastão Gracie was a member of the Partido
Republicano Democrático (Democratic Republican Party) created in 1889 as a political
meeting point for liberal monarchists after the inauguration of the republic. The party
defended federalism, local autonomy, the abolition of political nepotism, religious
freedom and the secularization of the cemeteries.40
During the violent tug-of-war
between local political forces and the federal government, Gastão found another use for
his chemistry skills. In May of 1912, the newspaper A Provincia do Pará accused him of
plotting to explode the newspaper’s offices in exchange for a huge sum of money. 41 The
political rival of Gastão’s party, the local political boss Antônio Lemos owned the
newspaper. In the wake of the political dispute, Gastão’s political allies forcibly ejected
Antônio Lemos from office.42
In this bloody intra-oligarchic political battle, Gastão’s political party was among
the winners; for him particularly, the victory meant local press support for his next
venture. During World War I, the cosmopolitan would-be diplomat left the dynamite
business and entered into the world of Vaudeville, managing wrestlers in his new
enterprise called American Circus.
39
Carlos Rocque, Antônio Lemos E Sua Epoca : História Política Do Pará, (Belém, PA: Editora Cejup,
1996), 354.
40
Ernesto Horácio da Cruz, História Do Pará, (Belém, PA: Governo do Estado do Pará, 1973), 551.
41
Rocque, Antônio Lemos E Sua Epoca : História Política Do Pará, 354.
42
Barbara Weinstein, The Amazon Rubber Boom, 1850-1920, (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press,
1983), 249.
22
In two generations, the Gracies rose from Scottish immigrants to Brazilian gentry.
In the first instance, their fortunes were tied to the fate of Rio de Janeiro’s export-oriented
economy. The economic decline in the late 1880s forced the Gracies to consider new
options to sustain their patrician status. They had to leave a world that combined the
violence of slavery with planter and mercantile privilege and adjust themselves to the
narrow avenues offered by bureaucracy and new business ventures. The Gracies made the
transition because they were educated, well connected and able to uphold socially
acceptable standards including the ones for being potential marriage partners in the
gentry.
David Nasser’s story published in O Cruzeiro in 1956 sought to resurrect the
Gracies' “grandeur” during a period in which they reached fame and prestige through the
practice of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. The piece failed to mention that they were members of an
elite who profited from slavery and whose world was seriously challenged by the the
changes set in motion at the turn of the century. The Gracie’s promotion of Japanese jiujitsu was one form of engagement with modernization.
23
Chapter 1 - Modernization and nationalism: the origin of
Brazilian jiu-jitsu, 1905-1920
Introduction
This chapter begins by presenting vignettes of two confrontations that pitted
practitioners of Japanese jiu-jitsu against those of the Afro-Brazilian martial art known as
Capoeira. It introduces debates about the adoption of jiu-jitsu associated with the
conflicting relationship between local and foreign cultures in Brazil. The vignettes also
reveal contradictory discourses on modernization, race and identity. Later, it describes
how the Brazilian elite’s perception of Japan as a model of modernization facilitated the
introduction of jiu-jitsu in the wake of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The
proponents of Japanese jiu-jitsu as a modern method of physical education for the
military found a tenacious opponent in Brazilian nationalist who favored Afro-Brazilian
Capoeira.
The second section addresses jiu-jitsu’s introduction in the Brazilian Amazon
during World War I, a transnational and dialectical process of individual paths and
historical forces. The encounter of the Japanese martial artist Mayeda Mitsuyo and the
Scottish-Brazilian Gracies must be seen in the context of a new arena of struggle between
foreign and local cultures in Brazil’s periphery.43 Unlike the previous attempts to import
jiu-jitsu in Rio de Janeiro, the school brought by Mayeda Mitsuyo to the Amazon, known
43
For Japanese names surnames come first.
24
as Kodokan judo, combined technical improvements and philosophical modernity while
keeping jiu-jitsu’s quintessential traditionalistic appeal.
The circumstances surrounding the encounter of Mayeda with the Gracies are
critical to understanding the later acculturation of Japanese jiu-jitsu. The former was
temporarily alienated from his martial art school in Japan as a result of his participation
in professional prizefighting. The economic crisis that hit the Amazon led the would-be
diplomat Gastão Gracie to become an impresario of wrestlers and a partner in a local
circus. The nature of Gracies’ apprenticeship with Mayeda Mitsuyo, who was known in
the Amazon by his stage name “Count Koma,” contributed significantly to the
acculturation of Japanese jiu-jitsu.
Round 1: Japanese jiu-jitsu versus Brazilian Capoeira in Rio de
Janeiro’s Belle Époque, 1909
On May 1, 1909 at the Concerto Avenida (Concert Avenue Theatre) in downtown
Rio de Janeiro, an Afro-Brazilian capoeira fighter named Francisco Cyríaco (nicknamed
“Old Monkey”) and Japanese martial artist Sada Miako were about to fight the match of
their lives.44 Cyríaco was born 38 years earlier among the sugar cane fields of northern
Rio de Janeiro State at a time when slavery still existed in Brazil.45 He worked carrying
44
Capoeira is an Afro-Brazilian martial art developed over the centuries during the period of slavery in
Brazil. It is probably rooted in rites of African war dances notably in what is now the Congo and Angola. It
is a highly acrobatic martial art that combines kicks, leg sweeps, head butts, elbow and knee strikes. It was
outlawed in the late nineteenth century but reemerged as a combat sport during the twentieth century.
45
Cyríaco was born in the town of Campos dos Goytacazes in1871. In the same year the “Law of Free
Womb” ordered the manumission of children born to slave mothers. Therefore, he may or may not have
born a slave. Final abolition only occurred in 1888. "Jiu-Jitsu Contra Capoeira," O Malho, 15 May, 1909,
18-19.
25
sacks of coffee in downtown Rio. In the violent streets of Rio de Janeiro’s belle époque,
he had earned a reputation as a tough street fighter. His opponent, Sada Miako, had been
hired by the Brazilian Navy to teach jiu-jitsu to its elitist officer corps. Cyríaco, however,
also had support from the local elite. He was supported by medical school students at the
National Academy of Medicine in downtown Rio de Janeiro who, emboldened by their
enthusiastic nationalism, urged him to defend what they had started to perceive as a
Brazilian combat sport.46
Sada Miako also performed public fights, as did other Japanese martial artists
while teaching jiu-jitsu in the West. The fight, however, had first to overcome resistance
from authorities. The Republican Criminal Code of 1890 outlawed the public practice of
Capoeira because
monarchists resorted to Capoeira street gangs to intimidate
Republicans in the last years of the imperial regime.47 Upon insistent requests, authorities
bent the law and Cyríaco declared: “I am quite confident in my skills, if I have a shot, I
will not disappoint you.” He had to wear the traditional jiu-jitsu uniform (gi), a measure
that suggests an attempt to make the Afro-Brazilian “respectable” and “clean” when
representing the national colors. Cyríaco himself later described the episode:
I went up there, saluted the Japanese and began my ginga.48 I sized
him up, faked a slap and applied a leg sweep that had him off balance.
But he stood. The crowd yelled: ‘Go for it Cyríaco!’ I resumed my
46
"A Capoeiragem Vencedora Do Jiu-Jitsu," Careta, 29 May, 1909, n.p.
Thomas H. Holloway, "A Healthy Terror: Police Repression of Capoeiras in Nineteenth-Century Rio De
Janeiro ", The Hispanic American Historical Review 69, No. 4 (1989): 671. Also see: Maya Talmon
Chvaicer, "The Criminalization of Capoeira in Nineteenth-Century Brazil," The Hispanic American
Historical Review, 82, No. 3 (2002): 535.
48
“Ginga” is believed to be a word of Bantu origin and one of the basic movements of Capoeira. “It is one
of the features that set capoeira apart from all other martial arts. Roughly translated it means swing in
English. What makes the ginga special is that it puts capoeiristas in constant motion, making them a very
frustrating target for an opponent.” Nestor Capoeira, The Little Capoeira Book, (Berkeley, Calif.: North
Atlantic Books, 2003), 62.
47
26
ginga leaning my body left and unleashed a rabo de arraia (stingray
tail’s sweep) that made him eat the dust. I saluted the audience, gazed
towards the man holding the clock, but the Japanese refused to
continue.49
Cyríaco cleverly avoided close combat that would favor the Japanese grappling fighting
style. Instead, he kept a distance while getting the Japanese off-balance by continuously
performing a Capoeira ginga. The Japanese then attempted to apply a jiu-jitsu technique
called Morote-Gari (double-leg takedown), but Cyríaco struck first and applied a circular
kick (rabo- de- arraia) that hit the Japanese on the head; Sada Miako was knocked down.
Figure 4: Pavilhao Internacional known as Concerto Avenida.50 Source: rioquepassou.com.br, 2010.
Figure 5: Morote-Gari: The technique attempted by Sada Miako. Source: kodokan.org, 2010.
49
"Jiu-Jitsu Contra Capoeira," 18. This and all subsequent translations by the author unless otherwise
indicated.
50
The Pavilhão Internacional built in 1906 in downtown Rio became an entertainment facility known as
Concerto Avenida.
27
Figure 6: Rabo-de-arraia (stingray tail’s sweep), technique applied by Cyríaco.51 Source: Gymnastica
Nacional (Capoeiragem) Methodizada e Regrada, 1928.
The audience burst into cheers, and carried Cyríaco on their shoulders throughout the
streets of downtown crying: “Brazil brought Asia to its knees!’’ Local dailies reported a
wave of patriotism in the wake of Cyríaco’s victory. Articles with many pictures
highlighted the face-off between “a foreign martial art brought by the Navy, against
another, which despite being genuinely Brazilian, remained marginalized.”52 The
magazine O Malho reflected the nationalistic mood: “This was well done! It is the
evidence that we do not need to import anything from other countries: we have corn and
beans. From abroad we only need potatoes!”53 Just outside the Concerto-Avenida Cyríaco
enjoyed his recent celebrity re-telling his epic achievement over and over. He only had
one complaint: they could have taken a better picture of him to place in the magazine.
The magazine O Malho agreed to run a new article with a new picture under the headline:
51
Annibal Burlamaqui, Gymnastica Nacional (Capoeiragem) Methodizada E Regrada, (Rio de Janeiro:
s.n., 1928),
52
"Jiu-Jitsu Contra Capoeira," 19.
53
Ibid.
28
“Jiu-jitsu against Capoeira: Cyríaco, the hero.”54 In addition, after many articles about the
fight, the magazine found a way to restore the racial hierarchy turned upside down by
Cyríaco’s victory. A cartoon published in the magazine called his triumph “a mulatto’s
victory”, ignoring Cyriaco’s blackness.55 Transforming Cyríaco into a mulatto instead of
referring to him as black was certainly an attempt to make him acceptable to the local
elite.56
Figure 7: “A capoeiragem vencedora do Jiu-Jitsu.”57 Source: Revista Careta, 1909.
54
Ibid.
Ibid. Mulatto is the offspring of white and black. In Brazil, unlike in the United States, the category
“mulatto” encompasses a myriad of color denominations within a more loosely stratified racial
categorization found in Brazil. Carl Degler claims that mulattos in Brazil enjoy a favored social standing
compared to blacks. Carl N. Degler, Neither Black nor White : Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and
the United States, (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), passim.
56
Cyríaco died three years after his victory over Sada Myako. O Estado de São Paulo, May 19 1912, n.p.
57
Cyríaco performing Capoeira moves at Medical School’s patio in Rio de Janeiro. "A Capoeiragem
Vencedora Do Jiu-Jitsu."
55
29
Figure 8: “Jiu-jitsu Contra Capoeira: Cyríaco o heroe.” O Malho, 1909.
Round 2: Kodokan judo versus Capoeira in the Brazilian Amazon, 1915
On October 1915, the newspaper Folha do Norte announced the vaudeville
attractions recently arrived in Belém, the capital of Pará State in the Brazilian Amazon.
The events were scheduled to take place in a local version of the Parisian Moulin Rouge
called Bar Paraense. Foreign artists were promoted, promising great excitement to
entertain the cosmopolitan elite living on the Brazilian frontier during the rubber boom.
Among the performances by Italian, French and American artists, a troupe of martial
artists stood out. They were Japanese performing jiu-jitsu and defiantly offered 5,000
30
francs to anyone capable of beating them.58 The spectacle was promoted in great style by
having the Japanese parading wearing their jiu-jitsu outfits on the Haussmannian
boulevards built during the heyday of the rubber boom.
The season was a huge success. The local press was impressed with the Japanese
physique and coined the epithet “Nippon Hercules” to describe them.59 In keeping with
the traditional vaudeville-styled martial art presentations of the time, they reserved part of
their spectacle for amateurs to fight the professionals for previously stipulated prize
money. Wrestlers, laborers, “tough guys,” and even vagrants were attracted by the
possibility of pocketing money in times of economic recession.60 Among the candidates,
one in particular stirred a great deal of expectation. His nickname was Pé de Bola (Ball
Foot), and was a local street fighter and capoerista. He became infamous over the years in
the poor periphery of Belém for his roughness. He was also a henchman of Antonio
Lemos, a fallen political boss ousted by an enraged mob in 1912. The excitement caused
by the impending confrontation between Japanese jujitsu and Afro-Brazilian Capoeira
made the public temporarily forget Pé de Bola’s bad reputation as a thug of a former
local political boss.61 Press and public patriotically closed ranks behind a man who had
58
"Bar Paraense," Folha do Norte, October 28 1915, n.p.
"Desafio," Folha do Norte, October 18 1915, n.p. The denomination “Nippon Hercules” was widely
employed in the West to describe Japanese martial artists. One of the earliest usages of the epithet I found
in the comic and satiric British magazine called Punch in 1894. Mark Lemon et al., "Punch," (London:
Punch Publications Limited, 1894), 150.
60
The rubber-based economy turned the Brazilian Amazon into an international entrepôt connected to great
centers in Europe and the United States. Foreign currency circulated freely in cities of Belém and Manaus.
Yet one could speculate that since the French currency experienced a strong devaluation in exchange rates
after 1915; its use may indicate a strategy devised by the Japanese to minimize eventual setbacks. The prize
stipulated was equivalent to five of the most expensive tickets for the spectacle.
61
Luiz Augusto Pinheiro Leal, A Politica Da Capoeiragem : A Historia Social Da Capoeira E Do BoiBumba No Para Republicano (1888-1906), (Salvador, BA: EDUFBA, 2008), 182-84.
59
31
once represented old fashioned politics and who was equated “the nation” as opposed to
“foreign forces.”
Satake Soishiro, picked to represent the troupe, was not an ordinary Japanese
martial artist drifting in the West under dubious credentials. He and another who used the
nom de guerre “Count Koma” were skilled martial artists and masters of the cutting-edge
style of modern jiu-jitsu known as Kodokan judo. Newspaper headlines shouted: “Today:
Capoeira against jiu-jitsu! Everyone to Bar Paraense!”62 Satake easily defeated Pé de
Bola, causing profound disappointment among local patriots. The newspaper covering the
event sarcastically observed that the local tragic hero never had a chance to use his
famous rabo de arraia (stingray’s tail sweep). Worse still, “He did not even try a simple
rasteira (foot sweep), a basic technique used by any kid in the streets.”63
One may be tempted to imagine that among those who had poured in to watch the
fight was the owner of a local circus and manager of foreign wrestlers. His name was
Gastão Gracie. As we have seen he was the scion of an aristocratic Scottish-Brazilian
family from Rio de Janeiro, the son of a former slave owner, but also cosmopolitan,
sophisticated and well educated. He, like the Japanese, was attracted by the riches of the
rubber boom in the Amazon. If he was there, he would have been pleased to witness the
Japanese’s triumph. He had been among those who actively participated in the violent
overthrow of Pé de Bola’s political patron.
One journalist covering the event who had steadfastly supported Capoeira prior to
the fight wrote a public apology. The journalist admitted that he, like most Brazilians of
62
63
"Hoje: Capoeira Contra Jiu-Jitsu! Todos Ao Bar Paraense," Folha do Norte, November 7 1915, n.p.
"Bar Paraense."
32
his social rank, naively fell under the spell of this street Capoeira. But he concluded in
relief; “Fortunately not all Brazilians believed in it.”64
The Japanese’s victory over Capoeira helps to explain why jiu-jitsu gained adepts
in the Amazon more easily than during its ephemeral introduction in Rio de Janeiro. Yet,
in addition to the symbol of nationalism being defeated by imported trends, another factor
made jiu-jitsu’s experience in the Amazon unique - its continuation through a local
lineage of martial artists, the Scottish-Brazilian Gracies.
Figure 9: Mayeda Mitsuyo as Kodokan judo black belt. Source: Meiji Bankara Kaijin Den, 1989.
64
Ibid.
33
Figure 10: Mayeda Mitsuyo, the “Count Koma” performing a reverse armlock (ude-garami) as a
professional wrestler. Source: Meiji Bankara Kaijin Den, 1989.
Figure 11: Troupe Koma” touring in Latin America. Left to right: Mayeda Mitsuyo, Satake, Ono and Ito.
Source: Meiji Bankara Kaijin Den, 1989.
34
Figure 12: Japanese jiu-jitsu beats French Savate.65 Source: Le Judo, 1996.
Turn of the century modernization: Navy and Japanese jiu-jitsu
Brazilian elites began to discuss modernization as early as the mid-nineteenth
century, but implementation of measures aimed at modernization accelerated after the
proclamation of the republic in 1889. A comprehensive range of policies was envisioned
by the Brazilian elite to make the country viable as a “modern” nation. The historian
Richard Graham has defined modernization in Brazil as:
A process of overall changing in Brazil, after the 1850s, encompassing
economic development, modifications in the social structure, alterations
of individual beliefs and attitudes, as well as adoption of more
“Western,” European word-view and societal structure.66
Immigration to Brazil was encouraged to meet the growing demand for labor after
the abolition of slavery. Simultaneously, immigration was also a strategy to reconfigure
65
This image represents an example of public fights pitting jiu-jitsu practitioners and local martial artists,
jiu-jitsu versus Savate (French national combat sport). The picture shows the jiu-jitsu’s practitioner victory
by arm lock (Juji-Gatame). Public fights confronting martial disciplines were common by early twentieth
century. Michel Brousse, Le Judo : Son Histoire, Ses Succès, (Genève: Liber, 1996), 34-35.
66
Richard Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil 1850-1914, (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1968), xi.
35
the ethnic fabric of Brazilian society.67 Japan, by late nineteenth century, emerged as a
potential source of migrants to help Brazil’s export-commodity economy running.68
Unlike the previous failed attempt with Chinese immigrants in the 1870s and 1880s,
Japan had its image associated to a paradox: as a source of labor to replace slaves and
model of modernization.69
The new Republican regime established formal diplomatic relations with Japan in
1895, demonstrating a growing interest in the modernization of the Meiji era.70 Brazilian
diplomats stationed in Japan highlighted the benefits of having in the future Japanese
immigrants settling in Brazil. According to Henrique Lisboa, the Japanese had initiative,
inventiveness and adaptability that enabled them to perform tasks rapidly with economy
and efficiency.71 By contrast, still according to Lisboa, Chinese indolence and lack of
efficiency confirmed their backwardness, making them unfit as immigrants in modern
Brazil.72
Cultural aspects of Japanese lifestyle did not escape the gaze of Brazilian
diplomats. Manoel de Oliveira Lima, the Brazilian consular representative, produced a
67
Jeff Lesser, Negotiating National Identity : Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in
Brazil, (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999), 4.
68
Steven Topik and Mario Samper, "The Latin American Coffee Commodity Chain: Brazil and Costa
Rica," in From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World
Economy, 1500-2000, ed. Steven Topik, Carlos Marichal, and Zephyr Frank (Durham, N.C.: Duke
University Press, 2006), 122.
69
Lesser, Negotiating National Identity : Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil,
38. Thomas E. Skidmore, "Racial Ideas and Social Policy in Brazil, 1870-1940," in The Idea of Race in
Latin America, ed. et al. Aline Helg (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 12.
70
Lesser, Negotiating National Identity : Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil,
38.
71
Ibid.
72
Henrique Lisboa, "Legacao Brasileira Em Tokyo: Relatorio Ao Ministro Das Relacoes Exteriores
Dionisio De Castro Cerqueira," 29 dezembro1897, Emigracao e Comercio do Japao com o Brazil, Arquivo
Historico do Itamaraty, Rio de Janeiro.
36
lengthy traveler’s account. Observing a popular theatrical spectacle in Kyoto in 1903, he
described “this style of local Capoeira peculiar to Japan known as jujutsu, in which one
takes the opponent down by grabbing his legs.”73
Diplomats were not the only ones detecting innovations abroad. The Brazilian
Navy, in particular, was in a privileged position to observe new trends since its warships
were assigned to regular instructional seafaring as early as 1870, and to circumnavigation
cruises after 1879 that included visits to Japan.74 Furthermore, after the War of the Triple
Alliance (1864-1870), the military saw North Atlantic nations as paragons of modernity
for Brazil.75
After its unexpected victory over the Russians in 1905, Japan consolidated its status as a
“modern nation" for Brazilians.76 The military intelligentsia, in particular, amazed by
Japan’s performance on the battlefield enthusiastically embraced the formula of using the
practice of Japanese martial arts as a tool to enforce policies embedded in neoLamarckianism. Less deterministic than other eugenic currents, it claimed to be possible
to promote “racial regeneration” through the implementation of social reforms.77 For
Émile Durkheim, in order to create a healthy society, “it was imperative that the
development of all its functions be regular, harmonious and proportioned.”78 Thus, the
73
Oliveira Lima, No Japão : Impressões Da Terra E Da Gente, (Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Topbooks : NEC do
Brasil, 1997), 203. There are accounts of a Japanese martial artist called Takezawa Manji hired to instruct
the imperial guard of Brazil’s last emperor Pedro II. Koei Ogasowara, Os Imigrantes Japoneses
Precursores - Um Olhar Histórico Sobre O Período Pré-Kasato-Maru, (Sao Paulo: Museu Historico da
Imigracao Japonesa no Brasil, 2008), 6.
74
Historia Naval Brasileira, vol. 4, (Rio de Janeiro: Servico de Documentacao da Marinha, 2001), 109-12.
75
Beattie, The Tribute of Blood : Army, Honor, Race, and Nation in Brazil, 1864-1945, 68.
76
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
77
Nancy Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics : Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America, (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1991), 91-92.
78
Émile Durkheim, “Suicide et Natalité. Étude de Statisque Morale,” Revue Philosophique 26 (1888): 447.
37
military support for physical fitness was part of a larger project aiming to promote public
sanitation and public-hygiene measures.
The introduction of Japanese jiu-jitsu in the early1900s in Brazil reflected the
growing interest about Japan in North America and Europe. Turn- of- the- century
modernization compelled Western nations to share similar goals, concerns and new
models of manliness, as Mathias Röhrig Assunção has argued:
The growing of imperialist rivalries prior to World War I serves to
confirm the teachings of Social Darwinism. Since drafted conscripts
were now fighting in large-scale wars, strategists underlined the
importance of national recruits-and therefore, the entire male
population -being well trained. Early attempts to develop national
methods of training began in Europe in the early nineteenth century.
Ever since gymnastics have been as a means to improve the male
fitness of the nations and therefore, its martial capacity.79
In 1905, Navy officers, Captain Santos Porto and Lieutenant Adler de Aquino, translated
a jiu-jitsu manual written by the American author Harrie Irving Hancock. Hancock was a
chemist, journalist and writer who became a turn-of-the century expert on Japanese
martial arts. He introduced jiu-jitsu to Western audiences by encouraging its adoption by
the military, law enforcement agencies and women and children. His books were
advertised in The New York Times, the ad said that the “oath-bound secret of ‘samurai,’ is
now open to all to learn, even to foreigners.”80 Among the many books he wrote on the
subject, one was titled “Japanese Physical Training; the System of Exercise, Diet, and
79
Matthias Röhrig Assunção, Capoeira : A History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art, (London: Routledge,
2005), 15.
80
"Jiu-Jitsu: Three Books on Japanese Physical Training for Men, Women and Children," The New York
Times, June 18 1904, BR410.
38
General Mode of Living That Has Made the Mikado People the Healthiest, Strongest,
and Happiest Men and Women in the World.”81
The introduction written by Captain Santos Porto is the most interesting section of
the book. There he voiced his concerns for the future of a vast nation shouldered on a
“fragile and broken race.” 82 Like most of the Brazilian intellectuals of the day, Santos
Porto equated modernity with temperate climates, good nutrition and practice of sports.
By contrast, according to him, Brazil was an antithesis of modernity because the majority
of Brazilians was living under unfavorable climatic conditions, suffering from
malnutrition and lack of physical activities.83 For the Navy officer, the practice of
physical education would help Brazilians overcome their weakness and match with the
country’s exuberant nature. Santos Porto, for example, stated that the misuse of Capoeira
during the monarchy prevented Capoeira to be adopted in the military. He claimed that
there was a time, at least in an imaginary past he envisioned, that masters and slaves
practiced Capoeira together:
In colonial times, slaves taught Capoeira to the scions of distinguished
families. However, during the monarchy, the use of Capoeira by
criminals led to the abandonment of an excellent school of physical
education.84
81
The book translated by the Navy officers was essentially a canon of turn-of-the-century Japanese jiu-jitsu
published in its Portuguese version without any additional changes. Despite being directed connected to
Japan via diplomatic relations, Japanese culture was mostly introduced to Brazil through the United States
and Europe.
82
J. A. Santos e Aquino Porto, F. Radler, Educacao Physica Japoneza, (Rio de Janeiro: Companhia
Typografica do Brazil, 1905), n.p.
83
Peter Beattie points out the creation of Swiss-style gun clubs encouraged by the Minister of War,
Marshal Hermes da Fonseca, as a way to increase public interest in military service. Beattie, The Tribute of
Blood : Army, Honor, Race, and Nation in Brazil, 1864-1945, 209.
84
Porto, Educacao Physica Japoneza.
39
Santo Porto’s reservations about the practice of Capoeira may refer to the formation of
violent militias of capoeiristas (Capoeira players) supporting the monarchy during its
waning days. This contributed to Capoeira’s criminalization in the Republican criminal
code of 1891.85 For Republicans like Santos Porto, this brief political association between
Capoeira and the “backward” monarchy made the Afro-Brazilian combat sport
inadequate to prepare the young Brazilians to perform “the noble deed of ruling over the
nation.”86
Santos Porto represented a type of a Navy officer, fiercely Republican and
nationalist.87 The former held a high-profile position within the Republican establishment
and actively wrote articles for magazines that expressed cultural vanguards.88 Their views
regarding physical education were in keeping with the embryonic intellectual movement
that resisted complete acceptance of European racist theories. Instead, they followed local
intellectuals such as Alberto Torres, who as Thomas Skidmore has observed, avoided
“the deterministic cul-de-sac” imported from Europe. Torres sought to explain Brazilian
relative backwardness by mixing ideas of environmental determinism derived from neo-
85
Brazilian criminal code prescribed punishment in public spaces for practices generically labeled as
capoeiragem. Holloway, "A Healthy Terror: Police Repression of Capoeiras in Nineteenth-Century Rio De
Janeiro " 671.
86
Porto, Educacao Physica Japoneza.
87
Frank D. McCann, "Origins of the "New Professionalism" of the Brazilian Military," Journal of
Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 21, No. 4 (1979): 510. Santos Porto fought to defend the republic
against attempts to restore the monarchy. The Republican regime promoted Santos Porto “for distinguished
service” in defense of the Republic.” Atanagildo Barata Ribeiro, Sonho No Carcere. Dramas Da Revolucao
De 1893 No Brazil. Poema, Rio de Janeiro: Casa Mont'alverne, 1895), xxxv,xxxix.
88
Santos Porto was chief of the Casa Militar that is a high-profile position held by a military who act as a
liaison between the two service chiefs (Army and Navy) and the president.
40
Lamarckianism and Franz Boas’ innovative approach refuting biological theories of
white superiority.89
Despite his enthusiastic support for modernization, Santos Porto was also a
nationalist. He sought to explain Capoeira’s troubles as the result of an ephemeral
political association with the monarchy. Yet perhaps reflecting his adherence to neoLamarckianism, he left open the possibility for the future “regeneration” of the AfroBrazilian martial arts.
Within the military establishment, initiatives to adopt Capoeira as a method of
physical education occurred almost simultaneously to Santos Porto’s support for jiu-jitsu.
In 1907, for example, the manual Guia do Capoeira ou Gymnástica Brasileira (Guide to
Capoeira or Brazilian Gymnastics) was published.90 Despite claiming to be a highranking army officer, the author remained anonymous. His behavior starkly contrasted
with that of Santos Porto and Radler de Aquino, who openly advocated the adoption of
Japanese jiu-jitsu. This distinct behavior indicated that there were military officers and
civilians defending the adoption of Capoeira as a form of physical education, but they did
not come forward because of its association with Afro-Brazilian culture.
The political cartoon published by the magazine O Malho is emblematic of the
association between Capoeira and nationalism. The cartoon used Cyríaco’s victory to
criticize President Campos Salles. By portraying the latter as the “Japanese president,”
the author sought to criticize the republican political system established after 1889 in
89
Don Mitchell, Cultural Geography : A Critical Introduction, (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2000), 1820.; Beattie, The Tribute of Blood : Army, Honor, Race, and Nation in Brazil, 1864-1945, 234. Lesser,
Negotiating National Identity : Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil, 3-4.
Dávila, Diploma of Whiteness : Race and Social Policy in Brazil, 1917-1945, 28.
90
Guia Do Capoeira Ou Gymnástica Brasileira, (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Nacional, 1907).
41
which politicians from the ranks of the traditional landed oligarchies of São Paulo and
Minas Gerais rotated the presidency of the country.
President Afonso Penna is depicted as arrogant by trying to influence the choice
of his successor. The cartoon compares his political actions to the arrogance of those
supporting importation of Japanese jiu-jitsu. Consequently, ordinary Brazilians (Zé
Povinho) would defeat the representative of the oligarchy just as Cyríaco defeated Sada
Myako.
Figure 13: “Jiu-Jitsu Contra Capoeira.”91 Source: O Malho, 1909.
Yet the criticism made by the nationalists was not free of racism. In depicting Cyríaco’s
victory over the Japanese, the magazine described the former as “a mulatto who stopped
91
"Jiu-Jitsu Contra 'Capoeira'," O Malho, May 8, 1909, 41.
42
the Japanese insolent behavior” Just below, in an analogy between the fight and politics,
the image of the Brazilian people (o povo) became white.92
Similar to the political cartoon shown above in the first vignette in the beginning
of the chapter lessened Cyríaco’s blackness. The articles published in the Rio de Janeiro
press praising his triumph over the Japanese provided a picture of how ideas of race had
evolved in Brazil against a background of modernization and nationalism. The piece
penned by the intellectual Lima Campos in Kosmos magazine in 1904 was revealing:
“Mixed- race (mestiços) people invented Capoeira. Capoeira was not invented by
Blacks.”93 This attempt to celebrate racial miscegenation, voiced through Lima Campos’s
piece years prior to the fight, helps to understand why Cyríaco was labeled as mulatto. It
also confirmed a strategy to make Capoeira acceptable, as observed by Maya TalmonChvaicer: “to become socially acceptable it had to be presented as a national activity,
integrating the talents and abilities of the three major races in Brazil.” 94 By avoiding
adherence to European ideas, the Brazilian intelligentsia resorted to what Carl Degler
On the two squares above: “In the theatre: Square 1: “jiu-jitsu is the Japanese system in which one
dominates the other by using chokes, leg and arm locks. Well, this new system invented to hurt people beat
boxing and wrestling, but met defeat when it fought Capoeira.”
Dialog: 1. Cyriaco: “come on man…” Sada Myako responded in Japanese. Square 2: “from the stage of
the Concerto-Avenida Mr. Miako challenged everybody with his jiu-jitsu. One day, a mullato showed up
and accepted the challenge. The latter quickly beat the Japanese with a let sweep (rabo-de-arraia).” Dialog:
Cyríaco: “take that!” Myako: “I surrender!”
On the two squares on the bottom (political cartoon). “Meanwhile at Cattete Palace: ‘these ‘Japonneric’
(Japanese things) in our country were demoralized. At Cattete (Palace): we have Penna (Afonso) using jiujitsu to oppress John Bull (Ze Povinho)…” Square 2: “obviously John Bull’s patience is running out and
will not tolerate the arrogance of the ‘Japanese’ president any longer. Then, the former accepted the
challenge by striking the latter with a quengada na synagoga (head-butt). His Excellency will be sent to
Hell!” Dialog (Square 1): President Afonso Pena “I decide who will be the next president…” John Bull
(Zed Povinho): Bring it on Mr. Know-it-All…”
93
Lima Campos, "A Capoeira," Kosmos, Revista Artistica, Scientifica e Literaria, 1906, n.p.
94
Maya Talmon-Chvaicer, The Hidden History of Capoeira : A Collision of Cultures in the Brazilian Battle
Dance, (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2007), 112.
92
43
defined as the “mulatto escape hatch.”95 They did not subscribe to the “Aryan” ideals
professed by the majority of Brazilian intellectuals; instead, they employed strategies
rooted in Luso-Brazilian culture, cloaked in modernity, which involved co-opting
mulattos to “inhibit the advance of Negros as a group.”96
The attempts by the military to introduce Japanese jiu-jitsu prior to World War I
ended in a stalemate. The Japanese martial art failed to produce adepts to perpetuate its
continuation through a local lineage of practitioners and Afro-Brazilian Capoeira still had
to wait two decades after Cyríaco’s victory to achieve mainstream recognition and
legitimacy. The next round was fought in the Amazon during the rubber boom.
Japanese jiu-jitsu in the Amazon: Enter the Gracies
The process of modernization all across the globe in the early 1900s prompted
interest in Japanese culture. Growing interest in Japanese jiu-jitsu, as demonstrated by the
military in Brazil, was a widespread phenomenon in the Western world.97 In addition to
the military, police agencies around the world employed Japanese jiu-jitsu techniques to
control urban masses and fight growing crime rate.98 Yet, after centuries of isolation, the
Japanese were driven by emigration and nationalistic expansion.99
95
Degler, Neither Black nor White : Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States, 107, 10
passim.
96
Ibid.
97
Armed forces and law enforcement agencies in the Western world employed Japanese jiu-jitsu. Elites in
the West showed growing interest in the Japanese martial art. Joseph R. Svinth, "Professor Yamashita Goes
to Washington " in Martial Arts in the Modern World, ed. James A. and Svinth Joseph R. Green, eds.
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003), 47 et passim; Brousse, Le Judo : Son Histoire, Ses Succès, 56-57.
98
Brazilian naval officers also supported the adoption of jiu-jitsu as means of social control. In 1904, a riot
broke out in Rio against mandatory vaccination. The rioters built barricades called “Port Arthur” evoking
44
Modernization in Japan was a comprehensive process that affected the whole
society including the realm of traditional martial arts. The Japanese fighting system
sweping the Western world in the early 1900s had evolved from a system of hundreds of
weaponless styles, which branched off from medieval bujutsu (collective arts and
techniques in battle).100
The new style was the brainchild of Kano Jigoro, a young bourgeois scholar who
by the mid-Meiji period conceived a comprehensive system of physical education for
preparing new generations of Japanese citizens.101 The core of his system’s body
mechanics combined striking techniques with standing and ground grappling movements
that were evolved from two schools of traditional jiu-jitsu.102 In addition, Kano based his
system on a mélange of concepts combining neo-Confucianism with ideas from John
the example of the Russian port-town surrounding by Japanese forces in the Russo-Japanese War. Japanese
forces defeated the original in Russia and forces of modernization defeated the one in Rio. Jeffrey D.
Needell, "The Revolta Contra Vacina of 1904: The Revolt against 'Modernization' in Belle-Epoque Rio De
Janeiro," The Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol. 67, No. 2 (1987): 238, 65.
99
James A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth, "The Circle and the Octagon: Maeda's Judo and Gracie's JiuJitsu," in Martial Arts in the Modern World, ed. James A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth (Westport, Conn.:
Praeger, 2003), 63. Akira Iriye, "Japan as Competitor ,1895-1917," in Mutual Images : Essays in
American-Japanese Relations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), 74.
100
The term jiu-jitsu is commonly translated as “the gentle art” or “the art of softness”, but Serge Mol has
proposed a more comprehensive definition such as “a method of close combat, either unarmed or
employing small weapons that can be used defensively or offensively, to subdue one or more unarmed or
armed opponents.” Serge Mol, Classical Fighting Arts of Japan : A Complete Guide to Koryu Ju Jujutsu,
(Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2001), 10. Jujutsu is the name most commonly used in Japan for this art,
but names such as Yawara, Taijitsu, Hakuda, Kogusoku, Torite and others were at times applied to similar
arts.” Japan Society, Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, (London: Kegan Paul, Trench,
Trubner and Co., 1892), 5.
101
Kano Jigoro was born on October 28, 1860 at Mikage in the Province of Hyogo to Mareshiba Jirosaku
and Kano Sadako. His mother belonged to a traditional clan of sake brewers. His father from a family of
Shindo priests, Buddhist masters and Confucian scholars. Brian N. Watson, The Father of Judo : A
Biography of Jigoro Kano, (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 23. Kano graduated from the
Department of Political Science and Finance at Tokyo Imperial University in July 1881. Inoue Shun, "The
Invention of the Martial Arts," in Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan, ed. Stephen
Vlastos (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 164.
102
He studied traditional schools of jujutsu particularly Tenjin-Shinyo-Ryuand and Kito-Ryu blended
whereupon in his system, Kano-Ryujujutsu. Mol, Classical Fighting Arts of Japan : A Complete Guide to
Koryu Ju Jujutsu, 101, 27. Shun, "The Invention of the Martial Arts," 164-65.
45
Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer. Balancing physical education and ethics made Kano
jujutsu (jiu-jitsu) unique among other traditional schools of the time. 103As a result, he
transformed rituals of manliness in decline into sporting practice with a modern
pedagogical appeal.104
Kano named his school Kodokan judo. In doing so, he deliberately sought to
distance his hybrid style from the images of backwardness associated to traditional
jujutsu. His intention was to make clear the difference between the mere actual
application (jutsu) and the underlying principle (dō). Moreover, Kano made the necessary
link to tradition choosing the term “judo” used by old schools of jujutsu including his
martial arts alma mater, the Kito judo-Ryu.
105
In changing the suffix jutsu to do, Kano
not only rescued an obscure word rescued from the Tokugawa period but launched his
conservative revolution.106
Thereafter, transformations in Kano’s system reflected the transformations in
modern Japan and it moved towards becoming a hegemonic style of martial arts within
the Meiji establishment. Since 1882 the Kodokan headquarter in Tokyo spearheaded
modernization of the martial arts. The growing prestige of the martial arts led the
Japanese government to create a government agency in 1895 called Dai Nippon
103
Kano created his own hybrid school by selecting techniques and combining atemi-waza (strikes) of the
Tenjin Shi’yo School and nage-waza (throws) of the Kito School.
104
Yoshinobu Hamaguchi, "Innovation in Martial Arts," in Japan, Sport and Society: Tradition and
Change in a Globalizing World ed. Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama (London: Routledge, 2006),
17.
105
The diploma awarded to Kano in 1883 highlights, Nihonden (Japanese tradition) Kito judo, Kano
afterwards adopted the denomination Nihonden Kodokan Judo. Shun, "The Invention of the Martial Arts,"
169. Also see: "Histoire Du Judo," Judo Kodokan Review, Vol. 12, No. 5 (1962): 51.
106
Mol, Classical Fighting Arts of Japan : A Complete Guide to Koryu Ju Jujutsu, 8-10,49.
46
Butokukai in Kyoto under the direct control of the Ministry of Education.107 The imperial
establishment intended to “solidify, promote and standardize” the practice of martial arts
in Japan and not surprisingly Kano Jigoro himself enjoyed a great deal of prestige and
influence within the institution.108 In the early 1900s, Kodokan judo continued its
hegemonic trajectory and expanded overseas. As Sabine Frühstück and Wolfram
Manzenreiter affirm:
Kano (Jigoro) was highly successful precisely because he managed to
arrange judo along the developmental axis of lifelong improvement and
within the structural framework of a modern Western sport. In terms of
integration, the new cultural space that Kano had opened found
appropriate niches in Japan as well as in the Western world. 109
Niches were created for martial artists leaving Japan in the early twentieth century.
Mayeda Mitsuyo was a university student attracted by the expansion of the Kodokan
judo. He joined in the Kodokan School in 1897 and became a first degree black belt
(shodan) on January 8 1899.110 He trained under the instructor-chief, Yokoyama “Devil”
Sakujiro, and rose up rapidly to the fourth degree black belt (yondan) through the newly
established belt ranking created by Kano Jigoro.111
107
E. J. Harrison, The Fighting Spirit of Japan : The Esoteric Study of the Martial Arts and Way of Life in
Japan, (Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1982), 30.
108
The Dai Nihon Butokukai‘s meeting held on July 24 1906 at Kyoto to the standardization of Japanese
jujutsu katas. The meeting, headed by Kano, gathered eighteen masters of leading jujutsu schools.
Thereafter, Kodokan judo became the dominant jiu-jitsu style in Japan. Brousse, Le Judo : Son Histoire,
Ses Succès, 27.
109
Sabine Frühstück and Wolfram Manzenreiter, "Neverland Lost: Judo Cultures in Austria, Japan and
Everywhere," in Globalizing Japan: Ethnography of the Japanese Presence in Asia, Europe, and America,
ed. Harumi Befu and Sylvie Guichard-Anguis (London: Routledge, 2001), 70.
110
Mayeda Mitsuyo was born on November 18 1878 in the Prefecture of Aomori in the northernmost point
of Japan’s main island, Honshu. In 1896, he moved to Tokyo to attend the Senmon Gakko School that later
became Waseda University.
111
Shun, "The Invention of the Martial Arts," 167. Kodokan promoted Mayeda successively to second
degree (nidan) on October 3 1899, third degree (sandan) on January 13 1901 and fourth degree (yodan) on
October 23 1904. Taeko Abe (Kodokan Institute, Tokyo, Japan), e-mail message to the author, March 12
2009.
47
During the “Russo-Japanese War,” Mayeda Mitsuyo and Tomita Tsunejiro, a
veteran Kodokan judo master, traveled to America.112 In 1905, after a presentation at
West Point Military Academy, they parted ways and soon afterwards, Mayeda Mitsuyo
began to wrestle professionally in the United States, Europe and Latin America. In the
course of his professional career, he adopted the nom de guerre “Count Koma.”113
Mayeda’s involvement with professional wrestling may have troubled his
relationship with the Kodokan judo school. This may explain why he and other Japanese
fighting professionally had their belt promotions slowed down enormously. 114 In 1912, in
Mexico, Mayeda was promoted by the Kodokan to a fifth degree black belt (godan) and it
was his last belt promotion for seventeen years as well was the last time that he used the
specific denomination “judo” during the 1910s.115
According to Paul McMichael Nurse, in the early days of Kodokan all
practitioners were required “to place a seal of blood on an open register and declare five
oaths.” In two of them, was stated “I shall not bring dishonor for the dojo” and “first as
student, and later as instructor, I will always obey the dojo rules.”116 The case of
Tokugoro Ito, a Kodokan black belt involved with Mayeda in professional wrestling is
revealing. In the aftermath of the former’s defeat by the American wrestler Ad Santel in
112
Tomita and Mayeda arrived in New York City on December 8 1904 and went to West Point in January
1905. Their presentation was part of a lecture given by the Imperial Japanese Legation on the RussoJapanese War. "Cadet Down the 'Jap' : Exponent of Jiu-Jitsu Thrown by West Point Athletes," The New
York Times, February 25 1905, 5.
113
Michael Watt, "The Lengendary Story of Conde Koma Mitsuyo Maeda," Judo Journal, V. 20, No. 1
(1997): 3-4.
114
Kodokan awarded Mayeda with four degrees (dan) from 1899 until 1904. He waited eight years for his
fifth degree (godan) and seventeen for his sixth degree (rokudan). Taeko Abe (Kodokan Institute, Tokyo,
Japan), e-mail message to the author, March 12 2009.
115
"Wrestling Boom with Vengeance " The Mexican Herald, August 27 1909, 5.
116
Paul McMichael Nurse, "The Beginnings of Kodokan Judo,1882-1938," accessed August 5, 2010,
http://www.fightingarts.com.
48
San Francisco in 1916 the Kodokan headquarters issued a response: “The Kodokan
replied that it permits mixed bouts with boxers and wrestlers for research purposes, but
prohibits such bouts when they are employed for personal monetary gain.” 117 In addition,
Kano Jigoro, the founder of Kodokan dojo declared:
No one is allowed to take part in public entertainment for monetary
gain. Teachers certainly receive remuneration for their services, but that
is in no way degrading. The professional is held in high regard like the
officers of a religious organization or a professor in the educational
world. Judo itself is held by us all in a position at the high altar. To
reconcile this point of view with the Western idea is difficult. 118
Reinforcing these principles of Kodokan judo, in 1909 Kano Jigoro became deeply
involved with the Olympic movement. For him and other modern educators of Meiji
Japan, sport became synonymous with amateurism.119
Public matches pitting Japanese jiu-jitsu against other martial arts disciplines, like
those in Brazil or in the United States, became the rage in Western countries.120 Whether
out of necessity or not, Mayeda Mitsuyo found a dynamic market for prizefighting bouts
and vaudeville-like presentations in which he remained involved for fourteen years. After
traveling through the United States and Europe, Mayeda Mitsuyo set off to Latin America
and performed in Cuba and Mexico between 1908 and 1912.121 In both countries, he
advertized his martial art in eclectic ways. In Mexico, for example, he performed at
117
Joseph R. Svinth, "On the Defeat of Tokugoro Ito in North America," The Journal of Alternative
Perspectives on the Martial Arts and Sciences, Sept. (2006), accessed July 7 2009, http://ejmas.com.
118
Neil Ohlenkamp, "Jigoro Kano in a 1936 Conversation with Gunji Koizumi," accessed October 2, 2011,
http://www.judoinfo.com. Thomas A. and Svinth Green, Joseph R., ed. Martial Arts in the Modern World
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003), 65.
119
Yuko Kusaka, "The Emergence and Development of Japanese School Sport," in Japan, Sport and
Society, ed. Joseph Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama (London: Routledge, 2006), 32.
120
Brousse, Le Judo : Son Histoire, Ses Succès, 33-35.
121
"The Cubans Are Taking Fancy to Our Jujutsu," Japan Times, November 1 1912, n.p.
49
bullfight arenas in the countryside and in gala presentations for Porfirio Díaz at the
Chapultepec Military Academy during the twilight of the Porfiriato.122 Mayeda, already
using with his stage name “Count Koma”, performed at Theatre Colon in Mexico City
leading to what the English-language newspaper The Mexican Herald called “the
wrestling boom.”123
Along with a troupe of Japanese martial artists, Mayeda Mitsuyo traveled through
Central America to South America, arriving in Peru in 1913. There, he found a sizeable
Japanese community which had been established since late 1800s. As in Mexico and
Cuba, a newspaper representing British and American interests published in English, The
West Coast Leader, provided an account of Count Koma’s first match in Lima. He fought
and defeated his compatriot Akyiama at Plaza de Acho, the oldest bullfighting arena
outside Spain. The newspaper also disclosed that Count Koma was a graduate of the
prestigious Waseda University, a “correspondent of several Japanese newspapers,” a
skilled practitioner of football and baseball and fluent in English.124
The image of Japan as an emerging power certainly helped arouse the interest of
Latin America’s elites in jiu-jitsu.125 As Heather Levi has pointed out, there was a close
“association of sports with discourses of modernity and rationalization.”126 By contrast,
Robert Chappell has argued that in some areas of Latin America, the enduring appeal
122
"Count Koma Performed at Chapultepec Military Academy," The Mexican Herald, August 7 1909, n.p.
"Wrestling Boom with Vengeance ". In Mexico, Mayeda fought Americans, Europeans and other
Japanese. Hjalmar Lundin, On the Mat and Off; Memoirs of a Wrestler, (New York: Albert Bonnier, 1937),
90-91.
124
"Jiu-Jitsu: Campeon Del Mondo De Jiu-Jtsu," The West Coast Leader, September 11 1913, 6.
125
Daniel M. Masterson and Sayaka Funada-Classen, eds., The Japanese in Latin America (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 2004), 13.
126
Heather Levi, The World of Lucha Libre : Secrets, Revelations, and Mexican National Identity,
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2008), 13-16.
123
50
enjoyed by bullfighting was a form of resistance against the introduction of modern
northern European sports.127 Yet by fighting in blood sport arenas, Japanese martial
artists may have provided Latin American audiences with an appealing cultural symbiosis
blending traditional and modern violent performances.
In 1914, Mayeda Mitsuyo and his troupe of martial artists arrived in Brazil from
across its southern border, coming from Argentina and Uruguay. 128 The economic and
cultural boom made platense cities like Buenos Aires and Montevideo mandatory ports of
call for artists touring South America. After performing in Brazil’s main capitals Mayeda
reached the Brazilian Amazon in late 1915.129
In 1915, the Japanese troupe arrived in Belém, the capital of Pará State and the
largest urban center in the Brazilian Amazon. Cultural life in the metropolis still
flourished in the dying days of the belle époque.130 Theatres, opera houses and other
public spaces in the region sprang up with the rubber boom to entertain the emerging
local elite. Belem’s newspaper Folha do Norte announced the new attractions:
The Japanese troupe directed by the undefeated world champion Count
Koma will perform jiu-jitsu, wrestling, boxing and fencing matches. A
prize of 5,000 francs will be offered for anyone able to defeat one of
the troupe’s members Okura, champion of Chile, Shimizi (sic),
champion of Peru, Satake, champion of New York and Luku (sic) a
former military instructor in Peru. The troupe is currently in the state of
Pará on its way to North America. Its performances met with great
success in other countries. The troupe will be wearing proper and
127
Robert Chappell, "Sport in Latin America from Past to Present: A European Perspective," in Sport in
Latin American Society: Past and Present, ed. Lamartine Pereira da Costa and J. A. Mangan (London:
Routledge, 2002), 167.
128
Rildo Eros de Medeiros, e-mail message to the author, December 12 2007.
129
"Theatro Variedades," O Estado de São Paulo, September 27 1914, 4. "Palco E Circos: Variedades," O
Estado de São Paulo, October 8 1914, 2.
130
Economic crisis hits hard the local economy between the 1910s and the World War I. Weinstein, The
Amazon Rubber Boom, 1850-1920, 258.
51
decent attire, and its performance is rigorously family oriented. The
troupe will parade on the streets of Belém in their traditional outfits.131
The Bar Paraense Theater was a modern multifunctional space combining stage
performances and movies while functioning as a beer hall. Its ice and refrigeration
allowed patrons to enjoy imported food and cold beverages, which were highly valued in
the tropics. The beer house sold low- alcohol beer that was more suited to the moderate
behavior demanded by the lifestyle of the urban upper classes, while urban workers and
rubber tappers in the forest used stronger alcoholic spirits.132 Theatres were the favorite
rendezvous of the local gentry for socializing and living their fantasy of civilization.
The mention of “decent jiu-jitsu attire”, highlighted by the newspaper, indicates
that spectacles staged in theatres in the Amazon in 1915 were family-oriented following
the moral standards set in the height of the belle époque.133 A local aristocrat has argued
that modernization in the Amazon was the “refinement of our customs.”134 With regard to
the mandatory use of jiu-jitsu gis, apart from the issue of morality, it gave authenticity to
the “exotic” character of Japanese performances. It is noteworthy that all challengers
131
"Fitas E Palcos: Bar Paraense," Folha do Norte, October 25 1915, n.p.
The newspaper Folha do Norte actively promoted cultural life in Belém. It began to circulate in 1896 in
opposition to Antonio Lemos, a local political boss deposed during the political crisis in 1912. The
newspaper Folha do Norte, thereafter, promoted cultural vanguardism and topics associated with modern
trends.
132
Theatre Bar Paraense was built inspired on the French Moulin Rouge. Vicente Salles, Epocas Do
Teatro No Grao-Para, Ou, Apresentacao Do Teatro Da Epoca, (Belem, Para: Editora UFPA, 1994), 210.
Brandão Filho, a local actor and entrepreneur, leased the theatre that thereafter began to present movies,
singers, dancers, and a wide range of performances.
133
Measures to enforce moralization at Bar Paraense started under the direction of the Neapolitan maestro
Raffaelo Segré in 1908. Ibid.
134
José Coelho da Gama Abreu, Baron of Marajó (1832-1906).
52
attracted by the prize money were invariably defeated, making the theatre’s owner raise
the prize.135
The cities in the Brazilian Amazon during the rubber boom sought to follow
cultural trends in vogue in the great centers like Paris. Patricia Tilburg described the
French music hall in the same period:
The belle époque music hall blended sport and the performing arts in
highly physical spectacles that celebrated bodily fitness as an essential
accompaniment of the life of the mind and of art. Max Viterbo parodied
the pervasive integration of music hall and sport in a one-act play, Le
Sport au Théâtre en 1909. As the play opens, a theater director
practices jujitsu, lifts weights, and discusses the need for sport-related
additions to an upcoming romantic play. 136
Spectacles staged at this tropical “Moulin Rouge” with Japanese martial artists sought to
reach cosmopolitan audiences that were looking for “spectacular experiments.”137 The
Japanese presentations, however, remained costly compared to the price of a movie
ticket.138The cost of the most inexpensive ticket (standing room) to watch the Japanese
was apparently reasonable compared to the average of a blue-collar worker income in
Brazil during this period; but one should take into consideration that local per capita
income fell almost five times during the downturn of the rubber-based economy between
135
"Sports," Folha do Norte, November 1 1915, n.p.
Patricia A. Tilburg, Colette's Republic : Work, Gender, and Popular Culture in France, 1870-1914,
(New York: Berghahn Books, 2009), 141.
137
Ana M. Lopez, "Train of Shadows.' Early Cinema and Modernity in Latin America," in
Multiculturalism, Postcoloniality, and Transnational Media, ed. Ella Shohat and Robert Stam (New
Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 3.
138
"Bar Paraense," n.p. Prices ranged from 1$000 to 10$000 (one thousand réis to ten thousand réis). A
factory worker in Rio de Janeiro received 110$000/month (one hundred ten thousand réis). João Lizardo de
Araújo, Teresa Cristina de Novaes Marques e Hildete Pereira de Melo, "Raça E Nacionalidade No Mercado
De Trabalho Carioca Na Primeira República: O Caso Da Cervejaria Brahma," Revista Brasileira de
Economia 57, 3 (2003), accessed August 16 2010, http://EconPapers.repec.org/.
136
53
1910 and 1920. It certainly made this type of entertainment off-limits for persons in the
lower classes.139
Concurrent with his stage performances, Mayeda Mitsuyo opened his first jiujitsu school at the Teatro Moderno in 1915:
We will have lessons in the favorite branch of Japanese sport: jiu-jitsu.
Count Koma, currently performing on the stage of Bar Paraense, will
extend his stay among us to teach jiu-jitsu. Appropriate attire (gis) will
be provided for children and adults. Count Koma also wants to teach
jiu-jitsu in our private schools. We recommend that youngsters
interested in physical fitness sign up for jiu-jitsu lessons taught by the
Japanese person at Teatro Moderno.140
Among the scions of the cosmopolitan upper class searching for modern avenues of
education and physical prowess was a teenager named Carlos Gracie. He was the eldest
son of Gastão Gracie, the owner of a local circus. In an interview given sixty-five years
later Carlos remembered his beginning at Count Koma’s dojo:
After the Japanese person’s performance at Teatro daPaz, I went to
Count Koma’s dojo located at Rua Tamandare (Teatro Moderno). I was
physically frail which resulted in an inferiority complex, but under the
paternal supervision of Count Koma, I learnt the secrets of jiu-jitsu.141
Mayeda Mitsuyo returned to Belem in February of 1916, after a season in Manaus and
Carlos Gracie started his jiu-jitsu practice at the dojo set in the facilities of Teatro
Moderno.
Along with theatres and cinemas created to entertain the emerging bourgeois in
the Amazon, circuses filled their tents by staging blood sports-type of spectacles. Cities
139
Roberto Santos, Historia Economica Da Amazonia (1800-1920), (Sao Paulo: T.A. Queiroz, 1980), 1213-14-15.
140
"Jiu-Jitsu: A Troupe Japoneza," Folha do Norte, November 16 1915, n.p. "Boas Novas No Reino Do
Sport," Folha do Norte, January 18 1916, n.p.
141
Tarlis Batista, "Os Gracie: Uma Dinastia De Lutadores," Manchete, August 29, 1981, 70.
54
in the region like Manaus and Belém still held much of their atmosphere of boomtowns
which made violent performances appealing to audiences searching for strong emotions
in the Brazil’s frontier.142
Gastão became a partner in the American Circus and manager of the ItalianArgentine wrestler Alfredo Leconte in 1916. The paths of Mayeda and Gracie crossed
because Leconte fought and defeated the Japanese twice. First, in December of 1916, he
defeated Uenish Sadakazu in Manaus and few weeks later he defeated Shimizu Kusaku in
Belém.143 On both occasions, Gracie cleverly manipulated the bouts by changing preestablished rules and by proclaiming winners under suspicious refereeing.144 In Manaus
and Belém, Leconte not only refused to wear gis, but also had his body covered with
grease and whenever cornered slipped out of the ring. Furthermore, he won twice using
an identical strategy, pinning down briefly the Japanese player. The referee without
waiting for the “thirty-second hold-down” previously established, declared the Gracie’s
wrestler a winner.145
Unlike the family-oriented theatres, circuses like the one owned by Gracie were
more flexible concerning fighters’ dress code and the rules of fair play. Ignoring moral
concerns related to the exposure of half-naked wrestlers’ bodies, Gracie prevented the
Japanese from having lapels, collars and sleeves to apply their techniques.
142
E. Bradford Burns, "Manaus, 1910: Portrait of a Boom Town," Journal of Inter-American Studies, 7,
No. 3 (1965): 409.
143
"American Circus," O Tempo, January 30 1916, n.p. and "Shimizu Desafia Leconti," Folha do Norte,
December 21 1916, n.p.
144
"American Circus."
145
Folha do Norte, December 21 1916, n.p.
55
The brawl that erupted after both fights suggests a different kind of audience
compared to those attending the theatrical performances. According to the local press, the
violent outcome was the result of the fight between the promoters and widespread
gambling among those in attendance.146 Because of the disturbances, the police banned
wrestling prizefighting in the two capitals of the Amazon.147
Gracie and Mayeda became acquainted in the aftermath of these encounters. The
aristocratic Scottish-Brazilian, quasi-diplomat and the Japanese university-educated
martial artist shared mutual business interests in this Brazilian frontier ravaged by the
economic crisis.
For the Gracies, individuals like the Capoeira Pé- de-Bola who fought the
Japanese martial artist were a human metaphor for backwardness. Gastão Gracie’s
generation was still haunted by the presence of scores of dark-skinned Brazilians
liberated from slavery in 1888.148 Therefore, he had strong reasons for befriending the
cosmopolitan “Count Koma” and encouraged his eldest son to learn modern jiu-jitsu with
the Japanese.
146
"Resposta De Shimizu a Leconti," Folha do Norte, December 21 1916, n.p.
"Palcos E Fitas," O Tempo December 8 1916, n.p.
148
Celia Maria Marinho de Azevedo, Onda Negra, Medo Branco : O Negro No Imaginario Das Elites-Seculo Xix, (Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Paz e Terra, 1987), 219.
147
56
Figure 14: Wrestling prizefighting in circus, early 20th century. Source: Le Judo, 1996.
The young Gracie’s apprenticeship under Mayeda, and his local senior student Jacyntho
Ferro, lasted no more than three years.149 Carlos’ exposure to Mayeda’s teachings
occurred under a circumstantial combination of factors that determined the nature of his
apprenticeship. Mayeda’s lack of interest in training students to perpetuate the Kodokan
judo school is noteworthy. As for example, he ignored the belt ranking conceived by
Kano Jigoro which constituted one of the pedagogical foundations of the Kodokan judo
school.150 He only taught judo techniques to his students with a method that gave little
emphasis to philosophical concepts or a pedagogical framework. Therefore, students like
Carlos Gracie learned an eclectic program that mixed judo with wrestling. For Carlos
particularly, this would make more sense, since the Gracies were in the business of
Jachynto Ferro was a wrestler and a prototype of the local modern athlete who joined Mayeda’s dojo.
He became Mayeda’s chief instructor in Belém.
150
Inoue Shun, "Invented Tradition in the Martial Arts," in The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its
Leisure, ed. Sepp Linhart and Sabine Frühstück (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 8586. In 1935, long after the Gracies gone, Mayeda pledged his allegiance to the orthodoxy after years of
heretic involvement in prizefighing, at least in the eyes of Kodokan. He published a jiu-jitsu manual in
Portuguese titled “Jiudo: Uma Arte de Cultura Physica Japoneza” (Jiudo: An Art of Japanese Physical
Education) in which he reproduced Kano Jigoro’s lectures. In his conclusion, he explained the
interchangeable use of denominations such as “judo” and “jiu-jitsu.”Mitsuyo Mayeda, Jiu-Do: Uma Arte
De Cultura Physica Japonesa, (Belem: Livraria Escolar, 1935), 16.
149
57
professional wrestling. Moreover, Mayeda, at this time, was deeply involved in
prizefighting.
Under these circumstances, by employing the generic label “jiu-jitsu” instead of
the specific name of his school “judo”, Mayeda was consistent with his current
professional prizefighter status. Lastly, the absence of students who had graduated with
the rank of black belt trained under Mayeda in the Amazon is emblematic; it confirms
that he did not intend to create local lineages of Kodokan judo practitioners.151
Circumstances surrounding the encounter between Mitsuyo Mayeda and the Gracies had
long-term consequences for jiu-jitsu practice in Brazil. Unlike the introduction of
Kodokan judo in other regions of the Western world, in Brazil, thereafter, the Gracies
near monopolized its practice by keeping the pre-modern denomination “jiu-jitsu.”
Conclusion
The Gracies left the Amazon between 1919 and 1920 and Carlos Gracie stopped
training with Mayeda when his family moved to Rio de Janeiro.
152
They returned to Rio
de Janeiro after the death of the patriarch, Peter McNichols Gracie; for them, the death of
Peter symbolized the end of their nineteenth century grandeur. For Carlos, a teenager
trained in a modern combat sport, Japanese jiu-jitsu became a cultural asset during the
151
In 1928, Mayeda Mitsuyo confided to Hajime Otake that he never awarded a black belt in Brazil.
Hajime Otake traveled from Japan Yamada Yoshio and settled in Japan in 1928. The latter was Mayeda’s
colleague from the Kodokan dojo and the three Japanese developed a long friendship in their new home. In
another interview given by Otake Hajime, at the age of 96 in Belém, he confirmed Mayeda’s declarations.
Rildo Eros de Medeiros, e-mail message to the author, January 8 2008.
152
Carlos Gracie in an interview declared that his family left Belem when he was 17 years old that
corresponded to the year 1919. Batista, "Os Gracie: Uma Dinastia De Lutadores," 70. Pedro (Peter)
McNichols Gracie, Carlos’s grandfather, died on February 13 1921. Colegio Brasileiro de Genealogia,
Arquivo Paulo Carneiro da Cunha, Rio de Janeiro, titulo 11 : Gracie.
58
hard times. However, he also carried another asset equally essential to his social
redemption: The Gracies’ patrician ethos.
The confrontation of martial arts styles, initiated at the beginning of the century
against a background of rising nationalism and modernization, reached a stalemate in the
early 1920s. If the process of cultural importation as means to achieve modernization was
irreversible, as demonstrated by the introduction of Japanese jiu-jitsu, the same was true
for nationalism embodied by Capoeira.
59
Chapter 2 - Between tradition and modernity: the birth of
Brazilian jiu-jitsu, 1921-1934
Introduction
The Gracie family, which had seen some moderate success between 1910
and1920 in the Amazon, faced economic hardship in the 1920s. The family ultimately
regained economic stability and social status by reinventing Japanese jiu-jitsu.
In this chapter, I analyze how the Gracies used their jiu-jitsu skills to meet the
challenges posed by their failing social status during the transition from the “Old
Republic” to the Getulio Vargas regime. Their trajectory might seem to confirm the
identification between the new regime and the emergent middle class suggested by
Michael Conniff.153 However, the Gracies were not part of the emergent middle sector;
rather they fit better into Brian Owensby’s analysis of Brazilian society of the 1930s
which identified the category of “déclassé aristocrats:”
They are descendants of traditional families struggling to adjust to the
challenges and uncertainties of an increasingly competitive and
diversified social order that had eroded the social hierarchy of midnineteenth century slave society.154
Yet the Gracies’ trajectory shows that in modern Brazil white or light-skinned
individuals from the ranks of old elite still enjoyed privileges within the new regime. At
this point, I will adopt Roberto da Matta’s theoretical framework to explain how the
153
See: Michael L. Conniff, Urban Politics in Brazil: The Rise of Populism, 1925-1945, (Pittsburgh, Pa.:
University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981).
154
Brian Philip Owensby, Intimate Ironies : Modernity and the Making of Middle-Class Lives in Brazil,
(Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1999), 45-46.
60
Gracies, came to be so strongly identified with nationalism, populism and
authoritarianism.
The two following vignettes display critical moments in the Gracies’ trajectory
during this period. The first shows the depths of their social difficulties. The second
shows initial steps of their attachment to the new regime and how they have begun to
regain status teaching jiu-jitsu in Getulio Vargas’s security apparatus.
We are refined people!
In 1926, a desperate landlady filed an eviction lawsuit against a troubled family of
tenants wreaking havoc on her property. Court records show, with dramatic overtones, a
family facing virtual social collapse. In addition to the debt, the landlady accused them of
purposely damaging the house by firing gunshots at the walls and the plumbing system.
The head of the family presented a rebuttal and demanded that the landlady reimburse
him for renovations made to the house. His allegation proved to be untrue. The extent of
destruction and the defendants’ response shocked the plaintiff. They defiantly shouted at
her: “We are refined people!” (somos gente de fino trato!). This statement stressing their
genteel background sounded rather odd considering they transformed her property into a
“pigpen.” Lastly, the property owner had no hope of receiving any compensation. She
affirmed that Gastão Gracie, the head of the family, was an incorrigible gambler who had
61
lost everything, and currently was earning his livelihood by resorting to uncertain and
dubious business enterprises.155
We are authorities!
On April 18, 1933, around 2 p.m. in the afternoon, near “The Naval Club” in the
centre of Rio de Janeiro, bus driver Waldemar Nogueira da Silva was violently assaulted
by two individuals during an altercation over the fare. The victim later reported:
My aggressors failed to deposit the fare in the deposit box. This
sparked an argument between them and me. My aggressors got off the
bus and challenged me to come out and fight. Intimidated by their
hostility, I stopped complaining about the unpaid fare. They returned to
the bus and when passing by ‘The Naval Club’ they suddenly attacked
me from behind. I still managed to pull over the bus and tried to stand
up when one of them grabbed me and the other kicked and punched me
repeatedly in the face. Next, I was violently dragged off the bus when I
was saved by the timely intervention of bystanders. 156
According to other witnesses, the victim rapidly left the scene in panic while his
aggressors remained outside the bus threatening and intimidating the crowd. They
approached the bus company’s supervisor on the scene defiantly shouting at him: “We
are authorities!” The bus driver, submitted to close examination at the local police
station, exhibited his body covered with marks of violence. He later learned that his
aggressors were the famous Gracie brothers, Carlos and Hélio, jiu-jitsu instructors for
President Get lio Vargas’ new and feared Polícia Especial (Special Police) with
headquarters a few blocks away.157
155
Juízo da 4o Pretoria Civel, 26/08/1926, reu: Gastão Gracie, autor: Francisca Ferreira Teixeira, Maço 97
No. 1933, pp. 80-f to 82-f. Arquivo Nacional do Rio de Janeiro.
156
Juízo da 5a Pretoria Criminal, 20/05/1933, reus: Carlos Gracie e Helio Gracie, autor: Waldemar Noguez
da Silva, Processo 7013759, 101 paginas. Arquivo Nacional do Rio de Janeiro.
157
Ibid.
62
The Gracies’ predicament
In the early 1920s, Gastão Gracie returned to Rio de Janeiro, the cradle of his
family’s prestigious status. The city of Rio de Janeiro he had left behind at the turn of the
century had changed considerably. The population jumped from roughly half-million to
over one million in twenty years and the city had undergone radical urban changes.
Gracie’s first entrepreneurial venture in Rio was at the international exposition organized
in 1922 to celebrate the centennial of Brazilian independence. The exposition organized
to celebrate the apotheosis of a new Brazil hosted all states of the federation and several
foreign countries. The event attracted millions of visitors during an eight-month-long
“gigantic potlatch.”158 An article published by the trendy magazine Fon-Fon in 1923
showed Gastão Gracie and his patented invention, Ideal Prado.159 His invention was a
carrousel assembled at the exposition site that simulated a horse race. The article praised
Gastão’s inventiveness and described him as a prestigious industrialist and philanthropist
from Pará State. Gracie told the magazine that he was not seeking monetary profit; his
main purpose was to promote the “Independence Bonds” issued by the exposition’s
organization. The article overly inflated Gracie’s credentials and considering his dreadful
financial situation, it is hard to believe he had philanthropic intentions. Moreover, he
would pay eventual winners betting on his carrousel with paper bonds instead of hard
cash; this strategy would prevent him from further financial deterioration while allowing
him to pose as a well-off philanthropist.
158
159
Raymond Corbey, "Ethnographic Showcases, 1870-1930," Cultural Anthropology, 8, No. 3 (1993): 339.
"As Diversoes Da Exposicao: O Ideal Prado," Fon-Fon, January 13, 1923, n.p.
63
In addition to his perennial financial instability, Gastão Gracie had other pending
personal problems that he had brought back from his time in the Amazon. There, he
developed a gambling addiction as mentioned by the angry landlady in the lawsuit filed
against him in 1926. In addition, while living in the Amazon, Gastão had kept an entire
family in secrecy for years. It was a product of his extramarital relationship with his
father’s Portuguese maid during Gastão’s travels to Rio de Janeiro.160 His legal wife,
Cesalina Pessoa, according to the family sources, was a strong willed woman from a
clannish household from northeastern Brazil. Yet, separation was hardly an option in
local society during the 1920s, even for the troubled Gracie household.161 In the end,
Gastão had to move his second family to São Paulo and thereafter divided his time
between his two families.
Figure 15: Gastão Gracie and his gambling carrousel assembled in the Rio’s International Exposition.
Source: Fon-Fon, 1923.
160
Reila Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, (Rio de Janeiro: Record, 2008), 45-46.
Susan K. Besse, Restructuring Patriarchy : The Modernization of Gender Inequality in Brazil, 19141940, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 58-59.
161
64
Finally, when Carlos Gracie decided to resort to jiu-jitsu to survive, the Gracies
had spent most of the 1920s living under dreadful personal circumstances. Nevertheless,
as the unfortunate landlady reported, they desperately tried to uphold their patrician ethos
crying amidst the ruins of their shattered house their social credo: “We are refined
people!”
The Gracies’ social redemption through Japanese jiu-jitsu
By the mid-1920s, Carlos Gracie was working for the Brazilian Traction, Light
and Power Company in Rio de Janeiro.
162
The Toronto-based enterprise had been
investing in urban transportation and the construction of energy infrastructure in Brazil
since the turn of the century. It would be reasonable to assume that Carlos was hired
because of business connections between his deceased grandfather and the Canadians.
The Canadian company modernized the old mule-drawn tramways in Rio and São Paulo
during the early 1900s. Around the same time, the Comendador Peter Gracie was actively
participating in business enterprises related to modern urban transportation. Both the
Gracies and the Canadian CEO, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, had in common their Scottish
roots.163
Apparently, by chance, Carlos one day came across Donato Pires dos Reis, an old
family acquaintance from their time in the Amazon. The latter also had been one of
162
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 54.
Noronha Santos, Meios De Transporte No Rio De Janeiro : Historia E Legislação, (Rio de Janeiro: Typ.
do Jornal do Commercio, 1934), 334.
163
65
Count Koma’s students and through political connections was hired by the Minas Gerais
state police as a jiu-jitsu instructor. Donato then invited Carlos to be his assistant that he
accepted. Carlos Gracie taught jiu-jitsu in Belo Horizonte, capital of Minas Gerais, for
two years from 1928 to 1930.164
After his debut a jiu-jitsu instructor, Carlos went to São Paulo in 1930 to pursue
his career as a professional fighter. There, he found a vibrant urban atmosphere only
surpassed in South America by Buenos Aires.165 The city’s population had nearly tripled
within twenty years. This dramatic growth was concurrent with industrialization and
vibrant cultural movements.
Once in São Paulo, Carlos sought a fight with Geo Omori.166 However, the latter
thought Gracie unqualified since it was unusual for Brazilians to practice jiu-jitsu at a
professional level. Carlos had to resort to his connections in the Minas Gerais state police
to schedule a qualifying bout against the Swedish instructors hired to teach wrestling to
São Paulo’s police. Initially considered physically unfit to be a wrestler, Carlos finally
had his opportunity to fight and defeat the muscular Swedes using ground combat
techniques.167
Carlos’ performances at São Paulo police headquarters produced a short note in
the local newspaper that was sufficient to make the Japanese accept the challenge.168
164
"Jiu-Jitsu: Um Interessante Programa De Ju-Jitsu E Lucta Livre," Correio Paulistano, January 3 1930,
8.
165
T. J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, The Age of Mass Migration : Causes and Economic Impact,
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 9.
166
"Jiu-Jitsu: Um Verdadeiro Luctador Brasileiro Enfrentara O Famoso Geo Omori," Folha da Manhã,
January 2 1930, 8.
167
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 57.
168
Ibid.
66
The Japanese martial artist Geo Omori was mesmerizing audiences in São Paulo in the
late 1920s. In 1929, the Rio de Janeiro newspaper Diário Carioca published an article
praising Omori’s modern manliness and martial art skills, presenting them as elements
that could help Brazilians cope with modernity. Modernity compelled men to improve
their physical fitness and learn self-defense techniques to face an increasingly violent
urban environment.169
Figure 16: Geo Omori was the first Japanese martial artist to fight the Gracies. Source: Jornal dos Sports,
1932.
Omori had previously defeated the local capoeira Argemiro Feitosa and the
Spaniard pugilist Jack Marin.170 The fight with Gracie, however, was not a confrontation
of styles, but it became an opportunity for a Brazilian to demonstrate his ability to prevail
over the foreigner in the latter’s own game.
The match of Gracie versus Omori was held at the “Madison Square” arena under
the big top of the Queirolo Circus. Gracie was advertised as the “only Brazilian to spend
169
170
"Geo Omori: Um Habil Campeao De Jiu-Jitsu Quer Vir Ao Rio," Diário Carioca, December 17 1929, 9.
Ibid.
67
a three-year period training under Baron Maeda-Koma (sic). He defeated all amateur and
professional wrestlers fighting in the Amazon.”171
In January 1930, the newspaper Folha DA Manhã said that in the second round
Gracie placed an arm bar on Omori, who refused to surrender. Gracie, surprised and
confused, waited for the referee’s decision. Upon the referee’s hesitation Carlos loosened
the arm-lock allowing Omori to escape. The newspaper, stunned by the latter’s stamina,
offered the stereotypical explanation that Omori's behavior reflected “the secret pact
made by Japanese fighters that forbid them to surrender when fighting outside Japan.”172
In the following round, however, Omori almost had Carlos knocked-out through a violent
throw. Gracie’s “moral victory”, as described by a newspaper, clearly upset Omori who
asked for a rematch that was promptly accepted.173 In the second fight, Omori lost his
temper and sought to throw Gracie outside the ring. In the end, according to the
newspaper, the Brazilian finished the fight with the advantage.174 The two matches
against Omori in São Paulo certainly boosted Carlos’ confidence.
171
"Jiu-Jitsu: Um Verdadeiro Luctador Brasileiro Enfrentara O Famoso Geo Omori," 8.
"Domingo Havera O Grande Encontro Entre Grace E Omori," Folha da Manhã, January 3 1930, 9.
173
"Jiu-Jitsu: Ainda O Encontro De Domingo: Teremos Uma Revanche?," Folha da Manhã, January 7
1930, 10.
174
"Omori Foi Completamente Dominado Pelo Luctador Brasileiro," Folha da Manhã, January 20 1930, 3.
172
68
Figure 17: The Gracies’ debut in São Paulo. Source: Folha da Manhã, 1930.
Nationalistic anxieties compelled modernist intellectuals like Monteiro Lobato in
the first decades of the 1900s to see sport and immigration as means to promote
individual initiative, competition, and progress. Besides, sports, including martial arts,
became surrogate for warfare where nations could prove their superiority over the others.
For Lobato, the highly competitive multicultural environment forced paulistas (as São
Paulo residents are known) to excel so they could keep up with immigrants whose
situation made them more entrepreneurial.175 Furthermore, Lobato, as a fierce nationalist,
used to analyze football matches between British expatriates and local teams in São
Paulo. At first, according to him, these “battles” invariably ended in defeat for the
Brazilians.
The latter, however, persisted and eventually defeated the inventors of
modern football.176
Unlike the Japanese martial artists, the British footballers were expatriates usually
working in business and commerce. Thus, in the early 1900s, Brazilians perceived the
Jorge Artur dos Santos, "Os Intelectuais E as Críticas Às Práticas Esportivas No Brasil (1890 – 1947)",
M.A. Thesis, Universidade de São Paulo, 2000, 46.
176
José Carlos Sebe Bom Meihy and José Sebastião Witter, Futebol E Cultura : Coletânea De Estudos,
(São Paulo: Convênio IMESP/DAESP, 1982), 108.
175
69
British as paradigms of “modernity,” “progress” and “civility.”177 However, for the sake
of a nationalist discourse voiced by modernist intellectuals like Monteiro Lobato, both,
Japanese immigrants and British expatriates were “the other.” Lastly, in the early 1920s,
Brazil’s Congress passed the first anti-immigrant laws targeting Japanese immigrants.
Toward the end of the decade, nationalist groups begun to oppose Japanese immigration
through a racist rhetoric that labeled the Japanese as inassimilable.178
Brazilian nationalism and the intellectuals’ perceptions of identity had evolved
since the turn of the century, when the local intelligentsia had fallen under the spell of
European racist theories. Throughout the 1920s and toward the 1930s however, the time
was ripe to redeem Brazilian mestizaje. Against this background, a group of intellectuals
based in São Paulo launched the “Anthropophagic Manisfesto” in which they rejected the
European supremacy and dual concepts of “civilization” and “barbarism.” Rather,
modernist intellectuals like Oswald de Andrade employed the metaphor of Brazil’s
natives eating Portuguese colonizers to encourage Brazilians to “eat” foreign influences
and “regurgitate” them in a genuine national form.179
Carlos Gracie’s performances in São Paulo metaphorically represented Brazilian
“cannibalism” at its best. In terms of the technical aspect of his debut in São Paulo, it
became clear that hardly any local could match the Kodokan judo’s technical edge in
throws during standing combat. It explained why Omori threw Gracie with ease.
177
Darien J. Davis, "British Footbal with a Brazilian Beat: The Early History of a National Pastime (18941933)," in English-Speaking Communities in Latin America, ed. Oliver Marshall (New York: St. Martin's
Press, 2000), 261.
178
Stewart Lone, The Japanese Community in Brazil, 1908-1940 : Between Samurai and Carnival, (New
York: Palgrave, 2001), 63.
179
Verity Smith, Encyclopedia of Latin American Literature, (London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997), 144.
70
Moreover, Omori’s complaint that by Japanese rules he had won the fight is correct.
Rules in Japan had changed to benefit standing combat. The Gracies, though, realized
that if they abided by those rules they would invariably be defeated. The matchups pitting
Carlos Gracie and Geo Omori in São Paulo marked the birth of a local style of jiu-jitsu
with emphasis on ground combat and governed by local rules. This arrangement devised
by Carlos Gracie, thereafter, gave the Gracies means to compensate the Japanese martial
artist’s superior throwing skills.
Profiting from the momentum created by Carlos’ performances in São Paulo, the
Gracies opened their first martial arts gym in Rio de Janeiro. On September 8, the
newspaper O Globo published an illustrative note about the opening:
Carioca Academy for Cultivation of Scientific Sport
Donato Pires dos Reis (director) and Sr. Carlos and George Gracie Instructors
(instructors) showcased a martial art demonstration before a select audience.
Jiu-jitsu is an efficient self-defense system that employs only our natural
resources to protect us from criminals that threaten our society. The audience
learned why muscular individuals must be more cautious in the future. Law
abiding citizens will be able to protect himself without risking his freedom
due to his physical inferiority. Jiu-jitsu made the Japanese pygmies giant
tamers. Thus, teaching jiu-jitsu is a patriotic deed and the opening of the new
gym constitute great news for our youth searching sports in which intelligence
is more important than muscular strength. Those with frail bodies may hear
our call throughout Brazil.180
This short version of the official opening of the Gracies’ gym is revealing in many ways.
The denomination “academy,” which later became commonplace in similar
establishments in Brazil, indicated that the Gracies claimed to be recipients and
benefactors of superior knowledge. As a local newspaper observed a few years later:
180
"Esta Inaugurada a Academia Carioca Para O Cultivo Do Scientifico Sport " O Globo, September 8
1930, 8.
71
“The Gracies established themselves as jiu-jitsu instructors calling their gym pompously
‘academy.’181 The strategy seemed to be a deliberate attempt to make their new enterprise
respectable enough to attract an upper class clientele.
Figure 18: The building of the first Gracie Gym (dojo) established in 1930 surprisingly still standing today
surrounding by high rise apartments. Source: author collection, 2010.
The presence of Donato Pires dos Reis as director of the Gracie dojo was rather
odd, but Donato was Carlos’ old acquaintance from the Amazon and arrived in Rio
claiming to be a black belt holder under Mayeda Mitsuyo. It was a baseless claim, but
Carlos might feel insecure, considering the nature of his apprenticeship with Mayeda.
Opening a dojo in partnership with Mayeda’s “black belt” could legitimize the entire
operation.
The idiosyncrasies stemming from Mayeda’s teachings help to explain the
creation of a local jiu-jitsu style. The absence of black belt holders led his students in
Brazil to compete over the spoils of his legacy. Within the realm of martial arts,
transmission of knowledge through legitimate lineages is critical to determining the
181
"Os Casos Interessantes Do Sport: Por Que Os Irmãos Gracie Não Querem Que George Enfrente Omori
De Kimono?," Diário de Notícias, March 2 1933, 2.
72
continuation of any given school. According to the classical concept, a lineage student
must master all aspects of the discipline. In addition to technical skills, a lineage student
must be a charismatic individual capable of transmitting the entire corpus of his martial
arts discipline. Yet, non-lineage students, though they may possess outstanding skills, are
capable of transmitting only fragments of the knowledge.182
All Mayeda’s students in Brazil, including Carlos Gracie, fell in the category of
non-lineage students. The absence of lineage students — represented in this case by the
absence of black belt holders — became one aspect contributing to the development of a
Brazilian style of jiu-jitsu since it was free from dogma established by Kodokan
headquarters in Japan.
Figure 19: Kodokan judo ranking belt. Source: http://www.judoyukon.ca/, 2011.183
Donato’s brief direction of the Gracie dojo suggests that once the Gracies realized
he had exaggerated his jiu-jitsu credentials they terminated the partnership.184 In taking
over the entire operation, the Gracies rapidly instilled a strategy to target their social
182
Frantzis, The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi, 115.
"Judo Yukon ", accessed July 10, 2011, http://www.judoyukon.ca/.
184
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 54.
183
73
peers. An anecdote repeatedly told by Carlos’ youngest brother, Hélio Gracie, to explain
how he began to teach jiu-jitsu is quite revealing of this matter. His brother Carlos was
once late for a private lesson with Mario Caldeira Brant, the son of the president of the
Banco do Brasil. Hélio, then still a teenager, seized the opportunity to demonstrate his
ability to teach jiu-jitsu and became an instructor along with his brothers. This episode
indicates that the Gracies’ financial decline did not sever their social connections within
the exclusive circle of politicians and financiers. Mario Caldeira Brant represents the
public targeted by the Gracie from the beginning. His father, Augusto Caldeira Brant,
was a prominent politician in the state of Minas Gerais who supported the coup d’état in
1930. Afterwards, Getulio Vargas appointed him as a president of the state-owned Banco
do Brasil.185 The Gracies, in turn, had been among the founders of that financial
institution and occupied high posts on its board for many years during the 1850s. Finally,
quite similar to the Gracies themselves, Caldeira Brant’s family was not among the
emerging white-collar members of the new regime but a family that had been prominent
since the times of colonial Brazil.186
Twenty-five days after the Gracies’ dojo inauguration, a military uprising broke
out simultaneously in different points of Brazil. In a few days, the movement became a
civilian-military revolt that overthrew the recently re-elected government. Getúlio
Vargas, one of the rebellion’s leaders from the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, took
over the presidency. While his gaucho troops tied their horses to the obelisk at the center
185
Katia Gerab Baggio, "Dos Tropicos Ao Prata: Viajantes Brasileiros Pela Argentina Nas Primeiras
Decadas Do Seculo XX," Historia Revista, 13, No. 2 (2008): 437.
186
Raquel Almeida, "O Velho Samurai," Veja, October 8 1997, 13.
74
of Rio de Janeiro, Getulio Vargas installed himself in the presidential palace on October
31, located a few blocks away from the Gracies’ modest gym, entrenched in the heart of
their old aristocratic neighborhood of Catete. The so-called “old republic,” with its
traditional oligarchies inaugurated in 1899, was terminated and replaced by new political
forces in 1930.
Figure 20: On the left, Gaucho troops tying their horses around the obelisk at Rio’s downtown, 1930. On
the right, the rise of Getulio Vargas at Palacio do Catete few blocks from the Gracies’ gym. Source:
CPDOC/Fundação Getulio Vargas.187
In 1930, Carlos Gracie was seeking opponents to challenge, in order to gain more
visibility in Rio de Janeiro. Manoel Rufino dos Santos, a local wrestler who had earned a
degree in physical education in the United States, emerged as his next adversary. Rufino
taught at the local Y.M.C.A, at an American Protestant school and at upper-middle class
clubs.188 He probably learned to wrestle while living in America and reportedly took
Japanese jiu-jitsu lessons with Donato Pires dos Reis after the latter’s estrangement from
“Gauchos No Obelisco Na Avenida Rio Branco.” Rio de Janeiro, 1930. CPDOC/CDA Oswaldo Aranha,
Rio de Janeiro. http://cpdoc.fgv.br/producao/dossies/AEraVargas1/anos20/Revolucao30. Accessed May 8
2010.
188
"Sport," Diario de Noticias January 11 1933, 9.
187
75
the Gracies.189 The rivalry heated up through an acrid verbal exchange published in the
local dailies promoting the fight. One month before the bout, the Diário Carioca
newspaper warned the authorities of the consequences of the embittered exchange.190 The
bout took place at the elitist Fluminense Football Club stadium, located near the Gracies’
dojo. In the Sunday edition, the Jornal dos Sports front page headlined: “Wrestling beats
jiu-jitsu! M. R. Santos defeated Carlos Gracie.”191 The Gracies adamantly contested the
result. What had been intended to mark their debut in Rio turned into an embarrassing
setback. Worse still, a saber-rattling flurry of insults published avidly by the newspapers
would lead to grave consequences in the near future.
In 1932, the government headed by Getúlio Vargas created the Special Police
(Polícia Especial) as a branch of the capital’s police department and part of
comprehensive reform to restructure the state security apparatus.192 This Fascist-inspired
gendarmerie had its raison d’être in the ousting of Get lio Vargas’ representative in São
Paulo.
The casus belli was the new regime’s failure to comply with São Paulo’s
oligarchies demands for a constitutional rule.193 In 1932, a coalition of landowners and
industrialists politically sidelined by the coup d’état in 1930, deposed Varga’s interventor
(appointed state governor) and declared war on the authoritarian regime. After nearly
three months of military engagements, federal armed forces defeated São Paulo’ troops
made up of state militias and volunteers. In order to avoid a repetition of this event, the
189
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 90.
"Manoel Rufino Desafia Os Irmaos Gracie," Jornal dos Sports, July 4 1931, 3.
191
"Luta Livre Vence Jiu-Jitsu: M.R. Santos Derrota Carlos Gracie," Jornal dos Sports, August 23 1931, 2.
192
The comprehensive reforms were part of a larger project boosting the security apparatus. Getúlio
Vargas, A Nova Política Do Brasil, (Rio de Janeiro: J. Olympio, 1938), 34-35.
193
E. Bradford Burns, A History of Brazil, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 351-52.
190
76
new regime organized storm troop squads fully devoted to Getulio Vargas whose primary
mission was to protect the regime.194 Physical prowess and martial arts skills were the
most important requirements to draft new recruits. This unit worked in combination with
the political police (Departamento de Ordem Política e Social –D.O.P.S.). Throughout
their existence, both forces were deadly efficient and infamously identified with the more
repressive facet of Vargas’ authoritarian regime.195
Figure 21: “Sports activities of Special Police.” Source: O Globo Sportivo, 1934.196
The Special Police’s main purpose was to face the threats posed by Communism. Maria da Gloria
Bonelli, “Os Delegados de Policia Entre o Profissionalismo e a Politica, 1842-2000” (paper presented at
Latin American Association Meeting, Dallas, TX., March 27-29, 2003), 14. The Vargas Regime
established the Special Police on January 10 1932 under command of Euzébio de Queiroz Filho, former
army sergeant and sportsman. Initially the Special Police had 200 men mostly recruited in gyms, sportive
associations and even along the beaches strips of Rio de Janeiro. Olyntho V. Scaramuzzi, Memórias De Um
Ex-Polícia Especial : Obsessão Ao Poder, (Rio de Janeiro: Revista Continente Editorial, 1981), 13-14.
195
In 1924, the Brazilian government created the “D.O.P.S.” (Departamento de Ordem Política e Social)
Department of Political and Social Order.
196
O Globo Sportivo, December 3 1938, 18.
194
77
Figure 22: An Impressive Performance: The Special Police formed by sportsmen parading on the streets of
Rio de Janeiro. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1933.197
The Gracies’ connection with the Special Police apparently began at its
foundation in 1932. In the early 1930s, the Gracies were teaching jiu-jitsu at their dojo
and to members of the Special Police. Carlos Gracie no longer fought in public matches
after the confrontation with Manoel Rufino dos Santos. He became coach and mentor of
his younger brothers, Oswaldo, Hélio and to a lesser extent George, in the promising
prizefighting business.
In 1932, the Gracies had their lives dramatically affected. Their rivalry with
wrestler Manoel Rufino dos Santos continued and an inability to set a rematch led to a
violent street fight. The day after the incident headlines stated: “Barbaric aggression to
Manoel Rufino dos Santos.”198 The latter filed a complaint charging the three Gracie
brothers, Carlos, Hélio and George of violent physical assault. In the hospital, the victim
declared that the Gracies had done the same to other rivals. Perhaps Rufino was referring
to two previous incidents involving the Gracies and other rivals. The first was their
197
198
"Um Espetaculo De Rara Imponencia," Jornal dos Sports, July 3 1933, front page.
"Agressao Barbara a Manoel Rufino Dos Santos," Diário de Notícias, October 6 1932, 2.
78
attempt to settle a score with their former associate Donato Pires do Reis. The second was
in a street brawl involving the Gracies and the veteran Italian wrestler Joao Baldi.199
The aggression against Manoel Rufino dos Santos did not fade away like these
previous incidents. This time, a file passed through every level of justice, reaching the
capital’s court of appeal.200 This considerable legal effort may indicate the influence of
Manoel Rufino dos Santos’ social connections. He taught in schools and clubs frequented
by the middle and upper middle class. Newspapers covering the case emphasized that
witnesses, the prosecutor and the judge were one way or another affiliated to the victim’s
social network.201 The Gracies’ lawyer, nonetheless, argued successfully and the lower
level court ruled in favor of the Gracies. Rufino’s nouveau riche connections, however,
helped him to take the case to the higher Court of Appeals, which ruled against the
Gracies.202 The Rio de Janeiro police chief, Captain Filinto Muller, set off to enforce the
order to arrest Carlos, Hélio and George Gracie.203 Fearing a violent outcome during the
raid, they decided to follow their lawyer’s advice to surrender at the police station.
199
Jornal dos Sports, January 15 1932, 2.
In 1930, Getulio Vargas’ provisional government reorganized the Corte de Apelacão do Distrito
Federal (Federal Court of Appeal).
201
"Agressao a Manoel Rufino," Diário de Notícias, May 23 1933, 6.
202
Ibid.
203
"Os Irmaos Gracie Condenados a Dois Anos De Prisao," Jornal dos Sports, May 24 1934,
200
79
Figure 23: On the left, “The Gracie Brothers Arrested and Sentenced to Two Years in Prison!” On the
right: Manoel Rufino dos Santos (picture) assaulted by the Gracies’. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1934.204
The clash of class influence, however, was not over. Even before their actual
incarceration, members of Rio de Janeiro’s elite unleashed a movement to free the
Gracies that took the form of a petition sent by the Gracies’ lawyer to Getúlio Vargas
who acknowledged its importance in his personal journal: “I signed today a pardon
releasing the Gracie brothers for whom a campaign mobilizing public opinion had been
articulated.”205 In fact, what the head of state euphemistically called “public opinion” was
in reality a class mobilization made public through the press owned by the Gracies’
patrons and even by their antagonists. The names of people who signed the petition
highlighted how the Gracies were able to garner support from old and new power
holders. Old aristocrats, high-ranking military officers, politicians, journalists and even
feminists signed the document.206 The mix of surnames from traditional families with
204
Ibid.
The pardon is cited in Getulio Vargas’s diary on June 3 1934. Getulio Vargas and Leda Saraiva Soares,
Diario, (Rio de Janeiro: Siciliano, 1995), 299.
206
The list includes: Herbert Moses (President of the Brazilian Press Association), Jose Américo (Minister
of Aviation), Major Juarez Távora (Minister of Agriculture), Oswaldo Aranha (Minister of Finance),
205
80
those of immigrant background or those from the traditional military establishment next
to low-ranking revolutionary “lieutenants” is remarkably symbolic.207
The timing in which events occurred also helps understand the complexity of the
zeitgeist. In the provisional government inaugurated in 1930 the balance of power had
tended to enhance the authoritarian executive and weaken the legislature and the
judiciary. In June1934, Getulio Vargas signed the Gracies’ pardon roughly one month
prior his election as president by a Constituent Assembly. Despite its democratic
appearances, the new constitutional rule ignored the Congress and subjugated the
judiciary. By pardoning the Gracies, the new regime flexed its muscles during a critical
political transition and enhanced its prestige helping loyal scions of the old elite.208 A
short version of the petition addressed to the chief of the provisional government is
reproduced below:
The signatories below on behalf of the public opinion make this appeal
on humanitarian grounds, begging Your Excellency to forgive Carlos,
Hélio and George found guilty by the II Federal Court of Appeal. The
Gracie brothers are young men of high moral standards and family
breadwinners. Thus, the condemnation will punish their household. On
behalf of their families, I beg forgiveness. Despite their young age, the
Gracie brothers through their sports performances became symbols of
our nation. Teaching jiu-jitsu and its secrets at their gym and to the
members of Special Police made them invaluable citizens. Moreover,
they teach law-abiding citizens a weaponless self-defense system that
Admiral Protógenes Guimarães (Minister of the Navy), Salgado Filho (Minister of Labour), Captain João
Alberto (former chief of police of Rio de Janeiro and congressman), Captain Carneiro de Mendonça
(federal interventor in the state of Ceará), Commander Américo Pimentel (sub-chief of military staff),
Minister Ronald de Carvalho (President’s secretary), Baroness of Bonfim, Count and Countess Affonso
Celso, Bertha Lutz (Feminist leader, champion of women suffrage and congresswoman) among many
others. Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 125.
207
Beattie, The Tribute of Blood : Army, Honor, Race, and Nation in Brazil, 1864-1945, 239-46. The
“lieutenants” were those junior army officers involved in the military rebellion occurred in 1922 in Rio de
Janeiro. They afterwards became a major political force that became instrumental to overthrow the
government in 1930 and backing the Getulio Vargas regime.
208
After 1930, Getulio Vargas pressed the judges hostile to his regime into compulsory retirement and
reduced the number of magistrates. José Adércio Leite Sampaio, O Conselho Nacional De Justiça E a
Independência Do Judiciário, (Belo Horizonte: Del Rey Editora, 2007), 38.
81
contributes to reduce crimes committed with firearms. Regardless of
actual blame, the charge of physical assault does not harm their
reputation. The court sentenced them to 21 months in prison. This
punishment will only corrupt their honor and ideals. The Gracies are
very successful martial artists. Their imprisonment, thus, will interrupt
their careers in which they represent the ultimate expression of moral
energy and physical prowess. For these are the reasons I hereby request
the pardon of Carlos, George, and Hélio, whose integrity will be under
threat in prison. Following the principle of mercy in which kindness
replaces severity, we hope Your Excellency will grant the requested
pardon.209
The document first draws one’s attention to the fact that after only a few years of jiu-jitsu
activities, the lawyer described the Gracies as “symbols of our nation.” Beyond the
rhetorical hyperbole, it reflects the identification between the Gracies and the political
establishment. The regime should preserve the Gracies because they are repositories of
the secrets of a Japanese martial art, secrets that they share with their social peers and
with the regime’s praetorians.210 Romeiro Netto, the Gracies’ attorney, deliberately
ignored the law depicting the Gracies’ aggression as a routinized ritual of male violence
justified on the grounds of honor and sanctioned by a patriarchal culture.211 This line of
argument criticized the court’s decision for jeopardizing the integrity of their bodies and
their honor. Their attorney also requested protection of their role as family breadwinners
since the court’s decision deprived their families of critical support, causing financial
hardship and dishonor for unprotected children and females. This would definitively
209
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 126.
The Gracies participated in a gala presentation of the Special Police to Getúlio Vargas a week after their
aggression against M.R. dos Santos. "Apresentacao De Gala Na Policia Especial," Jornal dos Sports,
October 23 1932, front page, 6.
211
Roberto Da Matta pointed out that according to popular discourse Brazilians relates violence to
aggression, conflict, and brutality. Usually such outburst of physical violence evokes images associated
with an adult beating a child, a male beating a female and even rape. All informants interviewed by him
agree that violence implies the use of physical violence to damage someone else’s physical integrity.
Roberto da Matta, Violência Brasileira, (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1982), 23-24.
210
82
undermine their masculine roles. As Barbara Weinstein has pointed out, Get lio Vargas’
regime reinstated male authority weakened by the economic crisis and the advancement
of women’s rights. One might assume that the threat to their traditional masculine roles
struck a respective chord in Get lio Vargas’ frontier ga cho mindset.212
Despite its modernizing discourses, the state remained attached to a traditional
paternalistic model. The latter frequently confronted the former, which had a “life of its
own.” The state, following the Luso-Brazilian tradition, continued to exercise its ultimate
function as a provider of employment and distributor of justice.213 As Roberto da Matta
has argued, during outbreaks of populism in Brazil, the networks of personal relations
prevail over the legal system.214 The case involving the physical assault against the bus
driver, displayed in the vignette in the beginning of the chapter, may have contributed to
the Gracie’s final condemnation. In any event, the authorities were fully aware of their
criminal records. Yet the Gracies were not only free but also enjoying unprecedented
prestige within the Vargas regime.215 Lastly, Rosalina Coelho Lisboa, a Portuguese-born
writer, political activist, feminist and diplomat was the driving force behind the operation
212
Barbara Weinstein, "Making Workers Masculine: The Reconstruction of Male Worker Identity in
Twenty-Century Brazil," in Masculinities in Politics and War: Gendering Modern History, ed. Karen
Hagermann and Josh Tosh Stefan Dudink (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).
Roberto da Matta finds the role of breadwinner or head of the family performed in the private sphere so
powerful in Brazil that it constitutes one of the few spaces where elements of class and race are
emphasized. Matta, Violência Brasileira, 30-31. About machismo among gauchos see Richard W. Slatta,
Gauchos and the Vanishing Frontier, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983),
213
As Richard Graham has put it, the patronage system in Brazil did not end with the fall of the monarchy
in 1889. Brazilian society did not progress “unilinearly toward rational, impersonal, and impartial
government.” Instead, the system of patron and clients remained largely intact since it was not a “stage in
Brazil’s history.” Richard Graham, Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil, (Palo Alto:
Stanford University Press, 1990), 271-72.
214
Matta, Violência Brasileira, 42.
215
The justice condenned the Gracies to pay 50:000$000 (50 contos de reis) to Manoel Rufino dos Santos.
In 1934, this was 1934 equivalent to US$ 6,000. "As Camaras Criminaes Condenaram Os Irmaos Gracie a
Pagar 50 Contos a M.R. Dos Santos," Jornal dos Sports, September 15 1934, 4.
83
to save the Gracies. She was also a fascist sympathizer who enjoyed influence in the
highest echelons of the regime.216 As a prototype of a modern woman, she practiced jiujitsu with the Gracies and passionately embraced the defense of Carlos Gracie.217
Teaching jiu-jitsu to the Special Police at this time was essential to the Gracies’
reputation. The association helped to protect them against occasional vicissitudes and
enhanced their social standard, which was instrumental to jiu-jitsu’s early acceptance by
the establishment. The Special Police constituted an ideal space for the Gracies to display
their skills to authorities. In 1933, for example, two months prior to the incident with the
bus driver, the Special Police performed one of its first lavish public appearances. Before
a large audience, which included Antunes Maciel, Minister of Justice and Rio de Janeiro
Police Chief João Alberto, two hundred physically impressive recruits presented drill
routines of physical culture led by their flamboyant commander, Lieutenant Euzébio de
Queiroz. In the main martial arts presentation, Carlos and Hélio Gracie showed jiu-jitsu
self-defense techniques against knives and kicks.218 These performances included violent,
free-style matches and choreographic demonstrations for local authorities and foreign
dignitaries. They became a routine for the Gracies during that critical period of early
authoritarianism.
A confrontation pitting Carlos Gracie’s other brother, George, against a muscular
wrestler known as Tico Soledade held at Special Police headquarters in 1933 offers a
good example of how violence became a medium that bonded the Gracies and the Vargas
216
Percy Alvin Martin and Manoel Cardozo eds., Who's Who in Latin America, (Palo Alto: Stanford
University Press, 1935), 100-01.
217
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 124-25.
218
"Demonstracao De Defesa Pessoal Na Policia Especial," Diário de Notícias, February 11 1933, 2.
84
regime. George, nicknamed the “Red Cat,” became the family star after Hélio’s accident,
Oswaldo’s technical limitations and Carlos’ retirement. The fight turned into a blood bath
in front of an audience constituted of security force authorities. The disproportionate size
of the opponents led one newspaper to call it a fight of “Samson against Goliath.”219 Tico
Soledade, with an impressive muscular physique, was expecting an easy victory, but he
wound up unconscious in the Special Police infirmary. Matches organized by the Special
Police usually had basic rules to keep them under control, according to the press. This
time, however, Vargas’ centurions turned it into one of “the most violent wrestling
matches ever.”220 In the beginning, Gracie was severely punished, but recovered and
forced his opponent to submit. In fact, Soledade surrendered by tapping out, but George
tightened his grip, choking him to the point of unconsciousness. The overt brutality,
unusual even by Special Police standards, occurred as the Gracies were undergoing their
legal ordeal. In addition, George was the only Gracie standing, which may have put him
under pressure to make a gala presentation for his patrons, as he apparently did.
219
220
"O Mais Violento 'Match' De Luta Livre Realizado No Brasil," Jornal dos Sports, July 8 1933, 9.
Ibid.
85
Figure 24: The Gracies against muscular wrestlers. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1933.221
Conclusion
In the early 1930s, the Gracies began to enjoy the prestige and power through
their martial arts performances for the first time since the turn of the century. They
emerged from their social economic ordeal closely associated with nationalism. The
Gracies pragmatically realized, as did their social peers, that they must adapt to a new
and powerful political establishment. Under the state patronage, the Gracies took decisive
steps to create a local style of jiu-jitsu, a process that occurred simultaneously with the
birth of modern Brazil.
221
Ibid.
86
Chapter 3 - Nationalism, immigration and identity: the
making of Brazilian jiu-jitsu, 1934-1943
Round 1: A “fight of honor,” George Gracie versus Yano Takeo
In 1934, the newspaper Jornal dos Sports announced Yano Takeo’s arrival in Rio
de Janeiro:
A new phenomenon in our rings: The sympathetic and humble
Japanese Takeo Yano came to our office accompanied by Commander
Luis Souto, director of the Navy Sports League. This young Japanese
man settled in Brazil three years ago and has a record of 200 fights
since the beginning of his martial arts career in Japan. 222 In Brazil, he
fought a police sergeant weighing 185 pounds (Yano weighs 154
pounds). In the state of Pará (Amazon) he taught jiu-jitsu to the police
forces and to the Navy officers as Count Koma’s assistant,. Currently,
living in Rio de Janeiro, he is teaching classes to 20 Navy cadets. Yano
will challenge George Gracie soon.223
222
Takeo Yano was an agricultural technician settled in Amazon by the mid-1930s (Amazonas state) to
work in the project to produce jute at Parintins and Itacoatiara. John Hemming, Change in the Amazon
Basin, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), 121.
223
"Um Novo Crack Para Os Nossos Rings," Jornal dos Sports, October 7 1934, 5.
87
Figure 25: Yano Takeo. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1934.
Yano arguably, after Mayeda Mitsuyo, held the best martial arts pedigree in Brazil. The
article above hinted at the existence of animosity between the Gracies and jiu-jitsu
practitioners in the Navy. The Navy Sports League, founded during World War I,
promoted sports and nationalism, and in the 1930s recruited Japanese instructors to teach
jiu-jitsu and swimming.224 Navy officer Luis Souto, also a former Mayeda Mitsuyo
student, was not at all sympathetic to the Gracies.225 Once again, although the local
lineages of martial artists originated in the Amazon, they competed fiercely for Mayeda’s
legacy. This time, however, the Gracies were facing their Japanese rivals with backing
from the Brazilian Navy, which pioneered the practice of Japanese jiu-jitsu in the early
twentieth century.
224
The Navy Sports League was founded on November 25 1916.
"Ono E Um Lutador Extraordinario," Jornal dos Sports, November 27 1935, 3. Commander Luis Filipe
de Filgueira Souto was among the 333 sailors killed in the sinking of the battleship “Bahia” on July 4 1945.
The warship sunk by accident during an artillery exercise off Brazil’s northeastern coast.
225
88
Yano eventually challenged the Gracies to “a fight for honor.”226 After demarches
in which tempers flared, Yano and George Gracie fought a 100-minute bout, dominated
by Yano who threw the Brazilian twenty-six times. Despite his ample technical
dominance, the match ended in a tie according to the consensually accepted rules.
Afterwards, Yano dismissed rumors of deliberately holding back during the fight.
Instead, he declared that his failure to win was due to George’s defensive strategy and
because the local rules were different than those enforced by Kodokan school in Japan.227
Round 2: Jiu-jitsu, football and dictatorship, Rio de Janeiro, 1937
The regime, under Getulio Vargas leadership, ruling Brazil since the coup d’état
in 1930 became a full-fledged dictatorship in 1937 known as the Estado Novo (New
State). It was a period of radicalization of Brazilian nationalism in a quintessentially
xenophobic form, born under an alleged foreign threat. Throughout the 1930s, Japanese
immigration was often at the center of a national debate dividing the Brazilian elite. AntiJapanese groups sought to justify their xenophobia claiming that the "yellow peril" were
unassimilables and a threat to the idea of a homogenous national identity.228 Against this
background, a rivalry developed between the Gracies in Rio de Janeiro and the Ono
brothers in São Paulo.
226
"Yano Desafia Helio Gracie Para Uma Luta De Honra," Jornal dos Sports, December 20 1934, 3.
"George Gracie E Yano Empatam Apos 100 Minutos De Acao," Ring, October 5 1935, 3.
228
R.C.P., "Um Perigo Para a Nacionalidade: A Imigracao Japonesa," Mensario do Jornal do Commercio,
No. 1, Janeiro (1938), 119-123.
227
89
In 1937, George Gracie claimed that his younger brother, Hélio, had previously
fought a 2-2 draw with Ono Yasuichi. Now George would have his shot against Ono
Naochi .229 The referees for the bout held in Rio were two Special Police officers,
including its commandant, Lieutenant Euzébio de Queiroz.230 Ono Naochi threw George
Gracie harshly several times, tossed him out of the ring and then choked him into
submission. This devastating loss before their patrons certainly damaged the Gracies’
reputation and demanded a quick and adequate response.231
Shortly after the bout, the promoters rapidly scheduled a rematch to take place at
the Brazil Stadium in Rio de Janeiro.232 Before a packed arena, George finished off Ono
Naochi in the sixth round with a decisive arm bar that revenged and restored the Gracies’
honor. The next day’s newspapers headlined: “Football is no longer the only sport
attracting large audiences.”233 The analogy with football was deliberate, since Mário
Filho, owner of the Jornal dos Sports and intellectual, enthusiastically promoted a
national identity associated with a Brazilian style of football. Heightening the nationalist
fervor, the Brazilian-owned movie studio Cinédia screen the presentation of “the first jiujitsu match ever filmed in Brazil.”234
229
"Ono Vai Experimentar O Amargor Derrota," Jornal dos Sports, September 8 1937, 4.
Jornal dos Sports, September 12 1937.
231
Jornal dos Sports, September 27 1937.
232
The Estádio Brasil (Brazil Stadium) located near Rio’s downtown at the Feira Internacional de Amostras
(Sample International Fair). The arena built in 1935 had 3,600 square feet.
233
"George Gracie Venceu No Sexto Round Com Um Armlock: Ja Nao Se Pode Dizer Que O Football E O
Unico Esporte Que Atrai O Grande Publico " Jornal dos Sports, October 3 1937, 6.
234
Ibid.
230
90
Introduction
In the previous chapter, I described how the Gracies used their jiu-jitsu skills to
regain status by analyzing their insertion into Getulio Vargas’ security apparatus and how
they enjoyed protection under the new regime. In this chapter, I analyze how the Gracies
launched created a Brazilian jiu-jitsu style against a background of growing nationalism
and construction of national identity, notably during the implementation of the Estado
Novo dictatorship after 1937.
The Gracies, strongly supported by the regime, ran their jiu-jitsu operations in Rio
de Janeiro a few blocks from the presidential palace. By contrast, their rivals settled in
the epicenter of Japanese immigration, 400 kilometers away, in São Paulo. The rivalry
between the Gracies and the Japanese martial artists reflected the existence of two
competing projects for modern Brazil. The Gracies came to represent the nationalist
alliance with xenophobic overtones between Rio’s old elite and the new power holders
hailing from oligarchies established in peripheral Brazil. Conversely, the Japanese martial
artists symbolized São Paulo’s agro-industrial elite option for immigration and
multiculturalism.
In addition, the dynamic of the rivalry between the Gracies and Japanese fighters
demonstrated the ambiguities found in the discourses presented above. The Navy, the
branch of the military that had pioneered the practice of jiu-jitsu, sponsored some of the
91
best Japanese martial artists in Brazil during the 1930s. Moreover, the Navy traditionally
recruited officers of genteel background, which made their antagonism toward the
Gracies an inter-elite dispute within the bureaucratic apparatus created by the new
regime.235
In this chapter, I analyze jiu-jitsu’s acculturation using two conceptual
frameworks. The first suggests the creation of a Brazilian national identity against the
background of growing foreign immigration and under the nationalist influence.
236
During the 1930s, the Gracies found themselves in a quasi- Hobbesian state of war
against all challengers. When fighting Brazilian wrestlers, the Gracies were seeking to
enhance their status and prestige within the new political establishment. But when
fighting the Japanese, they were becoming epitomes of national identity and
simultaneously creating a local fighting style.
The Gracies created a local jiu-jitsu culture by refusing to abide by technical,
philosophical and cultural aspects of the Japanese matrix. As a result, they laid the
foundations of the future hybrid known as Brazilian jiu-jitsu. The transformation of
Japanese jiu-jitsu encompassed a wide range of changes concerning techniques,
philosophy, and rituals in which I employed Arjun Appadurai’s study of the acculturation
of British cricket in India. Apppadurai found that through a binary transformation
involving “hard” and “soft” forms, British cricket underwent a process of indigenization
in colonial India:
235
Peter M. Beattie, "Adolfo Ferreira Caminha: Navy Officer, Ardent Republican, and Naturalist Novelist,"
in The Human Tradition in Modern Brazil, ed. Peter M. Beattie (Willmington, DE: Scholarly Resources,
2004), 91.
236
See: Lesser, Negotiating National Identity : Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in
Brazil, passim.
92
Hard cultural forms are those that come with a set of links between
value, meaning, and embodied practice that are difficult to break and
hard to transform. Soft cultural forms, by contrast, that permits
relatively easy separation of embodied performance from meaning and
value, and relatively successful transformation at each level. 237
Concerning the “hard” forms of embodied practice, a brief explanation of technical
aspects is necessary. Japanese immigration had direct influence on jiu-jitsu style as
reinvented by the Gracies. Since the initial bouts fought in São Paulo in 1930, became
clear the Japanese martial artists’ technical superiority in standing techniques (NageWaza). On the other hand, the growing specialization in standing techniques led the
Japanese fighters to gradually neglect ground combat (Ne-Waza). The Gracies then filled
the technical gap by focusing their jiu-jitsu practice almost exclusively on ground
combat. Therefore, while keeping the techniques in their original form, they worked out a
ground combat style based on a defensive strategy. Simultaneously, the Gracies sought to
transform jiu-jitsu’s “soft” forms by rapidly abolishing Japanese bowing (rei-ho),
ignoring Kodokan judo’s belt rankings and Japanese rules governing the fights.238
The Gracies versus the Japanese martial artists: fighting for jiu-jitsu’s
supremacy
As James C. Scott affirmed, the new regime sought “to remake society in its own
image.”239 In undertaking this task, the government created agencies to organize, regulate
237
Appadurai, "Playing with Modernity: The Decolonization of Indian Cricket," 90.
Replacing the Japanese bowing by the Westernized “handshake” seems to be an attempt to introduce
horizontal ethics or egalitarian ideas that came along with modernization. See: Matta, Carnivals, Rogues,
and Heroes : An Interpretation of the Brazilian Dilemma, 148-49. The Gracies also created a new ranking
system in which the highest level was the blue belt.
239
James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State : How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have
Failed, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), 97.
238
93
and control sports in general and combat sports in particular. Rio de Janeiro’s Municipal
Boxing Commission, for example, was organized in 1933 and was responsible for a
variety of martial arts. Upon the arrival of the new regime, elements within both the
military and the police became obsessed with ideas stemming from neo-Lamarckian
eugenics that placed strong emphasis on improvement of living conditions through the
practice of sports.240 Thus, police or military officers usually led state agencies governing
combat sports.
Simultaneous with measures establishing state control over combat sports,
growing Japanese immigration, between 1925 and 1935, brought scores of martial artists
to São Paulo. The account of an immigrant named Yanagimori Masaru is particularly
noteworthy. In 1936, he was a fifteen-year old martial artist who embarked on the ship
bound for Brazil. The “Buenos Aires Maru” was a regular vessel transporting Japanese
immigrants, equipped with a twenty-eight mat dojo that held a judo tournament during
the forty day trip.241 Ten percent of the passengers were martial arts practitioners and
one-fourth of these were graduated black belts. These figures show a significant number
of martial artists arriving to Brazil, since immigrants traveling on the “Buenos Aires
Maru” represented ten per cent of the all Japanese arrivals in 1936.242
240
Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics : Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America, 92.
The Osaka Shohen Kaisha Line (O.S.K.) owned the “Buenos Aires Maru” whose itinerary had as “port
of calls” Rio de Janeiro and Santos (São Paulo). Björn Larsson, "Maritime Timetable Images," accessed
August 12, 2011, http://www.timetableimages.com/maritime/images/osk.htm.
The Japanese Army transformed the vessel in hospital ship. The USAAF B-24s sunk her in 1943 off Papua
New Guinea’s coast. Patrick Clancey, "Hyperwar Project," accessed September 10, 2011,
http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/USN-Chron/USN-Chron-1943.html.
242
Jhony Arai, Viajantes Do Sol Nascente, (São Paulo, Brasil: Editora Garçoni, 2003), n.p. Lone, The
Japanese Community in Brazil, 1908-1940 : Between Samurai and Carnival, 101.
241
94
Confrontations between the Gracies in Rio de Janeiro and the Japanese black belts
were probably inevitable even when the latter predominantly settled in São Paulo. In the
early 1930s, Hélio and George Gracie fought their first bouts against the new Japanese
immigrants. Both reached draws in respective fights against Namiki and the old Gracie
acquaintance, Geo Omori. Towards the mid 1930s, Japanese immigrants with outstanding
martial arts skills landed in Rio de Janeiro, some of them, supported by the Gracies’
antagonists in the military. As an example of the growing tension between the Gracies
and the Boxing Commission, the former had their licenses to participate in public bouts
suspended twice in 1934. On the first occasion, prior to the fight between Hélio and a
Japanese named Myako, Carlos Gracie flatly rejected the appointed referee who was
replaced by the Gracies’ patron, Special Police chief Lieutenant Euzébio de Queiroz.
Next, Carlos made an unusual request for the use of sleeveless jiu-jitsu uniforms,
apparently seeking to make the application of arm bars by the Japanese more difficult.
Lastly, after Hélio’s victory over Myako, the Boxing Commission suspended Carlos from
participating in combat sports due to his unruly behavior during the bouts and persistent
complaints.243 The other Gracie, George, also had his share of controversy with the
commission. In 1934, he once entered the ring but inexplicably refused to fight the
Brazilian wrestler Orlando Américo da Silva (nicknamed Dudu). Before an astonished
audience and members of the Boxing Commission, the police escorted and placed George
under custody.244
243
"Brilhante Victoria De Helio Gracie Sobre Myaki " Jornal dos Sports, June 24 1934, 6
George, after signing a contract and agreeing to the rules, refused to fight a no-holds-barred fight.
"George Gracie Fugiu Ao Combate Com Dudu," Jornal dos Sports, November 4 1934, 6.
244
95
The Boxing Commission sought to set limits, draft regulations, and create weight
divisions and rules, all in order to decrease the level of violence in no-holds-barred bouts.
Such measures infuriated the Gracies, whose martial-art marketing sought largely to
create the image of “David and Goliath” performances. The creation of weight divisions
mitigated the effects of their psychological game. Moreover, the adoption of international
wrestling rules deprived them of the violence inherent to fights with barely any rules.245
The jiu-jitsu routine that Carlos Gracie learned from Mayeda Mitsuyo lacked
philosophical aspects regarding hierarchy and strict respect for the rules found in the
Japanese matrix. As mentioned earlier, they replaced Kodokan judo’s “soft” forms of
orthodox by a local version of the sport. A similar situation occurred in the creation of
creole style of football (fútbol criollo) in Argentina where the British sought to transmit
to local footballers their sporting ethics.246 However, the Argentineans reinvented football
under their own cultural terms. In fact, Argentinean, Uruguayan and Brazilian football
players over time developed their own interpretation of what the British defined as “fair
play.” Brazilians responded by resorting to a cultural codification known in Portuguese as
catimba. This colloquial Afro-Portuguese word catimba corresponds to the Spanish term
picadia criolla, which means “craftiness” or “trickery.” Each refers to dissimulation or
astute trickery used to keep an adversary off balance through behavior unexpectedly
contrary to the norms.
245
The referees of the Boxing Commission were instructed to apply international wrestling rules by which
a contender can only be is pinned down on his back. This regulation posed a major setback for the Gracie
since they were likely to be pinned down fighting against larger and heavier wrestlers. "Carlos Gracie
Suspenso Por 6 Mezes," Jornal dos Sports, July 25 1934, front page, 6.
246
Archetti, Masculinities: Football, Polo, and the Tango in Argentina, 49.
96
The Gracies’ adamant refusal to abide by Kodokan rules and to resist the ones
enforced by the Boxing Commission is key to understand how they survived the early
confrontations with Japanese martial artists while creating a local jiu-jitsu style.
It is noteworthy that modern rules enforced both in Japan and in Brazil had
nationalistic and even militaristic undertones. Kodokan judo rules, for example,
resurrected old warrior codes of Japanese Bushido by incorporating the idea of “sudden
death,” which proclaimed as victorious the one able to apply a clean (“perfect”) throw. In
Brazil, the military, which was in charge of combat sports, sought to standardize loosely
organized rules in order to regulate violence and transform unruly performances into
modern sport.
If the Gracies accepted Japanese rules, they would stand no chance of victory
against skilled Japanese throwers. Similarly, adopting the new rules that determine
victory by points established by the military that controlled the Boxing Commission
would turn draws into defeats. This became clear by analyzing fights in which the
Japanese martial artists thrown and dominated the Gracies. One should bear in mind that
inconclusive draws allowed the Gracies to keep their aura of invincibility intact, which
was a valuable asset in times of nationalism.
After the Gracies’ fight with Takeo Yano, as described in the beginning of this
chapter, other Japanese immigrants based in São Paulo came to Rio determined to purge
97
the local jiu-jitsu’s heresy. Yassuiti, another member of the Ono family supported by the
Navy challenged Hélio Gracie.247
Figure 26: “Ono is an outstanding fighter: Captain Luis Souto, Count Koma’s student.” Source: Jornal dos
Sports, 1935.
In a bitter exchange of words prior to the fight, Carlos Gracie acknowledged the
hostile Navy officer’s past apprenticeship under Mayeda Mitsuyo in the Amazon. Yet
training under the same jiu-jitsu master made them rivals rather than friends.
Furthermore, in this exchange Commander Souto emphasized that Ono was even better
than Yano, and that Hélio Gracie thus stood no chance.248 In response, instead of offering
his habitual bellicose remarks, Carlos was somewhat tactful. While acknowledging
“Commander Souto’s profound jiu-jitsu knowledge," Carlos affirmed that “Hélio had no
fear and will win.”249 Ono himself decided to provoke the Gracies and declared that Hélio
247
Yassuiti Ono and Naoti Ono arrived in São Paulo in the late 1920s. Fabio Quio Takao, "O Judo No
Brasil: Os Primeiros Rivais Da Familia Gracie," Tatame, February, 2011, 54.
248
Commander Luis Souto was part of the Navy officer’s cohort trained by Mayeda Mitsuyo and Takeo
Yano in Amazon. Jornal dos Sports, November 27 1935.
249
"Helio Nao Se Atemoriza," Jornal dos Sports, November 28 1935, 3.
98
would not survive the first round and challenged all the Gracies to fight him in one
night.250 The bout ended in a draw, not very differently from George’s previous match
with Yano. According to the Jornal dos Sports, Hélio’s strong defensive strategy held off
Ono’s aggressive actions. Carlos acknowledging the danger posed by Ono sought to
disturb the latter and intimidate the referee. For this, the Boxing Commission, once again,
suspended him from coaching for six months.251
The first round of fights between the Gracies and skilled Japanese martial artists
such as Yano and Ono came to a stalemate in that the Gracies managed to survive their
first real test against mainstream jiu-jitsu. The political background behind the matches
was particularly significant. A political crisis marked by violent clashes broke out on
November 23 1935 in some northeastern states and Rio de Janeiro.252 A Communist
revolt rocked the fragile constitutional arrangement, and Getulio Vargas used this as an
excuse to impose a dictatorship in 1937.253 Repressing communism was the baptême du
feu for the Special Police in which the Gracies were instructors. Through this recently
created gendarmerie the state unleashed repression in full swing.254
250
"Helio Nao Passara Do 1o Round: Ono Desafia Os 4 Irmaos Gracie," Jornal dos Sports, December 3
1935, 5.
251
"Nao Se Definiu O Combate Helio X Ono: Defensiva Do Brasileiro Invalidou a Agressividade Do
Japones," Jornal dos Sports, December 6 1935, front page, 4.
252
The revolt broke out in Natal, capital of Rio Grande do Norte state on November 23 1935 and in Rio de
Janeiro on November 27 1935.
253
Stanley E. Hilton, Brazil and the Soviet Challenge, 1917-1947, (Austin: University of Texas Press,
1991), 73.
254
The Special Police was very active during the repression that followed the failed communist
insurrection. As for example in the capture and arrest of Luis Carlos Prestes, Olga Benário, Harry (Arthur
Ernst Ewert) and Elise Berger who were high-profile individuals involved in the insurrection. According to
the memoirs of a former Special Police officer, the German couple, Harry and Elise, were savagely tortured
inside the Special Police barracks, but stoically refused to cooperate. Scaramuzzi, Memórias De Um ExPolícia Especial : Obsessão Ao Poder, 15-22. Olga Benário was deported to Germany and killed in
Ravensbrück.
99
Figure 27: “Ono wants to fight in Rio: an extraordinary jiu-jitsu master.” Source: Jornal dos Sports,
1935.255
Against this background, Hélio and Ono Naochi finally had a showdown.256 Ono
slammed Gracie to the ground twenty-seven times and even more surprisingly, the latter
avoided ground combat, narrowly escaping defeat. By declaring a draw, the referee
ignored the new jiu-jitsu rules recently adopted by the Brazilian Boxing Federation. The
new rules aimed to introduce a scoring system of points similar to those used in boxing
matches. Under these regulations, Ono was the winner, but the invisible hand of the
establishment saved the Gracies. At the end, the event organizers, perhaps trying to
255
"Ono Quer Combater No Rio: Um Excelente Mestre De Jiu-Jitsu," Jornal dos Sports, November 27
1935, 3.
256
Massagoichi had to submit to a “qualifying test” to have his bout against Hélio approved by the Boxing
Commission. The Commission applied this procedure in case of doubt about the fighter’s credentials.
Yano, invited to evaluate Helio’s next opponent, found Massagoichi’s skills insufficient. "Helio Gracie
Enfrenta Massaigochi," Jornal dos Sports, August 15 1935, 3.
100
minimize the public embarrassment, awarded Ono with a gold medal by his contribution
to the martial arts practice. 257
The Ono brothers in São Paulo, however, were not satisfied with their previous
bouts against the Gracies. Yasuichi challenged George Gracie and one newspaper
headline declared: “Jiu-jitsu Supremacy in Brazil will be decided today! Who will win?
The Japanese Ono or the Brazilian Gracie?” After a very close match, the referee
disqualified Ono by punch George unlawfully.258 The tension around these matches
seemed to take its toll on the Japanese fighter. Finally, Yasuichi’s younger brother,
Naochi, came forward and challenged George. After a tough six-round fight, George
defeated Naochi by points upon the application of the long-awaited new rules enforced
by the referee from the Special Police.259
By the end of 1937, at the launch of the Estado Novo, Yano declared: “only a
Japanese martial artist can hold the title of best jiu-jitsu fighter in Brazil.”260
This was a bold statement, issued under a full-fledged dictatorship with xenophobic
overtones. Yet Yano had the support from the Brazilian Navy, which may have
encouraged him to display his “Japaneseness” in such critical times.
257
The Brazilian Boxing Confederation (Confederação Brasileira de Pugilismo) founded on August 3 1935
merged the federations of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais. This state institution, thereafter,
ruled over jiu-jitsu, Boxing, Capoeira, Wrestling, judo among others. Jiu-jitsu’s rules changed on August
20 1935. “The rules of jiu-jitsu’s matches were modified and hereafter will be decided by points, surrender
and knockout in order to avoid mistakes made by referees.” "Confederacao Brasileira De Pugilismo,"
Jornal dos Sports, August 20 1935, 3.
258
"George Gracie Vencedor Por Desclassificacao," Jornal dos Sports, October 17 October 17, front page.
"Na Luta Realizada Hontem No Stadio Brasil, Jorge Gracie Venceu Ono Por Desclassificacao," Diario
Carioca, October 17 1937, front page.
259
"Gracie Dara Nova Oportunidade a Naoiti Ono," Diário Carioca, November 12 1937, 8. "Nauite
Sustentou Os 6 Rounds Mas Perdeu Por Pontos," Jornal dos Sports, November 14 1937, 6.
The referee was the Special Police chief Eusebio de Queiroz.
260
"Yano Esta Certo De Que Derrotara George Gracie: Japones Declara Que So Um Japones Podera Deter
a Supremacia Do Jiu-Jitsu " Jornal dos Sports, August 31 1938, 4.
101
The turning point in the creation of a Brazilian jiu-jitsu style was the fights pitting
the Gracies against the Japanese immigrants. After years struggling in the business of
combat sports, at the beginning of the Estado Novo the Gracies managed to attract sizable
audiences, capture media attention and obtain state support only comparable with football
spectacles. In any event, the rivalry between the Gracies and the Japanese raged on when
the Estado Novo tightened the grip on every aspect of Brazilian life.261
Against a backdrop of a wave of nationalism, George and Yano fought two
important bouts in Rio and Belo Horizonte respectively. In the first, George won by
finishing Yano with a foot lock confirming the Gracies growing specialization on ground
combat. Prior to the second bout, however, the contenders made a peculiar bet in which
Yano promised to throw George twenty times during the fight. If he failed, he would pay
George, a certain amount of cash, for each failed throw.262 Yano accomplished his goal
by throwing George exactly twenty times and won the bout on points.263 At this stage, the
differences in styles are very clear. The Gracies resorted to a defensive ground strategy
based on a scissors-like position (do-o sae) to compensate the Japanese superiority on
throwing techniques. The Gracies developed their jiu-jitsu beyond the model of “soft
forms” — purely cultural adaptations — proposed by Arjun Appadurai.
In fact, the emphasis on ground combat was primarily a strategy devised to
survive their rivals and not with any deliberate purpose of creating such a “Brazilian” jiujitsu style. Even so, the Gracies’ agency was an important factor in the invention of
Get lio Vargas’ coup d'état on September 10 1937 made the regime a full-fledge dictatorship.
"Yano E George Mais Uma Vez Frente a Frente: Uma Aposta Original Para O Grande Choque De
Sabado," Jornal dos Sports, September 22 1938, 2.
263
"Yano Venceu George Gracie Por Pontos Em Belo Horizonte Derrubando 20 Vezes," O Globo Sportivo,
October 4 1938, 6.
261
262
102
“Brazilian” jiu-jitsu. The Gracies devised the Brazilian jiu-jitsu as a defensive style, but
they made it offensive through the application of chokes and joint-locks from the bottom
position.
Figure 28: Osae-komi waza (pin down technique). Kodokan judo rules give the victory to those able to pin
down their opponent for thirty seconds. By contrast, the Gracies adopted the rule in which victory only
could be achieved by submission (surrender or tapping out). Source: Judo Information, 2011.264
Figure 29: Nage-Waza (throwing techniques). According to Kodokan rules, a “perfect” (clear) throw ends
the fight according to the concept of “sudden death” (knock-out). Source: Judo Information, 2011.265
Figure 30: The “guard” (do-osae) position hallmarked the Brazilian jiu-jitsu by emphasizing ground
combat. Source: Beginning Bjj Ecourse, 2011.266
264
Neil Ohlenkamp, "Pinning Techniques," accessed June 22, 2011, http://judoinfo.com/techdrw.htm.
"Throwing Techniques," accessed June 22, 2011, http://judoinfo.com/techdraw.htm.
266
Stephan Kesting, "Beginning Bjj Course," accessed June 23, 2011, http://www.beginningbjj.com.
265
103
Public performance, Politics and the Gracies' patriarchy
Participation in public performances against the Japanese was essential to the
development of the Gracies’ “Brazilian” jiu-jitsu. These activities, combined with others
undertaken in their dojo, helped to consolidate their prestige and created a strong ethos
that linked them with local society.
Public gatherings displaying beautiful bodies,
encouraging the practice of sports and promoting nationalism marked this period.
Connections between sports, eugenics, nationalism, and militarism were the norm.267 Yet
the transplanting of jiu-jitsu to particular elitist urban spaces and within a larger cultural
concept was a specifically Gracie innovation. In 1936, they promoted jiu-jitsu
tournaments and staged public demonstrations with the participation of “the best
individuals of our society.”268 The presentations held on Copacabana Beach were a
cultural innovation at a time when urban expansion sprawled along Rio’s southern
beaches. The construction of the Copacabana Palace Hotel in 1923 had constituted a
watershed for this previously peripheral neighborhood. It introduced fashionable forms of
seaside recreation imported from contemporary Europe.269 The Jornal dos Sports
enthusiastically reported in 1936: “Jiu-jitsu on Copacabana Beach: Splendor and Physical
Prowess.”270 Beach culture was a new aspect of upper-class lifestyle sponsored by the
267
Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics : Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America, 162-70.
"Torneio De Jiu-Jitsu Reune Os Melhores Individuos De Nossa Sociedade," Jornal dos Sports, June 15
1936, 3.
269
Conniff, Urban Politics in Brazil : The Rise of Populism, 28-29.
270
"Jiu-Jitsu Em Copacabana: Esplendor E Pujanca Fisica," Jornal dos Sports, June 21 1937, front page.
268
104
Jornal dos Sports and the beginning of an instrumental relationship linking bodies in
swimsuits to ones wrapped in jiu-jitsu gis.271
Figure 31: Copacabana 1930s. Source: Flickr, 2007.272
Figure 32: “Jiu-jitsu and Wrestling Tournament Kick-Off” Copacabana Beach, Rio. Source: Jornal dos
Sports, 1937.273
271
Roberto Marinho and Mário Filho bought the Jornal dos Sports. The former also owned the newspaper
O Globo which became Brazil’s most powerful media empire in the second half of the twentieth century.
272
Andre Costa, "Copacabana Beach," accessed August 30, 2011,
http://www.flickr.com/photos/andre_so_rio/1016368923/.
273
"Jiu-Jitsu Em Copacabana: Esplendor E Pujanca Fisica."
105
Figure 33: “Sporting Evening at Gracie Academy with the Best Individuals of Our Society” Source: Jornal
dos Sports, 1936.274
The Gracies along with scores of Brazilians found themselves caught in the
middle of a fierce ideological competition in the 1930s. Modernist movements gained
momentum in São Paulo during the 1920s and soon split into divergent ideological
currents.275 The Ação Integralista Brasileira (A.I.B.) became during the 1930s the first
mass-based political party organized in Brazil. Moreover, in the 1930s, international
political polarization spilled over into the political arena in Brazil as communists and
integralistas battled for hearts, minds, and power.276 The Integralist Party rapidly
expanded in number and influence, winning over people from a wide array of social
backgrounds and with different interpretations of nationalism. Furthermore, the slogan
“God, Fatherland, and Family,” the aesthetics of their “green shirts, the performance of
274
"Torneio De Jiu-Jitsu Reune Os Melhores Individuos De Nossa Sociedade."
The current led by Plínio Salgado branched off the modernist movement moving from aesthetics to
political nationalism. In addition to nationalism, Plínio Salgado brought to his movement traditional
Catholicism, refreshed by the ongoing Catholic revivalism in Rio de Janeiro. He later founded Brazil’s
“Integralist Party.” Leslie Bethell, Ideas and Ideologies in Twentieth Century Latin America since 1870,
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 21-22.
276
In 1922, communists founded the Partido Comunista Brasileiro P.C.B. (Brazilian Communist Party) and
in 1932, integralistas founded the Ação Integralista Brasileira, A.I.B. (Brazilian Integralist Action).
275
106
lavish parades and their idiosyncratic salute: 'Anauê!' would be highly appealing to those
seeking social insertion in the new order."277
After helping to crush the “Communist Insurrection” in 1935, and upon the
inauguration of the Estado Novo two years later, the integralists saw no hurdles between
them and political power. Yet when it came time to divide the political spoils, Getúlio
Vargas had his own plans, which did not include the integralists. The latter, frustrated and
determined to settle a score with an ungrateful partner, stormed the presidential residence
in 1938. The ill-planned and poorly implemented raid concluded as a grotesque
episode.278 The fate of the Estado Novo hung in the balance during the five-hour skirmish
in which Vargas, his family, a handful of marines and Special Police troopers held off the
rebels until lethargic support arrived from security forces.279 Once the putsch attempt
failed, the regime unleashed its security apparatus to punish the unruly integralists.
Repression by political police (D.O.P.S) included raids and apprehension of documents
held at political committees throughout the country. In the party office in the then-bucolic
Rio de Janeiro neighborhood of Ipanema, the dossier found indicated that the party was a
social patchwork. The long list of supporters included descendants of aristocratic
families, the nouveau rich, intellectuals, civil servants, blue-collar workers, enlisted men,
277
Lamartine P. da Costa and Plinio Labriola, "Bodies from Brazil: Fascist Aesthetics in South American
Setting," in Shaping the Superman : Fascist Body as Political Icon : Aryan Fascism, ed. J. A. Mangan
(London: Frank Cass, 1999), 174.
278
Robert M. Levine, Father of the Poor? : Vargas and His Era, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1998), 54.
279
Alzira Vargas do Amaral Peixoto, Getúlio Vargas, Meu Pai, (Rio de Janeiro: Editôra Globo, 1960), 193.
107
and housewives, displaying a remarkable political solidarity.280 On the party membership
list, the name “Hélio Gracie” showed up.
Of the three Gracie brothers who became instrumental in creating the Brazilian
jiu-jitsu, Carlos, George and Hélio, the latter was the only one who displayed open
support for Integralism. In assessing Hélio’s affiliation to radical ideologies one is
tempted to affirm that he was simply swept up in a strong political trend, but in some
ways his support for this Brazilian version of fascism was predictable. In addition, the
party placed a premium on youth, virility and aggressive manliness. 281 Hélio’s bellicose
persona and past transgressions made his affiliation with the “green shirts” unsurprising.
It is unknown whether Hélio suffered any reprisal in the repressive response to the
coup attempt. He was likely able to remain untouched, along with the majority of party
members. In general, the backlash endured by the integralists was remarkably mild,
compared to the repression suffered by the communists in 1935.282 The repressive
machine, however, carefully maintained the records of Hélio’s affair with the “green
shirts.”
“Dossiê das Relações de Votantes nos Diversos Nucleos”, 31 de maio 1937. Fundo: Divisão de Polícia
Política e Social, Arquivo Publico do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
281
Sandra McGee Deutsch, Las Derechas : The Extreme Right in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, 1890-1939,
(Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1999), 282-83.
282
Levine, Father of the Poor? : Vargas and His Era, 54.
280
108
Figure 34: Fascism “made in Brazil.” Integralismo became a patchwork of nationalistic tendencies (left).
Integralistas parading in Rio, 1937, fascist aesthetic (right). Source: Frente Integralista Brasileira.283
The local jiu-jitsu invented by the Gracies continued to mold its soft forms on
their image, against a backdrop of rapid social changes. A few months after the failed
coup, a young woman walked into the Gracie dojo and asked for jiu-jitsu lessons to learn
how to deal with her husband’s outbursts of violence. She explained that her husband was
usually an “adorable man,” but prone to become physically abusive whenever he lost his
temper. Since this rogue behavior was culturally tolerated, and part of the routinized
violence faced by many women, the beleaguered housewife decided to resort to jiu-jitsu
to combat machismo with the help of the Gracies.284 Carlos Gracie, assuming the role of
female protector, not only taught her some jiu-jitsu techniques, but also professorially
instructed her: “Do you want to solve your conjugal troubles? Put an arm bar on your
husband”. This was the Gracies’ formula for responding to domestic violence. 285 Photos
portrayed the young housewife being empowered by learning jiu-jitsu. Woman rights
283
Frente Integralista Brasileira, accessed June 5, 2010,
http://integralismo.org.br/novo/imagens/phpDpksL2.jpg.
284
Sarah J. Hautzinger, Violence in the City of Women : Police and Batterers in Bahia, Brazil, (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2007), 34-35.
285
"Queres Solucionar as Tuas Questoes Conjugais? Aplique Um Armlock! O Jiu-Jitsu Iguala Os Sexos,"
O Globo Sportivo, November 1 1938, 5.
109
made significant advances in the early stages of Getulio Vargas rule. The regime initially
promoted women’s suffrage and appointed female officials to high-profile positions, as
well as introducing other improvements for middle and upper class women. Despite these
achievements, the inauguration of the Estado Novo dictatorship in 1937 halted these
advances and reinforced male domination.286 In this episode, Carlos gradually revealed
his persona as a “cordial” patriarch.287 “Brazilian cordiality” is a phrase coined by
historian Sérgio Buarque de Hollanda. It suggests that foreigners portrayed Brazilians,
since the colonial period, as overtly sincere, hospitable and generous. Buarque de
Hollanda defined “Brazilian cordiality” as a pattern developed in the rural and patriarchal
setting. Yet it does not engender social solidarity beyond the individual’s immediate
circle. This behavior allowed Carlos Gracie to mitigate aspects of traditional behavior
without giving up his patriarchal position.
In his trajectory to become the Gracie’s patriarch, in 1938 Carlos introduced his
first-born son and successor through the newspaper article entitled “I want to be a
champion too!” Pictures depicted the five-year-old Eduardo Gracie, representing the
second generation of this martial arts clan in the making, wearing a jiu-jitsu gi and
choreographing moves with Carlos. Later, Carlos claiming to be under spirit possession,
changed the child’s name to “Carlson.”288 The child was the offspring of Carlos’
relationship with Carmen, a dark-skinned woman of humble origins. The apparent
286
June Edith Hahner, Emancipating the Female Sex : The Struggle for Women's Rights in Brazil, 18501940, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1990), 177-79.
287
One could trace Carlos Gracie’s modern patriarchal position to a traditional pre-modern, benevolent,
rural, and oligarchic model, found amidst the discourses of Brazil’s founding nationalism. Joao Cezar de
Castro Rocha, O Exilio Do Homem Cordial : Ensaios E Revisoes, (Rio de Janeiro: Museu da Republica
Editora, 2004), 299.
288
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 115.
110
transgression of unwritten codes that judges a woman like Carmen an “unfit” partner for
Carlos considering his family background may underscore other issues. He claimed to
follow an esoteric practice that regarded sexual discharge as “waste” except for bearing
offspring.289 Carlos allegedly partnered women solely for the sake of procreation.
Whether his reasons were the result of his esoteric beliefs or of patriarchal values, in
order to enforce his procreation ideas, he tended to engage with poor females from lower
social strata in sexual liaisons. In Brazil, the imbrication of race, class and gender explain
why Carlos invariably resorted to dark-skinned female partners to carry out his
reproductive strategies.290 Thereafter, Carlos would attribute his physical prowess,
longevity and numerous progeny to his dietary habits combined with sexual restraint.291
289
Ibid. Hugh B. Urban, Magia Sexualis : Sex, Magic, and Liberation in Modern Western Esotericism,
(Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2006), 7.
290
Robert M. Levine and José Carlos Sebe Bom Meihy, The Life and Death of Carolina Maria De Jesus,
(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), 141.
291
According to the family memoirs, Carlos’ mother rejected Carmen because she was mulata. The couple
married in civil ceremony after the birth of their first child. For other Carlos’ relationships, thereafter, he
alternates three civil marriages and a number of brief liaisons. Carmen died at young age from tuberculosis.
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia 113.
111
Figure 35: “I want to be a champion too!” Eduardo, later renamed as “Carlson,” was a Carlos Gracie’s
first-born child in his clan of Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s fighters. Source: O Globo Sportivo, 1938.292
Completing the pillars underpinning Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Carlos Gracie became
increasingly involved with esoteric practices and adopted a vegetarian diet through his
acquaintance with Oscar Santa Maria Pereira. In the early 1930s, simultaneous to his
trajectory in professional jiu-jitsu Carlos met Oscar Santa Maria Pereira who was an
employee in the Banco do Brasil, unmarried, and of the humble Spanish background. The
latter became Carlos’ student, confirming the enduring corporatist liaisons between the
Gracies and that financial institution. Santa Maria, like others in this emergent, white
middle class milieu, used his professional occupation to achieve social projection through
intellectual achievement and lavish sport activities through organizations such as the
Associação Atlética Banco do Brasil (Bank of Brazil’s Athletic Association.293 He
adhered to esoteric religious denominations as a trendy religious alternative to traditional
and conservative Catholicism.
292
"Tambem Quero Ser Campeao!," O Globo Sportivo November 26 1938, 7.
Owensby, Intimate Ironies : Modernity and the Making of Middle-Class Lives in Brazil, 53. Santa Maria
founder and first president of the Associação Atlética Banco do Brasil (Athletic Association of the Banco
do Brasil) in 1928.
293
112
In Brazil, Spiritualism gained momentum along with modernization and became a
class-based religious practice, strongly identified with white middle class sectors as a
social and racial counter point to the Afro-Brazilian religions identified with the lower
social strata.294 Santa Maria was a member of Rosicrucian Order, an esoteric semiChristian sect.295 This affiliation, however, branched off in different organizations, like
the one founded by the German-born Arnold Krumm-Heller, an adventurous physician
who fought in the Mexican Revolution, founded an esoteric church there and later
traveled throughout South America. In the early 1930s, he opened a branch of the
Ancient Rosicrucian Fraternity in Rio de Janeiro of which Santa Maria and Carlos Gracie
became affiliates.296 The partnership between Carlos Gracie and Santa Maria thrived over
the years with the former gradually rising from the role of disciple to become the latter’s
jiu-jitsu master and guru.
Lastly, completing the group of practices supporting Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Carlos
Gracie adopted and prescribed a vegetarian diet later known as the “Gracie Diet.”
Although he claimed authorship of the diet, it was the brainchild of Argentinean
physician Juan Esteve Dulin who lived and lectured in Rio de Janeiro in the early 1920s.
He traveled extensively in search of centenarian individuals to study their habits and
294
Diana DeG Brown, Umbanda : Religion and Politics in Urban Brazil, (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1994), 8-14.
295
James R. Lewis, Witchcraft Today : An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions, (Santa
Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 1999), 110-11.
296
Andrew Dawson, New Era, New Religions : Religious Transformation in Contemporary Brazil,
(Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2007), 55.
113
gather evidence to produce an ideal type of diet.297 As a result, a vegetarian diet became
one of the backbones of Brazilian jiu-jitsu.
Toward the 1940s, after passing an entire decade deeply involved with jiu-jitsu,
the Gracies developed other interests. Carlos became increasingly involved in a real
estate business with his successful associate Oscar de Santa Maria, and decided to move
to the northeastern state of Ceará. Santa Maria, meanwhile, rose steadily within the
Banco do Brasil, which certainly opened opportunities for their partnership to conduct
profitable business operations. Money matters, however, were not Carlos’ only concern;
he also took seriously his role as a spiritualist guru, surrounded by a small circle of
followers. Spiritual guidance ruled over every aspect of his life. Therefore, it is difficult
to determine whether he decided to move for practical reasons or had been motivated by
spiritual inspiration.298 Whatever the reasons, he settled along with his five children in
what becomes the most sensitive region of Brazil during wartime. In 1942, Brazil
declared war on the Axis powers. The casus belli was the sinking of Brazilian ships by
German U-boats off the coast of northeastern Brazil.299 When the war broke out, Carlos
was living in the coastal city of Fortaleza, the capital of Ceará State.
During the war the Estado Novo dictatorship tightened its grip by imposing harsh
censorship and controlling mail service and telegraphic communications.300 The steady
flow of correspondence between Carlos Gracie and Oscar de Santa Maria raised the
suspicion of local authorities in Ceará. Carlos was seen as an outsider exchanging lengthy
297
Juan Esteve Dulin, Guia De La Salud, (Buenos Aires: Editorial de Cultura Humana, 1949).
"Os Gracie Afirmam Estar Sendo Alvo De Chantagem," O Globo, November 1 1963, 17.
299
The northeastern Brazil became a highly prized strategic point for the Allied war effort due its
privileged positions vis–à–vis the South Atlantic and West Africa.
300
Robert Justin Goldstein, Political Censorship, (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001), 93.
298
114
correspondence in cryptographic language.301 The political police in Rio de Janeiro had
been informed by Ceará state police that Carlos Gracie – a former jiu-jitsu fighter and
former member of the integralist militia – was currently living in Fortaleza. The local
police reported that Carlos was exchanging letters, sent by an accountant, addressed to a
high-ranking employee of the Banco do Brasil. This accountant had connections with
Branca Botelho, the wife of the Swedish consul in Rio de Janeiro, and mistress of a
certain German citizen named Osborne who was currently being detained for espionage.
Such wartime paranoia was not unusual. Hélio’s association with Integralism, the
peculiar content of the letters, and an overzealous police officer in a backwater coastal
town swarmed by German U-boats, combined to produce a fantastic story.
Among other things, the correspondence dealt with family affairs in which Santa
Maria looked after Carlos’ children.302 Other than this, they dealt with spiritual, dietary
and business matters about which Carlos advised his small circle of followers. He
claimed to receive advice in worldly matters through his shamanic connection with a
native Peruvian spirit named Egídio Lasjovino.303 The nationality of Carlos’ spiritual
guide, as well as the adoption of the diet of the Argentinean physician, leads one to
speculate about the actual mentorial role of Santa Maria over Carlos. In both cases, the
Spanish language may have been instrumental either for understanding Dulin’s diet or in
dealing with the Peruvian entity.
“Correspondencia Carlos Gracie/Oscar Santa Maria”, 1943. Departamento de Ordem Politica e Social
(D.O.P.S.), Arquivo Publico do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
302
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 207-08.
303
“Correspondencia Carlos Gracie/Oscar Santa Maria”, 1943. Departamento de Ordem Politica e Social
(D.O.P.S.) Arquivo Publico do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
301
115
Carlos and Santa Maria were aware that their correspondence was being
intercepted, which made Carlos resort to even more suspicious terminology. They had
business interests mostly dedicated to real estate using Santa Maria’s money and
connections.304 Gracie and Santa Maria were ultimately able to convince authorities of
their innocence of “Integralist espionage.” The latter was summoned by police and
declared he was Carlos’ jiu-jitsu student, who over time became a close friend and
business associate. Both were spiritualists and vegetarians, which would explain the
strange content of their messages. Santa Maria also affirmed that Carlos was not a
member of the Integralista party. The espionage affair revealed the relationship between
the Carlos and Santa Maria in which the latter was instrumental in many developments
that would help the initial acculturation of jiu-jitsu.
Figure 36: Gillette advertisement in 1941. Jiu-jitsu is related to health, hygiene and masculinity without
losing its traditional appeal. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1941.305
Oscar Santa Maria was temporarily appointed Minister of Finance in Eurico Gaspar Dutra’s presidency
after Get lio Vargas’ overthrow in 1945. This gave Carlos access to even higher levels of state power.
305
"Jiu-Jitsu: Factor De Saude," Jornal dos Sports, March 30 1941, 5.
304
116
Conclusion
From 1939 onward, the three Gracie brothers, George, Hélio, and Carlos were
taking different directions. George, who had a perpetually stormy relationship with his
brothers, was the only Gracie who still occasionally performed in public matches. Hélio
decided to retire temporarily from jiu-jitsu at a relatively young age to enjoy his social
upward mobility. He married a separated nouveau riche woman and became a corporate
executive in one of her family holdings.306 Carlos, on the other hand, dedicated himself to
build new pillars of Brazilian jiu-jitsu by incorporating esoteric practices, dietary rules
and building a clannish structure into its “soft” cultural format.
The period between the Communist Insurrection in 1935 and the outbreak of the
Second World War is particularly relevant to the analysis of the making of Brazilian jiujitsu. During this period, the Gracies confronted their opponents on two fronts. Within the
system, far from finding complete support, they faced opposition among the military and
from other disciples of the Japanese Mayeda Mitsuyo. Moreover, the very state they had
come to represent became an obstacle to their individualistic strategies. Yet under the thin
veneer of modernity spearheaded by the new political regime lay a pervasively
paternalistic system in which fallen aristocrats like the Gracies remained favorite sons. In
turn, they provide their political patrons with their expertise in violence.
In their reinvention of jiu-jitsu, the Gracies engineered an embryonic bundle of
traits, including Carlos’ personification of guru and modern patriarch, to turn a loose set
306
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 184.
117
of jiu-jitsu techniques vaguely associated with a Japanese martial arts school into a
comprehensive local martial art system.
Resilience symbolized by a defensive ground combat became the hallmark of the
Gracies’ Brazilian jiu-jitsu style, forged in confrontations against foreign opponents with
technical superiority especially in standing combat. They would lie under their skilled
adversaries, whom they held between their legs. The similar process denominated
elsewhere as “self-colonization,” which refers to a deliberate submission to a foreign
cultural flow, had been withstood by the Gracies strong defense.
307
Yet the fighting
system they created was not only a defensive or passive style developed to resist the
Japanese technical edge. It evolved into a style designed to defeat their opponents from
the guard position. The Gracies, thereafter, advertised their jiu-jitsu by warning those
unfamiliar with their style that those underneath could be winning.
In time of profound changes in which Getulio Vargas seized the power and
imposed a dictatorship, the Gracies established their martial art firmly at the heart of the
new order. Finally, in the 1940s, a long interregnum began for the Gracies and Getúlio
Vargas. Nevertheless, both would be back for a new round against their rivals in the postwar period.
According to Sabine Frühstrück and Wolfram Manzenreiter, “self-colonization here refers to processes
of cultural flow in which submission is accepted and even deliberately sought." This phenomenon is related
to the hegemonic stream of Japanese judo occurred in Austria. Sabine Frühstück and Wolfram
Manzenreiter, "Neverland Lost: Judo Cultures in Austria, Japan and Everywhere," 8-13.
307
118
Figure 37: “Draw between George Gracie and Geo Omori.” The position above serves as a metaphor of
the confrontations between the Gracies and the Japanese martial artists. The match resulted in a cultural
gridlock. Source: Jornal dos Sports, 1935.308
308
"O Empate Entre George Gracie E Geo Omori," Jornal dos Sports, September 9 1935, 3.
119
Chapter 4 - Brazilian jiu-jitsu in the mainstream: media,
ethnicity and populism, 1951-1960
Introduction
The early 1950s marked the return of Getúlio Vargas to power after his deposition
by a military coup in 1945. This time, he returned to rule the country by popular vote.
Unlike the 1930s when Getúlio Vargas managed to keep hold to power through
Machiavellian political maneuvers, in the post-war he faced a quite distinct scenario. In
1954, he found himself in the middle of a bitter campaign to place oil exploration under
state control, engulfed in political scandals occurring around him and threaten by the
military. Under tremendous pressure, Vargas shot himself and the nation mourned the
loss of its leader. But if Vargas was dead, populism was not, for in the second half of the
decade a new wave of enthusiasm followed the inauguration of Juscelino Kubischek as
president. Industrialization, nationalism and cultural innovation were hallmarks of this
period. The emergence of the music genre “Bossa Nova” and the construction of a highmodernist federal capital, Brasília, could emblematically represent Juscelino Kubishek’s
years.
In the early 1950s, the Gracies also were back after a decade away from jiu-jitsu
activities. Driven by an unprecedented public exposure they reached an iconic status
through their massive presence in newspapers, magazines, radio, television and even in
comic books. Simultaneously, they reinforced the process of jiu-jitsu’s gentrification by
120
opening a new dojo and developing a style for their selected clientele. In addition, in the
1950s, the Gracies gave the final touches to the construction of a clannish structure along
lineages headed by Carlos and Hélio Gracie.309 These two, thereafter, epitomized the
image of the Gracie patriarchs.
The 1950s was a decade of high-profile public confrontations for the Gracies.
First, they faced their eternal rivals: the Japanese martial artists. In three bouts against
three Kodokan judo black belts, they experienced victory and defeat. Regardless of the
fights’ outcome, these battles became the opportunity to promote their return to the
martial arts business. Fighting Japanese martial artists in the early stages of Kodokan
judo post-war globalization sanctioned Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s status as local style of combat
sport. Furthermore, confronting foreigners athletes in the aftermath of Brazil’s worst-ever
defeat in sports made the Gracies national icons. In 1950, prior to the first confrontation
between Hélio Gracie and the Japanese martial artists, the Uruguayan national team
defeated Brazil in the final game of the FIFA World Cup. Gracie fought the Japanese
judo black belts in the same stadium built to celebrate the apotheosis of Brazilian football
that ironically ended up with a traumatic humiliation before the Uruguayans. In another
round of public fights, however, the Gracies found themselves in the middle of an intense
debate about racism. From the rivalry that arose between them and an Afro-Brazilian
student, the Gracies found themselves at the center of a debate in the Rio de Janeiro press
about Brazil’s “racial democracy.” Finally, the Gracies through their media exposure find
309
From1950s onward George Gracie's martial arts practice became rather erratic. Despite his crucial role
in the confrontations with Japanese fighters in the 1930s, his relevance for Brazilian jiu-jitsu thereafter has
faded.
121
themselves transformed into agents of post-war modernization. This became more
relevant at a time in which the mass media began to play an active role in the
consolidation of a national identity.310
This chapter opens with two vignettes that present the most important
confrontations between the Gracies and their rivals in the 1950s. The first describes one
of the three fights against the Japanese and the second displays the first of many duels
with an Afro-Brazilian pupil.
Round 1: Hélio Gracie’s “moral victory,” Rio de Janeiro, 1951
This would be Hélio Gracie’s last fight. The audience occupied one-third of the
gigantic Maracanã stadium built to host the World Cup of 1950. The rain finally stopped
and the audience grew impatient waiting for the showdown. Thousands had their eyes
fixed on the green mats assembled where Gracie would face the Japanese described as
“the muscular and skilled giant Kimura.”311 People in the crowd risked predictions amidst
the roar of the crowd. An official of the local pugilistic association spoke: “Hélio will
finish this Japanese fellow in no time.”312 Other experts warned: “Perhaps Gracie will
manage to survive the first round by using his strong defensive game.”313 The crowd,
however, ignoring the real threat represented by Kimura, underestimated the Japanese
champion. For them, Kimura would have the same fate as his companion Kato: He could
not resist Hélio Gracie’s vicious hands. The mercury rose when Kimura Masahiko
310
Michael G. Elasmar, The Impact of International Television : A Paradigm Shift, (Mahwah: L. Erlbaum
Associates, 2003), 92.
311
Ubiratan de Lemos, "Helio Caiu De Pe," O Cruzeiro, November 10 1951, 40.
312
Ibid.
313
Ibid.
122
approached the arena. Unlike his companion Kato in the previous fight he seemed very
confident and comfortable posing for the cameras. Hélio Gracie, on the other hand, was
impassive. The fight started following a pattern of dozens of other bouts pitting the
Gracies against the Japanese since 1930. Kimura viciously slammed Hélio Gracie on the
ground by applying his near-perfect throwing technique of choice: Osoto-gari. Kimura
expected to had Gracie knocked out with his violent throws, but the soft mat purposely
assembled by organizers minimized the risk of concussions. Hélio Gracie confided in
later interviews that he used to have nightmares about Kimura’s throws.
Figure 38: Kimura throwing Gracie with a Osoto-gari. Source: Onzuka Brothers, 2011.314
The first and second rounds were similar to the past confrontations in which Hélio
Gracie sought to reverse the tide through ground combat. This time, however, the AllJapan champion was an outstanding athlete equally skilled in standing and ground
techniques. In the third round, Kimura overcame Hélio Gracie’s defensive ground game,
314
Onzuka Brothers, "The Gracie Family Pictorial," accessed May 22 2011,
http://www.onzuka.com/mainframe.html.
123
or as a local judoist put it: “It was like a cat playing with a mouse.” 315 Kimura mounted
Gracie and unleashed a reverse arm bar called Ude-garami. There was no hope, but
Gracie refused to surrender before an audience formed by his compatriots. Hélio had his
arm dangerously twisted close to the breaking point. Carlos Gracie, watching the drama
from his corner threw the towel signalizing surrender and saving his brother’s arm. The
influential magazine O Cruzeiro concluded its report on the fight: “If the Brazilian was
just a bit stronger, Kimura could not have twisted his arm and Gracie would remain
undefeated. Gracie’s technique is perfect, but powerless facing the muscles of the
Japanese giant.”316 That night, in the Maracanã stadium, Goliath defeated David.
Figure 39: First two pages, from the left 1. Helio and Kimura wrestling on the ground. 2. Brazil’s VicePresident Café Filho greeting Helio and Kimura. Two pages on the right. 1. The vertical sequence shows
the tension of Helio’s wife. 2. The sequence shows the final moments of the combat. Kimura crushed
Helio before the fatal move: a reverse arm bar (Ude-garami). Next, Carlos Gracie threw the towel and
saved his brother’s arm. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1951. 317
315
"Parecia Um Gato Maltratando Um Camudongo," Última Hora, October 24 1951, 7.
Lemos, "Helio Caiu De Pe."
317
Ibid.
316
124
Round 2:
Y.M.C.A Gymnasium, Rio de Janeiro, 1955 - “The black man with a black soul”
It would be impossible to ignore the racial factor in the fight between
Hélio Gracie and Waldemar Santana. One must see, before and above
all, the drama of color: Whites versus blacks and vice versa. I know
there will be people there wondering: ‘There is no racism in Brazil!’
Surely there is. Upon only mentioning it, one irritates, exasperates and
causes commotion in all parties. However, the fact of the matter is this:
the fight held at Y.M.C.A. was another chapter of a longstanding war
pitting blacks and whites in Brazil. The two opponents met each other
in the arena to solve their mysterious incompatibilities, and the result
was nothing but tragic. Nothing is more stupid for me than combat
sports. I find inhuman and immoral one man to hit the other man’s face.
No, my friends, the sportive practice cannot justify the humiliation of
one man by another man. The fight, in fact, underscored other reasons.
Only this could explain and justify the battle on the grounds of logic
and ethics. Before yesterday, neither Santana was himself nor was
Gracie just Hélio. It was a war of extermination between whites and
blacks. Santana stepped in the ring displaying his powerful physique.
Well, the black fighter approached the arena and next to me, one fat,
blonde-haired person and reddish individual shouted: ‘Nigger bozale!’
[bozale or boçal refers to newly arrived Africans enslaved in Brazil].
After this, the fight lost any technical and sportive purpose for me and
gained a new meaning. Waldemar Santana came to personify all AfroBrazilians. He reminded me of the nineteenth-century Afro-Brazilian
abolitionist José do Patrocínio. The latter was extremely shy whenever
speaking in public. His friends aware of this got mixed with the crowd
and shouted derogatory slurs: ‘Shut up nigger! Etc, etc.’ Patrocínio then
fired back upon: ‘God gave me Otelo’s blood to make me jealous of my
country!’ The crowd mesmerized broke out in an enthusiastic applause.
Santana - like Patrocínio - was shy, humble almost defeated
beforehand. But let’s be honest; we are all racists. Unlike the whites in
America, we do not lynch our blacks, but we humiliated them on a
daily basis. Humiliation permeates every aspect of the relationship
between Whites and Blacks in Brazil. The noblest and brilliant AfroBrazilian easily transforms into a ‘nigger boy’ whenever we get upset
for any reason. We claim to live in a country free of racism, but it is
only a cynical statement made to hide our profound racism. Just prior to
the fight, Santana was once again humiliated and insulted. He rose and
fought, invoked by an anti-sportive, nevertheless, necessary
confrontation. The sweet reward came afterwards. The young fighter’s
victory symbolically avenged centuries of humiliation suffered by
Afro-Brazilians. The fatal strike that liquidated Gracie was fired not by
Santana, but came in the form of a miraculous Capoeira foot kick
delivered by San Benedetto il Moro.318
318
"O Preto Que Tinha a Alma Preta," Última Hora, May 26 1955, 2.
125
Figure 40: “Gracie defeated by his pupil” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955.319
The Gracies’ return: Challenging African-Americans pugilists but
fighting Japanese martial artists
In 1948, Carlos Gracie published a book entitled Introdução ao Jiu-Jitsu
(Introduction to Jiu-jitsu). The cover pictured Carlos and Hélio performing a passing
guard position. Carlos on the top tried to break through Hélio’s defense on the bottom.
The position emblematically represented the Gracies’ definitive option for ground
combat.
Carlos Gracie dedicated the book to his “remarkable student and unconditional
friend” Oscar Santa Maria. According to him, Santa Maria reached the highest level of
319
Ubiratan Lemos, "Gracie Derrotado Pelo Aluno," O Cruzeiro, June 4, 1955, 98-99.
126
knowledge of jiu-jitsu “inspired by his dedication to the Gracie brothers.”320 Furthermore,
Carlos Gracie, mysteriously and without elaborate further details, thanked Santa Maria
for having created an “efficient technique” that once was employed to defeat an opponent
“without transgressing the rules of fair-play.”321
Henrique Pongeti, an intellectual, promoter of popular culture who flirted with
authoritarianism wrote the book’s foreword. Among many occupations, he headed the
cinema division of Getúlio Vargas’ feared censorship agency called Departamento de
Informação e Propaganda (D.I.P: Department of Information and Propaganda).322 His
foreword praised the Gracies for their role creating a local jiu-jitsu style:
They defeated capoeiras, wrestlers and pugilists that intimidated their
opponents by displaying their muscular naked bodies. Most
importantly, the Gracies defeated the Japanese born in the cradle of this
diabolic martial art with skills to neutralize aggressions without hurting
the attacker.323
Pongetti was a high-profile bureaucrat animated by Fascist principles of aesthetics and
eugenics. He worked in the propaganda machine promoting public mass gatherings
celebrating cleanliness, strength and discipline.324 The Gracies had been involved in
public demonstrations during the 1930s fighting “half-naked” capoeiras, wrestlers and the
“diabolical” Japanese. From the perspective of an intellectual serving the nationalist and
xenophobic Estado Novo, the Gracies created a “Brazilian” jiu-jitsu through their skills
and “decent” aesthetic.325
320
Carlos Gracie, Introducao Ao Jiu-Jitsu, (Rio de Janeiro: Pongett, 1948), 1.
Ibid.
322
Bryan McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil : Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil, (Durham: Duke
University Press, 2004), 122.
323
Gracie, Introducao Ao Jiu-Jitsu, 7.
324
Labriola, "Bodies from Brazil: Fascist Aesthetics in South American Setting," 167.
325
Gracie, Introducao Ao Jiu-Jitsu, 7-9.
321
127
Pongetti described Carlos Gracie as a contemplative blue-eyed strategist who
watched the fights from the height of an “ivory apse.” He also appreciated Carlos
Gracie’s stoic lifestyle prescribing abstinence of alcohol, tobacco, and enforcing strict
dietary rules. Hélio, on the other hand, he praised, adapted jiu-jitsu to the needs of his
upper class clientele.
The foreword penned by Pongetti was oddly entitled “while you are wearing your
gi”, but there was no sign of jiu-jitsu in the entire book.326 The text overly simplistic only
summarized Carlos’ and Santa Maria’s interpretations of eugenics, spiritualism and
naturalism. It is noteworthy that later, in 1963, Santa Maria Santa Maria charged Carlos
on grounds of plagiarism. Carlos, in his defense, said that he dictated the entire book to
Santa Maria during shamanic trance, but admitted that Santa Maria took up the task due
to his poor writing skills.327
326
327
Ibid.
"Os Gracie Afirmam Estar Sendo Alvo De Chantagem," 12.
128
Figure 41: Carlos Gracie’s book.328
In 1950, the Gracies were back in the news, challenging Afro-American pugilists
who were enjoying great popularity in Brazil during the post-war period. They made the
headlines defying Ezzard Charles, the “Cincinnati Cobra” and Joe Louis, the “Brown
Bomber.” The former hardly ever took notice of the Gracies, but the latter had been in
1951 in Brazil and learned about the Gracies’ challenge without paying much
attention.329 In any event, Louis cut short his stay in Brazil and returned to the United
States.330
328
Introducao Ao Jiu-Jitsu.
"Helio Gracie Desafia Ezzard Charles," O Cruzeiro, January 14, 1950, 43.
330
"Louis Returns from Brazil," The New York Times, May 21 1950, s3.
329
129
Figure 42: “Hélio Gracie challenged Ezzard Charles.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1950.331
Figure 43: “Playing with imagination.” Source: O Globo, 1951. 332
331
"Helio Gracie Desafia Ezzard Charles," 44.
Comic strip picturing two different outcomes for a hypothetical fight between Hélio Gracie and Joe
Louis. On the left strip, Joe Louis wins by “demolishing” Helio Gracie with two powerful punches. On the
right strip, Helio Gracie wins throwing Louis on the ground that inexplicably refused to get up. Helio
Gracie used his “secret move” taking Louis shorts off. Here is a good example of picardia criolla or
catimba. Outsmarting the opponent is more important than dominating them, according to established
norms. "A Luta Helio Gracie X Joe Louis: Brincadeiras Da Imaginacao," O Globo Sportivo, 1951, 27.
332
130
The same coverage included images of Carlos and Hélio performing a sequence
of acrobatic moves at Rio de Janeiro’s scenic outdoors. The pictures also portrayed
Carlos’ offspring as a “great example of a typical Brazilian family.”333 In fact, since the
1930s, Carlos began a procreation policy with multiple partners, based on old patriarchal
traditions cloaked in guises of modern spiritualism.
The household arrangement
developed by Carlos Gracie disclosed a patrilineal kinship in which fighting tradition
pass down only through the clan male members. This typology also included an
avuncular partnership in which a childless Hélio and his wife raised half of Carlos’
progeny. Indeed, both Hélio and Carlos function as fathers to the children.
The arrangement challenged the Catholic canons of morality based on
monogamy. Regardless of the level of religious commitment among Brazilians, the
Catholic Church still watched closely threats to Christian morality and sanctity of
marriage among other social behaviors.334 Carlos defied these rules. By the 1950s, he had
fathered thirteen children from various relationships including the ones with housemaids.
He entered the 1950s lavishly advertising his image of a Luso-Brazilian colonial patriarch
who had unlimited sexual access to women living in the household, including servants,
who were transformed into concubines.335
333
"Helio Gracie Desafia Ezzard Charles," 44-46.
Dain Edward Borges, The Family in Bahia, Brazil, 1870-1945, (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press,
1992), 278-79.
335
Gilberto Freyre, Casa-Grande & Senzala : Formacao Da Familia Brasileira Sob O Regime Da
Economia Patriarcal, (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria J. Olympio, 1980), passim.
334
131
Figure 44: “An ordinary Brazilian family.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1950.336
The article was the first of many in a massive coverage provided by the weekly
magazine O Cruzeiro promoting the Gracies during the 1950s. The magazine became the
most successful vehicle in the media conglomerate created by Francisco de Assis
Chateaubriand. The latter was originally a middle class Northeastern backlander who rose
through the social ranks to become the owner of the most powerful media network in
Brazil between 1945 and 1964. The magazine O Cruzeiro introduced to Brazil the
modern concept of photojournalism, inspired by its foreign counterparts such as TimeLife and the French Paris Match. Jean Manzon, a French photographer who worked for
GetulioVargas’ agency responsible for censorship (D.I.P) transformed the magazine into
a media phenomenon in the 1950s. O Cruzeiro’s circulation reached its peak in the mid1954 with 720,000 copies. A former magazine’s executive estimated that 4 million
336
"Helio Gracie Desafia Ezzard Charles," 46.
132
Brazilians read the magazine every week, which represented 8 per cent of the country’s
population in the early 1950s.337 The topics approached by the magazine at its circulation
peak, related to popular culture stands out. The intense coverage provided for Hollywood
films and beauty pageants, for example, reflected the business interests between Assis
Chateubriand and U.S. movie industry.338
Figure 45: In the 1950s, the Gracies shared the pages of “O Cruzeiro” with beauty pageants and iconic
figures such as Carmen Miranda. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1949 and 1955.
The editorial lines followed by the magazine reflected the owner’s point of view.
Chateaubriand dubbed, as “Chatô” was a nationalist and a supporter of the Brazilian
version of José Vasconcellos’ raza cosmica. He enthusiastically promoted native culture
embracing “mestizo pride” while leaving Afro-Brazilians outside the racial equation.339
Chatô’s nationalism, however, espoused without constraint the “civilizing power of the
international capital” or “reeducation through capitalism”, as the solution for Brazil’s
337
Marlise Regina Meyrer, "Representações Do Desenvolvimento Nas Fotorreportagens Da Revista O
Cruzeiro (1955-1957) ", PhD Dissertation, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, 2007,
32.
338
Ibid.
339
Fernando Morais, Chato, O Rei Do Brasil, (Sao Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1994), 358.
133
endemic “backwardness.”340 Furthermore, he used his media conglomerate to stage his
crusade against communism and became a local representative of American interests
during the early stages of the Cold War.341 During this time, the magazine had become
the flagship of the media empire of Assis Chateaubriand, who in turn had invested
himself in the role of flag bearer of a post-war modernizing discourse.342 This
transformation coincided with the Gracies’ maximum exposure on the pages of the
magazine.
In 1951, a troupe of Japanese of martial artists was touring in Brazil brought by
the newspaper São Paulo Shimbum, published for Japanese immigrants. The troupe had
three Kodokan judo black belts, Kimura Masahiko, Kato Yukio and Yamaguchi Yoshio
who agreed to participate in prizefighting due to the economic hardships of Japan’s
postwar years.343
A newspaper affiliated to Chateaubriand’s network seized the moment to promote
the challenge between the Gracies and the Japanese martial artists. The promoters picked
Kato Yukio, a fifth-dan black belt, to fight Hélio Gracie at Maracanã stadium in Rio de
Janeiro on September 6 1951.344 The timing could hardly be better for the Gracies. The
date was one day prior the “Independence Day” in Brazil and Getúlio Vargas was back to
power inaugurating an era of populism, nationalism and development. Furthermore,
340
Meyrer, "Representações Do Desenvolvimento Nas Fotorreportagens Da Revista O Cruzeiro (19551957) " 88.
341
Jacques Alkalai Wainberg, Imperio De Palavras, (Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS, 2003), 118.
342
Meyrer, "Representações Do Desenvolvimento Nas Fotorreportagens Da Revista O Cruzeiro (19551957) " 26-31.
343
Neil Ohlenkamp, "My Judo by Masahiko Kimura (Part 2)," accessed September 11, 2010,
http://judoinfo.com/kimura2.htm.
344
Jose Amadio, "Minhas Lutas Com Kimura," O Cruzeiro, May 17, 1952, 66.
134
Hélio Gracie rose to avenge “the mother of all defeats” as Nelson Rodrigues called the
Brazilian failure before the Uruguayan team in the same stadium on July 16 1951.345
The newspaper Jornal dos Sports announced the upcoming fight between a “True
Japanese black belt against the pure art of our countryman.” Seats to watch the spectacle
sold at low prices aimed to attract a wider audience.346 The Gracies, as usual, flatly
rejected the Japanese rules prescribing victory by clean throws or pinning down the
opponent for thirty seconds. For the Gracies the fight would only end upon on one
contender’s surrender. Hélio Gracie later described the fight:
Whenever I face dangerous opponents like Kato I step up on the mat
as a bullfighter fighting for honor. Fighting Kato was the highlight of
my career. Besides, my jiu-jitsu was quite different from his. Mine, I
learned with my brother Carlos, who trained under the world champion
Count Koma thirty years ago. Kato, on the other hand, was Japanese,
who had as training partners the world champion and vice champion
respectively. I went to the arena to represent my country. I would rather
die than surrender. However, an inner voice told me that defeat would
have to wait for a little longer. However, after a few seconds of the
fight, I had suffered the most spectacular throw of my jiu-jitsu
career.347
Before a packed audience usually gathered to watch soccer games, the bout repeated the
pattern of 1930s disputes pitting the Gracies and the Japanese. The three round-fights
confirmed the Japanese overwhelming technical edge on standing combat. Kato
repeatedly threw Hélio on the ground; images showed the latter awkwardly being flipped
by the former. On the ground, however, Hélio pulled out the Gracie’s traditional guard
345
Geneton Moraes Neto, Dossie 50 : Os Onze Jogadores Revelam Os Segredos Da Maior Tragedia Do
Futebol Brasileiro, (Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2000), 39.
346
" Um Verdadeiro Faixa Preta Japones Contra a Pura Arte De Nosso Patricio," Jornal dos Sports,
September 5 1951, 3. The cheapest seat cost Cr$ 15 and a blue collar salary in Rio de Janeiro was Cr$ 100.
347
Amadio, "Minhas Lutas Com Kimura," 66.
135
bringing the combat to a stalemate. The Jornal dos Sports headlined after the fight: “Kato
on the brink of defeat! Bout ended in a tie and Hélio Gracie fought with a broken rib.”348
Figure 46: Kato throwing Hélio. Hélio pulling the Gracies guard position. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1952.349
The draw inevitably led to a rematch in São Paulo. This time the Gracies fought in
the most Japanese city outside Japan. The official census seven years after the fight
counted 50,000 Brazilians of Japanese descent living in the city of São Paulo alone and
255,520 in the São Paulo state.350 In addition, the Nikkei community was still living in a
tense atmosphere due the actions of the ultra-nationalist secret organization known as
Shindo Renmei (Way of the Subjects of the Emperor’s League). They refused to accept
Japan’s defeat in the war and defended what Jeffrey Lesser defined as a “Japanized”
space in Brazil was expressed in staunch support for Japanese culture, religion and
348
"Kato Esteve a Beira Do Reves! ," Jornal dos Sports, September 7 1951, front page, 6.
Ubiratan de Lemos, "A Morte Entre Os Punhos Do Campeao," O Cruzeiro, 1952, 60.
350
Daniel M. Masterson and Sayaka Funada-Classen, The Japanese in Latin America, (Urbana: University
of Illinois Press, 2004), 184.
349
136
values. The members of Shindo Renmei were violent and their terrorist actions resulted in
deaths of Japanese-Brazilians and even Brazilians citizens. It made Brazilians nurture
mixed feelings toward Japanese immigrants at this time.351
Reflecting this conflict of diasporic identities, Ono, a Japanese-Brazilian martial
artist who fought the Gracies in the 1930s, dropped the gauntlet, challenging Hélio
Gracie and Kato. Ono was apparently trying to defuse the atmosphere of ethnical polarity
around the event. Hélio, however, insisted in the nationalistic nature of the bout saying
that he accepted the fight to defend the national honor.352
Figure 47: Contradictory feelings toward Japanese immigrants. Sources: (left) Okamoto Tetsuo, the
“flying-fish”, the Japanese-Brazilian swimmer medalist in the Pan-American Games held in Buenos Aires
in 1951 and in the Olympics Games held in Helsinki in 1952, a multicultural icon. O Globo Sportivo,
1951.353 (right) “Os Sete Samurais de Tupã” (The Seven Samurais of Tupã).354
351
Jeff Lesser, A Discontented Diaspora : Japanese Brazilians and the Meanings of Ethnic Militancy,
1960-1980, (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007), 8-9.
352
"Helio Declara Que So Voltou a Lutar Devido Ao Carater Especial Da Luta," Jornal dos Sports,
September 8 1951, 5.
353
"O Maior Nadador Do Pan-Americano," O Globo Sportivo, July 30 1951, front page.
354
Fernando Morais, Coracoes Sujos : A Historia Da Shindo Renmei, (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras,
2000), cover.
137
Figure 48: Coverage shows Hélio Gracie and Kimura, the Nikkei community follow the fight with great
interest. Source: São Paulo Shimbum, 1951.355
The journalist Nikkei Jayme Kaneko from the São Paulo Shimbum declared that
Kato wanted another fight with no time limit. In the article “Death at the hands of a
champion” written by Ubiratan de Lemos and with photographs of the French reporter
Henri Ballot the magazine O Cruzeiro described the match-up held at Pacaembu stadium,
a soccer arena:
Pacaembu stadium, September 29, 1951 at 8:00 pm. It was a cold
evening in São Paulo. The stadium was dark due to a power outage
catching by surprise thousands of spectators attending to the greatest
jiu-jitsu battle fought outside Japan. There were a large number of
Japanese immigrants in the audience conversing in their own language,
and Brazilians could not understand a word they said. After half an
hour, the power was back on. I gazed through the Japanese faces, and
they all looked alike to me. Kimura, the jiu-jitsu’s world champion,
was close to the ring. He weighted almost 220 pounds of muscles and
technique. Kimura was the Japanese champion for fifteen years only
losing his title because he fought professionally. Nevertheless, he is
still the best of “Rising Sun” jiu-jitsu. He wore a white shirt with
rolled-up sleeves showing off his powerful curved forearms. He was
strong like a gorilla. Next to the ring, Carlos Gracie and hundreds of
Hélio’s fans who traveled from Rio de Janeiro to watch the fight.
Journalists from Rio and São Paulo’s radios announced the names of
the preliminary cards before the main event of the evening. 356
355
356
São Paulo Shimbum, October 23 1951, 3-4.
Lemos, "A Morte Entre Os Punhos Do Campeao," 61.
138
The description of Japanese otherness was complete in the journalist’s words through
their “unintelligible” language and collective physical appearance.357 Kimura also drew
his share of attention from the journalist with his impressive figure arousing a mixture of
admiration and loathing. The rematch recorded on film narrated by a Japanese voice
confirmed the frenetic atmosphere in the stadium. The fight began with Kato throwing
Hélio Gracie against the ropes and trying to have the latter pinned down without success.
Once resumed on the standing position, Kato threw Hélio again on the ropes. Gracie then
pulled out a full guard blocking Kato between his legs. Next, they tried to choke (Jujime) each other. But the Japanese black belt was caught in Gracie’s trap since after years
of defensive grounding fighting, the leverage favored Hélio who was using his guard to
have a better grip on Kato’s lapel. The audience held their breath and for few moments, it
was impossible to determine the winner. All of the sudden, Kato collapsed due the
interruption of blood flow to the brain via the compression of the carotid artery while
blocking of airway. The crowd broke into enthusiastic frenzy and a phlegmatic Hélio
Gracie left the ring, escorted by Special Police troopers.358
On the day after the match, the popular newspaper Última Hora headlined in the
front page: “Sensational performance of a Brazilian fighter before a huge crowd attending
to the Pacaembu stadium.”359 The journalist and jiu-jitsu practitioner Carlos Renato wrote
357
Ibid.
Helio Gracie vs Kato, YouTube video, 4:18, posted by userek, October 20, 2006,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HMAu0A-vQm8.
359
"Sensacional Feito Do Lutador Brasileiro Ante Um Publico Entusiasmado E Numeroso No Pacaembu "
Jornal dos Sports, 1951, front page.
358
139
that Hélio Gracie finished off Kato in the first round with an “irresistible choke.”360
Photographs of an unconscious Kato knocked-out on the mat circulated through several
newspapers and magazines. After Kato, there were still two Japanese fighters standing,
Yamaguchi and Kimura. The latter in his memories described the events after Kato’s
defeat:
After this bout, the popularity of our pro wrestling show declined
rapidly. The Japanese immigrants whom we encountered on the street
murmured, "They must be phonies, losing in such a pathetic manner."
Hélio issued another challenge, this time to Yamaguchi. The owner of
São Paulo Shimbum begged: "Mr. Yamaguchi, please kill Hélio."
However, Yamaguchi seemed reluctant, and asked: "Let me think for
one night." I knew that Yamaguchi was superior to Helio fighting under
the Japanese rule. However, fighting according to the rules established
by the Gracies, if Hélio got Yamaguchi pinned on the ground, all he has
to do is to stay calm and be cautious until the time runs out. Hélio could
fight to a draw in this way. I then said to Yamaguchi: "Do not bother to
come up with a plan to make Hélio submit. I will accept the
challenge."361
The pressure was on Japanese side now, the Nikkei community took Kato’s defeat as a
collective humiliation, and Yamaguchi, despite his weight advantage, was hesitant to
fight Hélio under the local rules. Kimura Masahiko, however, was among the best
Kodokan judo black belts of modern Japan. Apart of being an outstanding practitioner in
either standing or on the ground, he was an extremely strong athlete. He outweighed
Hélio by almost twenty kilos and Hélio himself declared that he did not expect victory.362
360
"O Campeao Brasileiro Liquidou O Japones No 1o Round Com Um Estrangulamento Inapelavel,"
Ultima Hora, October 1 1951, front page.
361
Ohlenkamp, "My Judo by Masahiko Kimura (Part 2)."
362
"Disposto Helio Gracie a Despedir-Se Do Ring Com Uma Grande Exibicao Contra O Campeao
Kimura," Jornal dos Sports, October 18 1951, 8.
140
Figure 49: Top left: the fight went to the ground. Bottom left: Helio pulled the guard preparing the choke
from below. Right: Kato knocked-out.”363 Source: O Cruzeiro, 1951.
The stakes were high for the challenge held at Maracanãzinho arena in Rio de
Janeiro. The Jornal dos Sports promoted the contenders by labeling Kimura as the “most
perfect fighter in the world” and Hélio as the “Brazilian champion who introduced selfdefense in Brazil.”364 The newspaper also emphasized the long time relationship between
the Gracie brothers and the local elite by highlighting their clientele formed by
“diplomats, politicians, doctors and lawyers.”365
The bout received a great deal of coverage from magazines and newspapers. A
short piece of the original footage is available on the website “YouTube,” narrated by
Helio’s eldest son, Rorion.366 The two versions of the original footage available on the
“YouTube” cut off the exact moment in which Hélio had his arm broken by Kimura.
Kimura described the final moments of the fight:
363
Lemos, "A Morte Entre Os Punhos Do Campeao," 61-62.
"Jiu-Jitsu Sensacional! Afinal O Duelo Helio Gracie-Kimura Esta Noite No Estadio Municipal " Jornal
dos Sports, October 23 1951, front page.
365
Ibid.
366
Masahiko Kimura vs Helio Gracie, YouTube video, 1:16, posted by userek, February 27, 2006,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DH1eNsMNW24.
364
141
I thought he would surrender immediately. However, Hélio would not
tap the mat. I had no choice but to keep on twisting his arm. Silence fell
upon the stadium. His arm was coming close to the breaking point.
Finally, I heard a snap of a clean broken bone. Hélio still refused to
surrender. His left arm was already powerless. Under this rule, I had no
choice but to twist the arm again. There was plenty of time left. I
twisted the left arm again and I heard another cracking sound. Hélio
still did not tap. When I tried to twist the arm once more, someone
threw a white towel. I won by KO. I had my hand raised high. My
compatriots invaded the ring and raised me on their shoulders. Hélio
was in great pain having his left arm dangling inert.367
Kimura affirmed that Hélio’s arm was broken while others claimed that Carlos in a
dramatic display of “fraternal love” saved his brother’s arm.368 In any event, refusing to
surrender by tapping out became a hallmark of the Gracies’ performances. Carlos Gracie
may have learned this code of masculine honor (Bushido) from the Japanese Geo Omori
in the 1930s and the Gracies nurtured it ever since, in a mentality that bonded their
bodies, violence, pain and honor.369 To have their bones broken or to have themselves
choked into unconsciousness when facing superior opponents became a badge of honor.
In the aftermath of Hélio versus Kimura’s fight, the magazine O Cruzeiro,
published a long article about the Kodokan judo in Japan. According to the magazine,
Kimura lost his title due to his professional prizefighting career and Kato was not even
close to be the “world vice-champion” as stated by the same magazine.370 The article also
stressed the differences between the two styles retelling the saga and globalization of
modern judo. In an interview with Kotani Sumiyuki, Kodokan’s international
representative, he confirmed that moral principles established by Kano Jigoro in the early
367
Ohlenkamp, "My Judo by Masahiko Kimura (Part 2)."
"Carlos Gracie Salvou O Braco Do Irmao : Flagrante Emocional De Amor Fraternal," Última Hora,
October 24 1951, front page.
369
Robert A. Nye, Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France, (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1993), 43.
370
Luciano Carneiro, "A Verdade Sobre Kimura," O Cruzeiro, December 4 1954, 106.
368
142
twentieth century remained rock solid. Kimura received a disciplinary sanction from
Kodokan leaders for his participation in professional wrestling outside Japan.
Interestingly, “Count Koma,” the Gracie’s mentor, received similar treatment for fighting
professionally decades earlier. The Kodokan representative also emphasized that any
Japanese martial artists in the future performing in Brazil would fight the Gracies only in
amateur events.371
Amid the polemics that surrounded the fights between the Gracies and the
Japanese martial artists, one aspect is noteworthy, Kodokan judo rose from the ashes after
World War II to become a hegemonic style of jiu-jitsu worldwide. In France, for
example, Kodokan black belts encountered opposition from practitioners of pre-war jiujitsu schools. There, as occurred in Brazil, local styles developed putting emphasis on
ground combat and preserving the pre-Meiji denomination “jiu-jitsu.” These styles lasted
through the 1950s, but they gradually vanished.
372
In São Paulo, the Gracies’ pre-war
rivals, the Ono brothers, also kept the name “jiu-jitsu” and sought to balance the practice
of standing and ground combat that contradicted the trend imposed by Kodokan judo.
They only joined to Kodokan mainstream style in the 1960s through the symbolic
adoption of the name “judo.”373 In both cases, Japanese immigrants, in France and São
Paulo, responded in similar ways to the Kodokan hegemonic persuasion. By contrast, the
Gracies, driven by their desire to regain status and backed by a wave of nationalism, put
up fierce resistance to assimilation by Kodokan judo. Thereafter, in Brazil, “jiu-jitsu” and
371
Ibid.
Brousse, Le Judo : Son Histoire, Ses Succès, 78-79.
373
Takao, "O Judo No Brasil: Os Primeiros Rivais Da Familia Gracie."
372
143
“judo” definitively parted ways. The Gracies preserved and strengthened the Brazilian
jiu-jitsu within their social milieu whereas the Kodokan judo, disseminated by Japanese
immigrants, became truly a middle class martial art practice.
The final gentrification of jiu-jitsu’s space and style
On November 27 of 1951, the Rio de Janeiro’s newspaper A Noite published two
headlines on the front page.374 The first was about a woman who killed her husband after
discovering his love affair. Iolanda Vieira Bustamante da Silva had her photograph
stamped on the front page and the sensationalist paper called it the “The Copacabana
Tragedy.” A few inches below, in capital letters Carlos Gracie advised “Submit your man
with an arm bar! It is better to have him knocked out than lying dead in the morgue. The
Gracie brothers will open a dojo to teach jiu-jitsu for women.”375 Further, in the same
article, the Gracies advertised their new dojo. The old Gracies’ gym in the neighborhood
of Botafogo, became too small to accommodate their gentry clientele, comprised “of men
who could afford to spend hours of their time learning jiu-jitsu.”376
Whatever the impact of their advertisement, the Gracies seized the moment in the
aftermath of the battles against the Japanese black belts and opened a modern and
luxurious facility in the heart of Rio de Janeiro’s financial district. Showing a remarkable
attachment to their aristocratic past, they established their jiu-jitsu’s operation in the very
streets where the Gracies had their business headquarters in the nineteenth century. In
374
"De Uma Chave No Seu Homem!," A Noite, November 27 1951, front page.
Ibid.
376
Ibid.
375
144
1952, reinforcing their obsession for teaching jiu-jitsu to the elite, they inaugurated a dojo
targeting a selected clientele working in the surrounding area.377
The two-floor dojo built in a commercial high rising became a magnet for
financiers, government officials, lawyers and scions of the local elite. Hélio Gracie
declared to the magazine O Cruzeiro that the dojo cost six million cruzeiros (US$
300,000) making the enterprise a massive investment.378
The jiu-jitsu style taught by the Gracies and the method they employed shed light
to the creation of a gentrified combat sport. The Gracie pedagogical system consisted of a
seminar-style lesson given by Hélio. In the seminars, the assistants, under Hélio’s
supervision, performed techniques later taught to students. Students distributed in five
rings practiced techniques assisted by one instructor. Instructors had a busy schedule
teaching forty-five minute long lessons with breaks of five minutes. There were no
chances to make up for missed classes. The enrollment totaled six-hundred students and
there was a one-year waiting list for those who hoped to be new students. For one lesson
per week a month, students paid the equivalent of US$ 50, for two lessons, US$100, and
for three lessons US$ 136. Considering that the minimum wage in 1952 was US$31 a
month, prices were extremely high. Hélio Gracie closely supervised the operation and
enforced draconian rules to maximize efficiency.379The Gracies’ dojo definitely became
an upper class modern space.
377
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 283.
This sum of money corresponds to US$2.5 million today.
379
Marcelo Andreazza e Fabio Quio Takao, September 30, 2010 (8:00 a.m.), interview with Armando
Wriedt , “Mestre Armando Wriedt - Uma Vida Dedicada Ao Jiu-Jitsu,” MMA Mano a Mano, September
20, 2010, http://gustavonoblat.blog.terra.com.br/2010/09/20/mestre-armando-wriedt-uma-vida-dedicadaao-jiu-jitsu-relembrar-e-viver/.
378
145
The program’s technical core aimed to prepare the Gracies clientele to deal with
“real” situations in everyday life. Contemporaneous with the inauguration of the Gracies’
dojo, the magazine O Cruzeiro published the entire program of their self-defense system.
From May of 1952 until February of 1953, Hélio and the young Carlson Gracie featured
thirty-eight lessons of self-defense choreographing techniques to neutralize hypothetical
everyday situations in which the attacker employed a wide range of weapons or objects.
Figure 50: Gracie’s Self-Defense System, protection for upper class students against Brazil’s everyday
violence. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1953.380
380
Jose Amadio, "Curso De Defesa Pessoal Por Helio Gracie (Aula 28)," O Cruzeiro, December 6, 1953,
96-97.
146
Figure 51: The Gracies’ Team in the 1950s. Carlson Gracie, (center) the only wearing a jiu-jitsu full gear
and Waldemar Santana, the only Afro-Brazilian black belt. Source: MMM Mano a Mano, 2010.381
The Gracies also employed short films advertising their program and showing the
social applicability of self-defense to Brazil’s reality. In the early 1950s, they produced a
16 mm footage entitled “Jiu-jitsu is more than this” (Jiu-jitsu não é só isso não) at the
Gracies’ dojo and on Copacabana Beach. Scenes include images of Hélio Gracie
refereeing a jiu-jitsu match before a well-dressed male audience with few women
strategically placed in the front row. The narrator tells a simplified version about the
origin of jiu-jitsu with elements of the Gracies’ invented tradition. Next, a mature Carlos
Gracie shows off his flexibility and technique against a muscular student. Lastly, in the
grand finale, there is a scene described as “the therapeutic effects of jiu-jitsu.” There,
Robson Gracie, then a frail teenager, has his girlfriend “stolen” on the beach by a much
bigger antagonist featured by the Gracies’ French student George Mehdi. The narrator
then observes: “It’s sad not to be strong enough. Unfortunately, the girl has gone.
381
Marcelo Andreazza e Fabio Quio Takao, September 30, 2010 (8:00 a.m.), interview with Armando
Wriedt , “Mestre Armando Wriedt - Uma Vida Dedicada Ao Jiu-Jitsu,” MMA Mano a Mano, September
20, 2010, http://gustavonoblat.blog.terra.com.br/2010/09/20/mestre-armando-wriedt-uma-vida-dedicadaao-jiu-jitsu-relembrar-e-viver/.
147
However, our friend had a great idea: he will learn jiu-jitsu, the self-defense system
through which the weak defeat the strong. Sure enough there is hope!” Robson then
rushes into the Gracies’ dojo to take jiu-jitsu lessons. Back on the beach, the narrator
went on: “a few months later here is what happened.” Robson Gracie defeated his
muscular rival using jiu-jitsu techniques and recovered his girlfriend. The narrator
concluded: “Cases like this happen by the thousands. With the confidence and peace of
mind acquired through the practice of jiu-jitsu, nobody has an inferiority complex.”382
The commercial footage produced by the Gracies shows the gym, a sophisticated
space, carefully designed to host a selected clientele. Next, through the emphasis on their
self-defense program, the Gracies marketed their martial art exploiting the Brazilian elite
fears of the lawless realm of Rio’s streets.383 Lastly, the vignette at the end of the video is
a parody but also disclose the patriarchal belief that male honor rests on the ability to gain
access and control of women. Women in the video had no agency whatsoever. The
Gracies used them to associate their business operation with innovation and modernity.384
After all, they have been advertising themselves in public as “benevolent” patriarchs and
supporters of women’s empowerment since the late 1930s. Yet at the end of the video,
they reinforced the image of women being passive objects of dispute between two
aggressive males.
382
Academia Gracie de Jiu-Jitsu 1950s, YouTube video, 7:45, uploaded by Valente Brothers TV, October
7 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIIRUA7MSPQ.
383
Matta, Carnivals, Rogues, and Heroes : An Interpretation of the Brazilian Dilemma, passim.
384
Besse, Restructuring Patriarchy : The Modernization of Gender Inequality in Brazil, 1914-1940, 200.
148
The creation of Hélio Gracie’s patriarchy
Following his older brother's example and orientation, in the early 1950s Hélio
Gracie was determined to create his own lineage. The Gracies, as national celebrities, had
every aspect of their lives transformed in news. Through this exposure, Hélio introduced
his first-born son Rorion.385 The child, however, was not an offspring of Hélio and his
wife. Rorion was the product of a peculiar arrangement engineered by Carlos Gracie,
who instructed Hélio to impregnate the maid of the Gracies’ household named Rosinha.
This arrangement, according to Carlos, was justified since Hélio’s wife, Margarida, had
borne no children until that point.386 Carlos conducted the entire operation by convincing
Rosinha to accept it and renounce any right over the child. He launched a well-planned
operation to shield any suspicion that include Margarida’s false pregnancy and a complex
arrangement in the maternity hospital where the two women checked-in and only one left
carrying a baby in her arms. Margarida, afterwards legally and publicly assumed the
motherhood.387
Hélio repeated the strategy with his other two children, Relson and Rickson. He
finally had his own lineage and the children only had knowledge the existence of their
biological mother much later on. The domestic arrangement lasted for quite some time
since the hierarchy at home remained unchanged. Hélio’s wife ran the house and raised
the children, while the maid-mother remained in her quarters.388 The entire affair reminds
us what Sandra Graham Lauderdale observed about sexual liaisons between masters and
385
Jose Amadio, "Helio Gracie Nao Lutara Mais?," O Cruzeiro, March 29, 1952, 52-55.
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 257.
387
Ibid.
388
Ibid.
386
149
slaves in the nineteenth century. She has argued that: “they were easily tolerated as long
as notoriety did not impair the ability of masters to command respect, or property was not
transferred into unsuitable hands.”389
Carlos always used his spiritualist religious beliefs to justify his procreation
practices with multiple partners. Hélio, however, despite following his older brother’s
ideas about jiu-jitsu and dietary habits, remained indifferent to Carlos’ esoteric practices.
Unlike his brother, Hélio justified his behavior on his patriarchal mindset. He declared
later in an interview:
I like women, but I do not love them. There is a difference. Love is a
manifestation of weakness and I am not weak. I have sex only for the
sake of procreation. I never had a sexual relationship with any women
without making it clear that my only goal was to produce offspring.390
Later, Hélio’s wife, Margarida, gave birth to her own offspring. This apparently did not
alter the relationship between siblings and the subject remained a family taboo until
recently, when a family memoir written in the wake of intra-clannish disputes made it
public. Apparently, Hélio’s patriarchal figure remained intact and any public criticism
from his offspring toward their father’s behavior is unheard. Perhaps Rorion’s
declarations to Playboy magazine in the 1980s shed some light on the status of women in
the Gracie realm:
In the Gracie family, men are peacocks. Women are along for the
ride…Women became feminists because men’s weakness. Every
woman wants her man to treat her like a woman or he loses his position
of strength with her. Women are natural born mothers. Having kids is
the only thing a woman can do that a man cannot. Most Gracie men do
not believe in birth control. We believe sex is something holy, for the
procreation of the species. If my wife (Suzanne) does not want to get
389
Sandra Lauderdale Graham, House and Street : The Domestic World of Servants and Masters in
Nineteenth-Century Rio De Janeiro, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 105.
390
Paulo Lima, "Devil Inside," Trip , November 1997, accessed May 20, 2010,
http://revistatrip.uol.com.br/revista/58.
150
pregnant, we do not have sex. Before I got married, I told her she was
only my vehicle for having as many sons as possible. I want to have
sons to keep the Gracie legend alive. I want to raise as many jiu-jitsu
champions as I can. I told Suzanne that it is possible that I will start
another family, like my father, if I find a woman with good karma.
However, that would be hard. The only thing more difficult to find than
a good woman is a good man.391
Rorion, as the first product of his uncle’s plan synthesized the Gracie mores passed down
through the male members of the family. Rorion said he did not mind the arrangement at
all, and demonstrated total adherence to his father’s patriarchal discourse and a desire to
reproduce his family behavior.
Carla Bassenazi has argued that despite the overall modernization experienced by
Brazilian society in the 1950s, upper-class women were encouraged to remain in the
domestic sphere to perform their traditional roles.392 According to this discourse, women
are born to be housewives and mothers. Hélio Gracie’s behavior toward women and
family issues demonstrated the maintenance of patriarchal values in the post-war period.
Despite his wife Margarida’s upper class background, he was able to enforce his role as
patriarch and break social conventions by having children out of wedlock through veiled
practices of concubinage.393
391
Pat Jordan, "Bad," Playboy, September 1986, accessed June 2010, http://stickgrappler.tripod.
com/bjj/bad.html.
392
In the late 1940s females composed 14 percent of the economically active population making marriage
the major way to leave their parent’s homes. Michael L. Conniff and Frank D. McCann, eds., Modern
Brazil : Elites and Masses in Historical Perspective (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), 276.
393
Carla Bassanezi, "Mulheres Dos Anos Dourados," in Historia Das Mulheres No Brasil, ed. Mary del
Priore (Sao Paulo: Contexto, 1997), 33-34,608.
151
Figure 52: The Gracies’ new generation on Copacabana Beach: “Celebrities on the Beach.” Source: O
Cruzeiro, 1956.394
The racial showdown: Hélio Gracie versus Waldemar Santana
The Gracie dojo in downtown Rio was a truly elitist space; Afro-Brazilians were
unwelcome as students. Waldemar Santana was an exception. He migrated from the
most Africanized region of Brazil, Bahia State, to Rio de Janeiro in the early 1950s. Like
scores of Brazilians living in peripheral areas, he sought better opportunities in large
urban centers upon the return of Getúlio Vargas.395 Santana, originally a marble-cutter,
started his martial arts apprenticeship in Salvador and soon became a skilled fighter
performing prizefighting in Northeastern Brazil. Once in the federal capital, Santana
watched the matches between Hélio Gracie and the Japanese judo black belts in 1951.
Afterwards, the Gracies hired him to work in their dojo in downtown. Santana seized the
opportunity to learn jiu-jitsu with the Gracies. His talent made him progress rapidly
through the ranks and he became member of the selected group of the Gracies’ best
394
Luis Edgard de Andrade, "Celebridades Na Praia," O Cruzeiro, March 10, 1956, 75.
John J. Johnson, Political Change in Latin America: The Emergence of the Middle Sectors, (Palo Alto:
Stanford University Press, 1958), 177.
395
152
martial artists. Carlson Gracie, later acknowledged Santana meteoric progress: “He was
quick and strong as a bull and met the standards of the best fighters in the dojo.”396
Santana, who was badly in need for money agreed to participate in a prizefighting
event. Hélio promptly vetoed the fight on moral grounds because, according to him, the
event promoted match fixing and it would damage the Gracies’ reputation. Santana,
however, went on fighting and won without getting involved in any match fixing
arrangement. For Hélio, nevertheless, Santana’s insubordination was not acceptable, and
he expelled the latter from the Gracies’ premises amid a flurry of racial slurs.397
Before long, Santana found support among the ranks of the Gracies’ antagonists.
One in particular, stands out: Carlos Renato a journalist and former Gracie liaison in the
media. He worked for the sensationalist, popular Rio newspaper Última Hora, and had a
previous personal disagreement with the Gracies. Carlos Renato nurtured intellectual
ambitions; his colleagues included prominent literati such as Nelson Rodrigues. Perhaps
under the influence of the latter, Carlos Renato wrote books titled “We must save the
housewives” or “The faithful husband: What a tedious man!” Carlos Renato staunchly
defended the sacredness of domestic sphere, while encouraging men’s predatory sexual
behavior in the realm of the street.398 Voices of individuals with intellectual claims like
Carlos Renato argued that men and women would find a happier conjugal life through an
arrangement that enforced a total separation of spheres.399
396
Jose Mauricio Costa, "Waldemar Santana: O Leopardo Negro," Tatame 84, March (2004), accessed
April 2 2010, http://www.tatame.com.br/dasantigas/upload/43/arquivo.pdf.
397
Ibid.
398
Carlos Renato, E Preciso Salvar a Mulher Casada, (Rio de Janeiro: Gemini, 1969). Carlos Renato, O
Marido Fiel, Esse Chato, (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Eldorado, 1969).
399
Bassanezi, "Mulheres Dos Anos Dourados," 624-26.
153
Figure 53: “We must save the housewives,” Carlos Renato’s book.400
The journalist and other members of the local elite, put Santana on a collision
course with his former patrons. The casus belli was the letter published on the newspaper
Correio da Manhã in which Waldemar Santana challenged Hélio for a no barred holds
fight. Hélio Gracie accepted the challenge to fight Santana in the Y.M.C.A’s headquarters
in Rio. The magazine O Cruzeiro provided the full coverage:
Scenes of Roman Coliseum at Y.C.M.A: three hours and thirty
minutes of fight
Hélio Gracie adjusts his black belt and bounces against the ropes. He
is 42 years old, his experience and confidence explain his relaxed
attitude. Before him, displaying animal-like stamina, the young
Waldemar Santana, outfitted in a gi that hallmarks the system created
by the Gracies. Hélio attacked his student determined to give him a
lesson. He fired a kick against Santana, who dodged out of the way and
threw himself on top of Hélio. On the ground, Hélio was underneath
and Santana on top. The latter pulled up his guard trying to flip Santana
to no avail. Santana, demonstrating his Afro-Brazilian strength, did not
move. Santana hammered down on Hélio landing a flurry of head butts.
400
Carlos Renato, E Preciso Salvar a Mulher Casada, (Rio de Janeiro: Gemini, 1969).
154
Hélio trying to protect himself from the attack, had his choke applied
from the guard position neutralized, the. The fight developed by
Santana pounding Hélio with strikes unleashed from the top position.
For a long time, the bout became monotonous, but all of a sudden
Santana started a wild attack against Hélio who remained standing only
supported by his honor. Santana then lifted Hélio into the air and
slammed him to the ground. Due to the violent impact, Hélio could not
pull his guard and Santana fired a violent kick to his face. Hélio
remained motionless on the ground and Santana realized that the fight
was over. Santana defeated Hélio using techniques he learned in the
Gracies’ dojo; hence, the Gracies technique wins.401
The coverage strongly biased in favor of Hélio Gracie, portrayed Santana as a beast-like
persona and ungrateful disciple. By contrast, the journalist depicted Hélio as an honored
martyred hero. It evoked images of the “savage” black man and the “civilized” white
man. The article concluded that Santana defeated Hélio using the Gracies technique. This
affirmation is hardly true, since the former knocked out the latter with a kick. Besides
being a Brazilian jiu-jitsu black belt Santana was a skilled boxer and Capoeira fighter.
401
"Gracie Derrotado Pelo Aluno: Cenas Do Coliseu Romano Durante Tres Horas E Meia De Luta Na
Acm," O Cruzeiro, June 4, 1955, 96-97.
155
Figure 54: Hélio Gracie versus Waldemas Santana. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955. 402
Figure 55: Santana victorious against Hélio Gracie. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955.403
The coverage provided by the newspaper Última Hora provided a quite different
picture. Carlos Renato called Santana the “Black Leopard.” The headlines highlighted
402
403
Ubiratan Lemos, "Gracie Derrotado Pelo Aluno," ibid.
Ibid.
156
“the deadly showdown lasted, almost four hours and a second kick would make Santana a
murderer”. The newspaper further criticized Carlos Gracie’s behavior where prior to the
fight he had grabbed the microphone and tried to intimidate Santana by calling him a
“coward and arrogant.” Yet, according to the article, Carlos’ speech backfired, and
Santana loomed large in the fight. The coverage finished with Hélio declaring: “I fought
to defend my honor” and Santana venting at the end: “My honor was washed-off by
Hélio Gracie’s blood, sweat and tears.”404 However, the article written by another
journalist of the Última Hora cornered the Gracies for the first time in years. In the article
“The black man with a black soul”, Nelson Rodrigues harshly criticized the Gracies and
ignited accusations of racism. He put the Gracies in the middle of an inconvenient
discussion about race.
As Brazilians tend to assume that they are exempt from racial discrimination,
discussions on racism are usually perceived as a social taboo.405 During the 1930s, the
authoritarian establishment adopted Gilberto Freyre’s concept of “racial democracy” as a
semi-official ideology. By incorporating this discourse into its agenda the xenophobic
state created by Getúlio Vargas sought to enforce unity and homogeneity as core values
of national identity. Nevertheless, the early 1950s became a watershed in the
deconstruction of the myth of a Brazilian colorblind nation. In 1950, an international
team of researchers sponsored by UNESCO conducted fieldwork in Brazil and found
blatant inequalities between whites and blacks. Furthermore, coinciding with UNESCO’s
404
"Meu Odio Foi Lavado Pelo Sangue Pelo Suor E Pelas Lagrimas De Helio Gracie," Ultima Hora, May
26 1955, 6.
405
Ricardo Franklin Ferreira, "O Brasileiro, O Racismo Silencioso E a Emancipacao Do AfroDescedente," Psicologia & Sociedade, 14, No. (1): jan./jun. (2002): 70-71.
157
findings the African-American dancer Katherine Dunham touring in Brazil had his
admission rejected in a hotel in São Paulo. The incident sparked considerable debate and
has contributed to the passing of the first Brazilian anti-discrimination bill, the Afonso
Arinos Law.406 Despite this incident and the first concrete indications of racial inequality,
the large majority of Brazilians still believed that Brazil was a “raceless” society. Perhaps
the statement made by Correia Leite, an intellectual and anti-racist activist, summarize
the real status of Afro-Brazilians in the post-war: “Brazil still is an immense slave
quarter, with few blacks in the Big House.”407
In witnessing the violent Santana-Gracie confrontation and capturing its drama,
Nelson Rodrigues stepped into the minefield of racism completely ignored by other
journalists. His text full of irony contextualized Santana’s ordeal within the framework of
Brazilian’s peculiar forms of racism. Rodrigues accurately pointed out that the fight was
not a sportive dispute because he was aware of the fact that the affair was not just an
ordinary master-disciple altercation. The atmosphere at Y.M.C.A.’s gymnasium only
confirmed the racial aspect of the fight. Roberto da Matta observed that instead of codes
of law establishing outwardly racism like in the United States, in Brazil there is the
enforcement of inequality through an invisible hierarchy. Santana’s behavior challenges
the hierarchy because he fought without Hélio’s permission. Furthermore, after being
humiliated he dared to challenge his former patron that definitely turned the racial
hierarchy upside down.408
406
George Reid Andrews, "Brazilian Racial Democracy, 1900-90: An American Counterpoint," Journal of
Contemporary History, 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1996): 489-90.
407
Ibid.
408
Matta, Carnivals, Rogues, and Heroes : An Interpretation of the Brazilian Dilemma, 153.
158
In an attempt to defuse the racial imbroglio, the Gracies and their powerful allies
in the press launched a campaign to tarnish Santana’s reputation. A few weeks later, in an
interview given to the magazine O Cruzeiro, Hélio Gracie sought to explain the fight and
his defeat. He admitted that he miscalculated the threat posed by Santana, but justified his
decision on grounds of honor. Hélio described Santana as “the Gracies’ sparring partner
and a clean black who dropped by our dojo a couple of times.” His racist subconscious
betrayed him. Whites in Brazil used the epithet “clean” to describe blacks who behave
according to white standards. This discourse dates back to colonial Brazil when blacks
grouped with other “infectious” or “impure races.”409
The Gracies’ allies in the media continued to defend Hélio against the accusations
of racism. The journalist David Nasser came to help him:
There is no racism in Brazil. We like blacks and we love our mulatas;
blacks sit at our table. Brazilians demolished the myth of racial
inferiority. I am a white Arab-Brazilian without prejudice against my
black compatriots. Come on Waldemar! Take your mask off! This is
only about sport, and you are not displaying good sportsmanship. There
are many Afro-Brazilians out there playing football with decency and
honor. You pretend to be a jiu-jitsu practitioner Waldemar, but this is
an honored sport. Your behavior damaged the reputation of a thousandyear’s tradition by using dirty tricks that you learned playing Capoeira.
You have acted like a scoundrel. Who are you Waldemar? What is your
fighter background? In sport, you are an accident. You were humble
and honored performing janitorial duties in the Gracies’ dojo. But
because you were strong and brave you became the Gracies’ punching
bag.410
David Nasser was one of the most polemic journalists in the magazine O Cruzeiro and he
was often involved in bitter political exchanges that at the end increased the magazine’s
circulation. Nasser was of Lebanese descendent and like others from the first generation
409
Maria Luiza Tucci Carneiro, O Racismo Na Historia Do Brasil : Mito E Realidade, (Sao Paulo, SP:
Editora Atica, 1994), 11.
410
David Nasser, "Nao Lute, Helio," O Cruzeiro, December 24, 1955, 65-66.
159
of immigrants sought to accommodate his hyphened identity vis-à-vis a xenophobic
nationalism. He did so by incorporating local forms of racism and in seeking to legitimize
his not so obvious “whiteness.”411 Jeffrey Lesser has argued that by the 1950s hyphenated
Brazilians established themselves in the middle and upper classes.”412 Nasser was exactly
a type of impoverished immigrant who experienced upward mobility and flirted with
power. At this point, he already had in his biography other polemical issues on race.
Nasser composed a very popular samba song in 1942 entitled Negra do Cabelo Duro
(Little Black Girl with Stiff Hair) that becomes a symbol of racial discrimination
disguised in mockery.413 On another occasion, in 1945, Nasser published an article
teaching Brazilians to distinguish between Chinese and Japanese. According to him, one
could identify the Japanese by their “repulsive aspect, myopia and insignificant
nature.”414 For Nasser an Afro-Brazilian Capoeira player like Santana could not attain
jiu-jitsu’s high moral standards. Consequently, he became a jiu-jitsu practitioner by
accident only achieving this status due to his physical prowess and capacity to endure
punishment.
411
Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi, "The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the
United States, a Comparative Approach," Journal of American Ethnic History, 16, No. 2 (1997).
412
Lesser, Negotiating National Identity : Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil,
168.
413
Larry Crook and Randal Johnson, Black Brazil : Culture, Identity, and Social Mobilization, (Los
Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center, 1999), 269-71.
414
Matinas Suzuki, "Rompendo O Silencio," accessed March 18, 2009,
http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/mais/fs2004200804.htm.
160
Figure 56: “The author and the character (David Nasser): Hélio Gracie (on the right) taught me his
defensive techniques.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955.415
The defeat of Hélio Gracie continued to raise passionate reactions in the press.
Once again, Nelson Rodrigues penned another article, this time partially redeeming the
Gracies:
The Accomplices of Waldemar
In the beginning, I did not realize the far-reaching implications of the
Gracie-Santana’s fight. It became obvious to me when I witnessed a
wave of euphoria after Hélio Gracie’s defeat. I had the impression that
there were Gracies enemies everywhere. Huge celebrations with
firecrackers and champagne flowing followed Waldemar’s victory.
Suddenly, scores of benefactors emerged with presents for him.
Santana was penniless before the fight. Why everyone wants to show
gratitude? Because his victory made our dream come true. We all felt
uncomfortable by living close to the invincible Gracies. One may argue
that is not our business a fight between two professionals. It is not true.
We get annoyed with the Gracies’ courage. We have no courage. Who
could behold the Gracies’ greatness without envy? They are like stars
always shining. It was an insult. Waldemar Santana was not alone. He
had support from scores of people who sought to destroy the Gracies’
invincibility. I said before that the fight had racial overtones. Now, I
would like to add that it was the revenge of ordinary people like us and
the celebration of a champion’s downfall. That is why there are so
many people giving radios, TV sets and other house appliances to
415
Nasser, "Nao Lute, Helio."
161
Santana. After his victory, there was a collective joy. Yes, even for
those husbands who ever raise their voices against their wives. We are
all accomplices of Waldemar Santana. 416
Rodrigues’ sharp gaze realized that, despite the blatant racism permeating the whole
affair, the Gracies’ enemies manipulated Santana. The paradox observed by Nelson
Rodrigues is that the Gracies found themselves under collective attack because “superpersons or part of the patrimony as national figures associated with personal morality,
mysticism, courage, fortitude, and aristocracy.”417 Rodrigues soon realized that Santana’s
social redemption was the result of an ephemeral inter-elite conflict of interest. In the
end, the very system that oppressed people like Santana was using him to hurt the
Gracies.418 Furthermore, one may argue, that despite Nelson Rodrigues’s inclination for
baffling the public he was a passionate nationalist who decided to preserve the Gracies’
iconic aura in a country badly in need of heroes after the dramatic suicide of Getúlio
Vargas just one year earlier.
The Gracies also had the support of other high-profile journalists such as Adalgisa
Nery and Eloy Dutra. The former was a feminist, journalist, intellectual and politician
closely associated with Getúlio Vargas populism.419 The latter, was a journalist and
politician equally affiliated with Vargas. Both carried out the populist ideal of the fallen
leader and were in ideological opposition to the media conglomerate of Assis
Chateaubriand. Yet, as in the other crisis endured by the Gracies, even antagonistic
sectors of the establishment closed ranks around them. Apart of elite solidarity, it was
416
"Os Cumplices De Waldemar," Ultima Hora, June 8 1955, 2.
Matta, Carnivals, Rogues, and Heroes : An Interpretation of the Brazilian Dilemma, 183-84.
418
Ibid.
419
See: Isabela Candeloro Campoi, "Adalgisa Nery E as Questões Políticas De Seu Tempo (1905-1980)",
PhD Dissertation, Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2008.
417
162
undeniable that the Gracies were national symbols created during Getúlio Vargas’ era.
They were the ones stepping forward and sacrificing their bodies like in the episode with
Kimura. Although endorsing with reservation the Gracies’ behavior, Nelson Rodrigues
and others rallied to save the living symbols of an era.
Waldemar Santana, by contrast, enjoyed his greatest hour in style with money,
presents and touring throughout the country.420 Following Hélio’s defeat, the Gracies
drafted Carlson, Carlos’ first born, to carry out their revenge. In October of 1955, six
months after the Hélio’s defeat, Carlson and Santana faced each other before 30,000
people at the Maracanãzinho Gymnasium in Rio de Janeiro. This time, however, it had to
be a jiu-jitsu match instead of a no holds barred fight following the public outcry against
the excessive violence in the previous fight. The bout ended in draw after five rounds in
which Carlson’s technique neutralized by Santana’s physical prowess.421 The magazine O
Cruzeiro, however, saw the fight under a different perspective putting in the headline:
“Waldemar, coward!”422
420
"A Cinderela Negra," Última Hora, June 1 1955, 3. Santana, according to the newspaper earned around
200,000 Cruzeiros or the equivalent to US$10,000.
421
Costa, "Waldemar Santana: O Leopardo Negro".
422
Ubiratan de Lemos, "Waldemar, Covarde!," O Cruzeiro, October 22, 1955, 134-37.
163
Figure 57: “Waldemar, coward!” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955.423
In a second fight between Carlson and Waldemar, in July of 1956, the Gracies
finally had their revenge before almost 40,000 spectators including the mayor of Rio de
Janeiro and the chief of police. Carlson Gracie and Santana fought an intense four-round
no-holds-barred bout won by the former through a technical knockout. The journalist
Carlos Renato, Santana’s manager, threw in the towel recognizing Carlson’s dominance.
The magazine O Cruzeiro in a frenzy headlined, “Poor Waldemar”, describing in a fivepage coverage the Gracies’ sweet victory.424
423
424
Ibid.
Ubiratan Lemos, "Coitado Do Waldemar," O Cruzeiro, August 4, 1956, 140-145.
164
Figure 58: “Poor Waldemar: Carlson Gracie defeated, before almost 40,000 people, the ‘black colossus’
who dominated Rio’s combat sports.” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1956.425
The Gracies’ victory was total since they lifted the ban of no- hold-barred fights
and had a packed audience that included high-profile authorities. The triumph came at the
beginning of the Juscelino Kubishek’s term. This period marked by the continuation of
the populism combined with developmentist and cultural endeavors. Kubischek, dubbed
as “Bossa Nova’s president” alluding to the innovative Brazilian musical genre at this
time, pushed the country to a new level of industrialization and cultural modernization
perhaps best symbolized by the construction of the new capital Brasilia. Following a
period of uncertainty and blues caused by Getúlio Vargas’ suicide, the nation entered into
a period of modernity and optimism.
Unlike Santana’s victory over Hélio, the Gracies’ revenge did not raise racial
polemics. Yet race was also present in Carlson’s victory. The journalist Ubiratan de
Lemos described Santana using derogatory terms like “gorilla,” “coward” and “ingrate.”
Conversely, he depicted Carlson as a “big boy,” fearless prior to the fight and chivalrous
after his victory. Lemos described Carlson as behaving with higher moral standards that
425
Ibid.
165
were only attainable by whites or those who enjoy proximity to whiteness in Brazil.
Through Lemos description, one may imply that Carlson was not fighting Santana, but he
was punishing him. Ironically, Lemos’racist remarks overlooked the fact that Carlson
was actually a mullato. In the Brazilian labyrinth of racial gradations, there is nothing
obvious. According to Abdias Nascimento, an Afro-Brazilian intellectual, politician and
pioneer of black movements, Brazilians disguised their racism under forms of
“paternalism, cordiality, benevolence and good will, as if it stood for miscegenation,
acculturation, assimilation.”426 The O Cruzeiro’s coverage demeaning Santana and
praising Carlson represent Carl Degler’s “mulatto escape hatch” as its best.427 After all,
Ubiratan Lemos could also describe Carlson’s triumph as a mulatto fighter taking
revenge on the black enemy of his white uncle.
Figure 59: “The Celebration of the Three Gracies.” Different racial gradations, but one ideal. Source: O
Cruzeiro, 1956.428
426
Edison Carneiro, 80 Anos De Abolicao, (Rio de Janeiro: Cadernos Brasileiros, 1968), 10-11, 14.
Degler, Neither Black nor White : Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States, passim.
428
Ubiratan Lemos, "Coitado Do Waldemar," O Cruzeiro, August 4, 1956, 145.
427
166
The “larger-than-life” Gracies: radio, television and comics
By the mid-1950s, the large space occupied by the Gracies in newspapers and
magazines expanded toward other media. In 1955, Hélio broadcast his show “The
Champion” on the Radio Tupi station in Rio de Janeiro. He was a character in the
adventures embodying the virtues of “justice, loyalty and defense of the weak.”429
Figure 60: “The Adventures of the champion” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955.
Articles in the magazine O Cruzeiro multiplied displaying the iconic Gracies in
the most idiosyncratic situations. They interacted with politicians, beauty pageants and
performed examples of a glamorized life style idealized by Brazilian upper classes. As
Claire Badaracco has argued, “mass media modes affect how people think the identity of
their social groups and the quality of the culture in terms of aesthetics and spiritual
429
Italo Viola, "As Aventuras De 'O Campeao'," O Cruzeiro, September 3, 1955, 60-61.
167
vitality.”430 The magazine O Cruzeiro, the principal medium the Gracies, constituted an
ideal space consonant with modernity.431
The magazine showed the Gracies teaching jiu-jitsu lessons to high-profile
populist politicians such as Tenório Cavalcanti, among others. The latter was a
northeastern type of charismatic macho who resorted to violent methods of politics in the
impoverished and violent outskirts of Rio de Janeiro. The six-page article in O Cruzeiro
headlined “Tenório, what a great artist!” It covered Tenório’s signing up at the Gracies’
dojo. The following dialogue ensued between him and Hélio Gracie:
H.G.: It is an honor to have you in my dojo. T.C.: I have heard so
much about the Gracies that I came to see it for myself. H.G.: Did you
come to fight with me? T.C.: No Gracie! I have a special concern about
my physical integrity. Listen man! I came to sign up for jiu-jitsu
lessons. I will do my best to complete your “self-defense” program and
see if your jiu-jitsu is the real deal. If you convince me, I will give up
my Smith & Wesson. H.G.: I accept the challenge Tenório. Learning
jiu-jitsu will make you calm and self-confident to use your fists instead
of your big guns. Listen, I have here in my dojo violent students who
have changed completely after learning jiu-jitsu. I am confident in the
victory of jiu-jitsu over your weapons. T.C.: So, let us do it!432
The pictures showed the entire pantomime beginning with “gunslinger-congressman who
carries machine guns” handed over his two Smith & Wesson revolvers practicing jiu-jitsu
under Hélio’s supervision. The journalist described the scene showing Hélio and Tenório
face to face as men who are "brave, energetic and very much alike".433
It is unknown if Tenório had ever an opportunity to put in practice his jiu-jitsu’s
lessons. However, he continued his violent trajectory draped in a black cloak and
430
Claire Badaracco, Quoting God : How Media Shape Ideas About Religion and Culture, (Waco, Tex.:
Baylor University Press, 2005), 3.
431
Joseph A. Page, The Brazilians, (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1995), 159-60.
432
Ubiratan de Lemos, "Jiu-Jitsu Vs Revolveres: Que Grande Artista E Tenorio," O Cruzeiro, June 6 1955,
132-38.
433
Ibid.
168
carrying a German machine gun dubbed as “Lurdinha.” In 1965, the military regime
stripped him of his political rights.434
Figure 61: “Tenorio, what a great artist!” The violent politician giving up their guns at the Gracies’ dojo.
Source: O Cruzeiro, 1955.435
Populist politicians were not the only ones for whom the magazine O Cruzeiro,
prescribed the Gracies as models of manly virtues. Copacabana in the 1950s became an
iconic upper class neighborhood. James N. Green has pointed out:
Nossa Senhora de Copacabana Avenue, which cut through the long
narrow neighborhood set between green-covered granite mountains and
white-sanded beach, boasted new cinemas and fancy boutiques. Middle
class homosexuals or those who aspired to that lifestyle sought out
Copacabana because it offered a privileged space for entertainment,
cruising and socializing. The fascination with Copacabana was
widespread.436
Among Copacabana’s dwellers, there were a group of Capoeira white practitioners
training under the direction of Agenor Moreira Sampaio, a white martial arts instructor
nicknamed Sinhozinho de Ipanema (“the little master of Ipanema”). The style was the
434
Janice E. Perlman, The Myth of Marginality : Urban Poverty and Politics in Rio De Janeiro, (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1979), 50.
435
Lemos, "Jiu-Jitsu Vs Revolveres: Que Grande Artista E Tenorio."
436
James Naylor Green, Beyond Carnival : Male Homosexuality in Twentieth-Century Brazil, (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1999), 150-51.
169
brainchild of a white Navy officer, Annibal Burlamaqui, nicknamed Zuma who in 1928
wrote a manual that became an effort to transform Capoeira to a school of physical
education and a combat sport.437 Sinhozinho, who was also a Special Police’s instructor
in the 1930s, taught his upper class clientele a violent version of Capoeira. Burlamaqui’s
style eliminated musical instruments and songs and only kept Capoeira’s techniques. In
doing so, he deliberately sought to de-Africanize Capoeira making it a palatable
embodied practice to white Brazilians. He branded his style “Brazilian Fighting System”
(Luta Brasileira) and it became along with Brazilian jiu-jitsu part of the martial arts
curriculum of the Special Police in the 1930s.
The magazine O Cruzeiro described Copacabana as “the citadel of tough guys.”
The article continued: “There is no need to go to Rio’s impoverished areas to find violent
capoeiras. Right there on the most beautiful beach in the world, one finds Capoeira
practitioners.”438 In 1953, the government promoted fund-raising to help northeastern
backlanders fleeing from regions ravaged by severe drought. The Gracies seized the
moment and challenged Copacabana’s capoeiras to fight in a prizefighting tournament to
raise money for the victims of drought. They had the support of Brazil’s press association
(A.B.I.) to organize an event at the Portuguese community sports stadium. The Gracies
picked Carlos’ sons, Carlson and Robson, plus a rookie student to fight respectively, the
muscular capoeira “Cirandinha”, a wrestler nicknamed “Tatuzinho” and another white
437
Burlamaqui, Gymnastica Nacional (Capoeiragem) Methodizada E Regrada.
Ubiratan Lemos, "Espetaculo De Brutalidade, Coragem E Sangue Frio," O Cruzeiro, April 4, 1953, 2330, 116.
438
170
capoeira named Rudolf Hermanny. The card described in an eight-page article as a “Lifeand-death violent bloodshed: the twilight of Capoeira and the dawn of Jiu-Jitsu.”439
The spectacle intended to be a charitable enterprise became a brutal brawl fought
on a bare cement courtyard surrounded by Special Police troopers who hardly contained
the public’s wild frenzy. The O Cruzeiro celebrated: “Besides the blood of winners and
losers all over the place the spectacle raised 86,000 cruzeiros.” The magazine called it
"The Pacification of Copacabana.”440
Figure 62: Carlos Gracie’s lineage:
amazonvaletudomma.blogspot.com. 441
(left)
Robson
and
Carlson
(right).
Source:
The Gracies’ insertion in the mass media reached its peak in the late 1950s. They
had a television show called “Heroes in the Ring,” which essentially presented Gracie
439
Ibid.
Ibid.
441
"Amazonvaletudomma," accessed July 13, 2011, http://amazonvaletudomma.blogspot.com/.
440
171
performances in a TV format. A new television channel Continental TV inaugurated in
1959 in Rio de Janeiro aired the Gracies’ show live on Monday evenings.442
Contrary to their “lucha libre’s” wrestling counterparts that also aired
choreographic fights displaying limited violence, the Gracie ones had no boundaries. The
show soon became a success, despite met with harsh criticism. The journalist Evandro
Carlos de Andrade wrote an article titled “Lessons in Masculinity”:
Hélio Gracie is not qualified to host the show. First, his poor language
skills make the Portuguese his first victim. Next, he loses his temper
whenever his fighters are in disadvantage. Finally, Mr. Gracie insults
and makes threats to his critics. He challenges journalists to step into
the ring that he defined as a “place for men only” and “to learn lessons
about masculinity.”443
The magazine O Cruzeiro came to rescue the Gracies and the journalist Ubiratan Lemos
wrote an article praising the show and lashing out its critics:
The “Heroes in the Ring” Won The First Round:
The Gracies’ show is a success despite criticism from those with
effeminate tendencies. It carries the Gracies’ “trademark” of
spontaneity.444
Lemos added that Carlos Gracie, “the unquestionable father of about twenty children,”
created the TV show 445 Next, the article justified the Gracies’ violence:
Viewers have the opportunity to watch scenes of bravery in times of
“philosophical cowardice.” The Gracies, who already “nationalized”
jiu-jitsu, practice a masculine martial arts that demands courage and
high moral standards. This eliminates “fixed fights”, trickery and
dishonesty, ravaging in some places. It is a show created for strongminded people. The bloodshed exaggerates the real damage. Yet
journalists with effeminate tendencies or those preaching morality
The politician and entrepreneur Rubens Berardo Carneiro da Cunha owned “TV Continental Network”.
He came from a wealthy family of landowners in the state of Alagoas (Northeast Brazil).
443
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 375.
444
Ubiratan Lemos, "Herois Do Ringue Vencem O 'Round'," O Cruzeiro, February 9 1959, 30-33.
445
Ibid.
442
172
overlooked other important issues to criticize the Gracies’ reality show.
Both, fighters and spectators can exercise their choice and surrender;
the former by “tapping out” the latter by switching the channel.
Fortunately, those journalists who would dress up in women’s clothes
are facing criticism from their colleagues. The authorities representing
the National Sports Council will not capitulate. It will be a shame and
the ultimate de-masculinization of this violent sport.446
Figure 63:“Female spectators enthusiastically watch the fights. The Gracie show is very much appreciated
by women.”Source: O Cruzeiro, 1959.447
The article argues that the show was popular among woman and the magazine displayed
images of an enthusiastic female audience watching the fights. The controversy around
the show ended six months after its beginning. One of the Gracies’ protégé broke his
opponent’s arm producing an exposed fracture broadcasted in prime time. From the
perspective of the sponsors, the Gracies’ violence has gone too far.448
446
Ibid.
Ibid.
448
Ibid.
447
173
Figure 64: “The “Heroes in the Ring”: Televised graphic violence for a selected audience. Source: O
Cruzeiro, 1960.449
At the end of the 1950s, the number of television sets in the country jumped from
250,000 in the mid-1950s to 1.8 million 1960.450 The TV Continental aired The Gracies’
show during the transition between productions designed for a small upper-class audience
to the ones aiming at larger middle class viewers.451
449
Ibid.
Jon S. Vincent, Culture and Customs of Brazil, (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003), 107. Rio de
Janeiro’s population in 1960 was 3, 307.163 inhabitants.
451
Joseph Dean Straubhaar, "Mass Communications and the Elites," in Modern Brazil: Elites and Masses
in Historical Perspective, ed. Michael L. Connif and Frank D. McCann (Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press, 1991), 238.
450
174
Figure 65: “The “Heroes in the Ring, Waldo (Waldemar Santana’s brother) versus Euclides Pereira.
Source: Blog Mano a Mano, 2012.452
The television was also the arena for one more round fought between the Gracies
and Waldemar Santana. In 1957, in the aftermath of Carlson’s victory over Santana,
Hélio declared that Santana was not qualified to be a martial arts champion. Perhaps
trying to avoid further polemics involving racism, Hélio concluded his remarks by saying
that “Santana cannot be a true champion because he did not have family” (ele não pode
ser considerado campeão porque não tem família).453 In the absence of institutionalized
racism in Brazil, racial discrimination occurs in subtle and intricate ways. In the other
words, Gracie affirmed that Santana like other Afro-Brazilians are sexually promiscuous
452
453
“MMA Mano a Mano,” accessed September 20, 2010, http://gustavonoblat.blog.terra.com.br.
Nasser, "A Dinastia Gracie."
175
and unable to establish stable family ties. Whites in Brazil resort to this type of remark to
reinforce racist stereotypes rooted in Afro-Brazilians’ slavery past. 454
The images of a licentious and oppressive environment that was inherent in a
slave society in which generations of Afro-Brazilians had to live certainly contrasted with
the glorious past of the Gracies lavishly illustrated by a long coverage provided by O
Cruzeiro called “The Gracie Dynasty.” There, an enthusiastic David Nasser disclosed a
well-researched six-page article eulogizing the Gracies’ aristocratic past without paying
too much attention to Carlos Gracie’s unstable family. Nasser went far back to the
Gracies’ roots in Scotland and throughout their gentrification in Brazil during the
nineteenth century. The pages of O Cruzeiro paraded bankers, nobles and diplomats with
their respective pictures. Headlining one of the pages Hélio stated: “My dear Nasser, this
is for those of you who criticize the Gracie’s arrogance. We have reasons to be proud. I
hope your pen will answer this question that we have responded to until now with our jiujitsu.” The Gracies, according Nasser, “stand out as an honorable exception in a corrupted
country like Brazil.”455
Hélio’s declaration about Santana’s family or lack of it came a year after the
article. For Hélio, the Gracies’s pedigree rather than their martial arts skills explained
their achievements. Therefore, the Santana family cannot rival the Gracies. The Santana
family drafted Valdo, Waldemar’s young brother, and the Gracies picked Robson,
Carlson’s young brother. In 1959, Waldo Santana fought a fifteen-minute bout against
454
George Reid Andrews, Blacks & Whites in Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1888-1988, (Madison, Wis.: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1991), 170.
455
Nasser, "A Dinastia Gracie."
176
Robson in a television studio. Despite Waldo’s overwhelming superiority, the match
ended in a draw. It delivered another blow to the Gracie’s pride. Waldemar Santana had a
family after all.456
Figure 66: The Santana family (left) appearance in a popular TV show in the late 1950s. Source: Revista
Tatame, 2004.457
Figure 67: “The Scottish George Gracie had ever imaged that?” Source: O Cruzeiro, 1956.458
456
Costa, "Waldemar Santana: O Leopardo Negro".
Ibid.
458
Nasser, "A Dinastia Gracie."
457
177
By the end of the decade, the Gracies occupied every niche of media available
including the ones as characters of a comic book.459 After World War II, American
comics dominated the market in Brazil. By the 1950s, fueled by nationalism the
production of local comics came into being. The artist who drew the story about the
Gracies, Jose Geraldo Barreto, was part of a group of artists who founded the publishing
house to encourage national production in response to a massive importation of U.S.
comics. In 1958, comics entitled the “The truth about the Gracies: The real history” (A
verdade sobre os Gracies: Drama da vida real) displayed Hélio Gracie on the cover. It
told the story of Carlos Gracie since his childhood in the Amazon until his transformation
into a jiu-jitsu martial artist. The comics mixed present and past, alternating Carlos’
interviews with scenes of the most important events in his jiu-jitsu trajectory.460
The Gracies during the Juscelino Kubishek’s years reached the status of largerthan-life individuals by embodying nationalist comic icons.461 During the 1950s, mass
media transformed the Gracies in icons of the emergent middle class. At the dawn of the
new decade, Juscelino Kubischek, pledged to make the country grow fifty years in five.
In 1960, the construction of the futuristic Brasilia in the central highlands emblematically
represents the concretization of a long-cherished colonial utopia during the post-war
459
Ivan Lima Gomes, "Passado Quadro a Quadro: A Revista Em Quadrinhos Pererê (1960-1964) E Seu
Olhar Sobre a História," História, imagem e narrativas 9, October (2009), accessed February 14 2011,
http://www.historiaimagem.com.br/edicao9outubro2009/04-perere.pdf.
460
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 371-72.
461
José Geraldo Barreto, journalist, writer and comic book designer founded in the early 1960s the
Cooperativa e Editora de Trabalho (CETPA) in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul state with support of the
leftist populist politician Leonel Brizola. Gomes, "Passado Quadro a Quadro: A Revista Em Quadrinhos
Pererê (1960-1964) E Seu Olhar Sobre a História".
178
modernization.462 There, traditional values lived side by side with modern ones. Hélio
Gracie, echoing the optimism of “JK’s Era,” celebrated the symbiosis between tradition
and modernity voicing his aristocratic credo on the pages of O Cruzeiro: “We cannot help
from being proud of our past and our martial arts achievements. We are legends, and
legends cannot be destroyed.”463
Figure 68: “The Truth about the Gracies.” Source: Gracie Magazine, 2010.464
462
Styliane Phillippou, "Utopian Modernism in the Land of the Future: Brasilia, the 'Capital of Hope'," in
Nowhere Somewhere : Writing, Space and the Construction of Utopia, ed. José Eduardo Reis and Jorge
Bastos da Silva (Porto: Editora da Universidade do Porto, 2006), 183.
463
Nasser, "A Dinastia Gracie."
464
Marcelo Dunlop, "Helio Gracie, One of 4 Faces of Brazil According to Tv Channel," Gracie Magazine,
August (2010), accessed July 19 2010, http://www.graciemag.com/2010/08/helio-gracie-one-of-4-faces-ofbrazil-according-to-tv-channel/.
179
Chapter 5 - Authoritarianism, democratization and
globalization: hybrid Brazilian jiu-jitsu, 1963-1993
Introduction
Round 1: A hybrid martial art in a futuristic city: Brasilia, 1981
Perhaps more than any other of his kin, Rickson Gracie represented the level of
specialization reached by Brazilian jiu-jitsu in the 1980s. This became clear by
comparing the outcome of two encounters between two generations of practitioners of
Brazilian jiu-jitsu and Kodokan judo. The first was a match in which Hélio Gracie fought
the Japanese four-time winner of the All-Japan Judo Championship, Kimura Masahiko.
In this bout, in 1951, the latter defeated Hélio by submission on the ground. Despite the
fact that the former outweighed the latter, the Japanese’s technical edge in standing and
ground combat was overwhelming. A generation later, in 1981, the abilities in ground
combat had tipped in favor of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Rickson went to Brazil’s capital city,
Brasilia, for his initiation as a no holds barred fighter against a muscularly built AfroBrazilian street fighter nicknamed “King Zulu.” As part of his preparation for the fight,
he spared with two world –class champions at a local Dojo. In his first free training
(randori), Rickson began with Tachi- Waza (standing combat) and the judoists’
180
superiority, as expected, was evident. Next, he sparred on the ground with one of the best
judoists of the day and pinned him repeatedly with ease. Rickson then proposed to his
first opponent a new training session on the ground, in which he would fight with only
one arm. The Kodokan judo black belt politely declined the offer. There was no question
that Brazilian jiu-jitsu was no longer a mere indigenous version of its Japanese matrix.465
Figure 69: Rickson Gracie (underneath) versus “King Zulu”, 1987. New generation, same challenges.
Source: Portal do Vale-Tudo, 2010.
Round 2 -The global breakthrough: Mac Nichols Arena, Denver,
Colorado, 1993
In late 1993 in Denver, Colorado, a martial arts event created by Brazilian martial
artist Rorion Gracie gathered fighters from different styles before 7,800 spectators and
80,000 homes on pay-per-view TV. The competition ended with the surprising and
indisputable victory of Rorion’s youngest brother, Royce Gracie, a Brazilian jiu-jitsu
465
João Gilberto de Souza, personal communication, Toronto, March 31, 2010. Joao Gilberto de Souza is a
Brazilian diplomat and also a Kodokan judo rokudan (sixth degree black belt). He was the first judoka to
spar with Rickson and later declined the latter’s unusual offer.
181
black belt. Although he entered the tournament as an underdog, Royce not only won this
inaugural event, but also dominated the three following contests organized in the same
format. During the first three Ultimate Fighting Championship events, Royce embodied
the Gracies’ performance at its best. His combination of ground combat skills, bold
attitude and ordinary physique won over the American audience. The Gracie’s
performance shook the martial arts world and the consequences of that night in Denver
went far beyond the most optimistic expectations.466 In the wake of the First Ultimate
Fighting Championship’s remarkable success, the martial art known as Brazilian jiu-jitsu
spread throughout the United States and became a global phenomenon. It began to be
practiced in Latin America, Africa, Europe, Middle East, China and fought its diasporic
trajectory back to Japan, where Brazilian black belts now teach the Japanese the hybrid
version of what was once their own martial art.
Figure 70: The first Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) created by Rorion and won by Royce (above),
1993.467
466
Denys Darzi, personal communication, Rio de Janeiro, June 18, 2008. Darzi is a 5th degree Brazilian jiujitsu black belt, reporting Hélio Gracie remarks at Valente Gracie Academy, North Miami, in 2004.
467
"Most Influential Mma Fighters," accessed January 12, 2012,
http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://bestofmma.ca/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/roycegracie.
182
This chapter is divided into two sections. The first analyzes the marginalization of
the Gracies and their Brazilian jiu-jitsu after the military coup in 1964. This occurred
under a combination of factors affecting the Gracies because of their attachment to the
previous populist rule. Global events also had a strong influence on the Gracies’ ordeal
after the military coup. In the Tokyo summer Olympic Games of 1964, judo finally
became an Olympic sport. This crowned the post-war efforts of the Kodokan School to
make judo the only recognized style of jiu-jitsu and consolidated the Japanese martial art
as a global trend.468 In Brazil, despite decades of Japanese immigration, the
popularization of judo occurred through the United States' growing influence in the
Brazilian military in the early 1960s.469 The American military adopted judo as its martial
art of choice after the Second World War and their Brazilian counterparts after 1964
followed suit, reflecting the approximation between the two countries during the Cold
War.470 Therefore, Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s marginalization after the coup was a considerable
break with the position of the previous populist regimes. The authoritarian rule closer to
the United States and ideologically driven by military nationalism had Brazilian jiu-jitsu
replaced by Kodokan judo.
In the second section, I analyze the transformation of Brazilian jiu-jitsu in a
hybrid combat sport and its dissemination among middle class practitioners in Brazil, as
well as its globalization via immigration to the United States. To analyze Brazilian jiu-
468
Shun, "The Invention of the Martial Arts," 173.
Jan Knippers Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1977), 257-58.
470
Thomas A. Green, Martial Arts of the World : An Encyclopedia, (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2001),
449.
469
183
jitsu’s hybridization, I followed Eduardo Archetti approach that I described in the
dissertation’s introduction.
The creation of a local jiu-jitsu style started as early as the 1930s as I described in
chapter three. However, the transformation of Brazilian jiu-jitsu into a full-fledged hybrid
martial art occurred only in the late 1970s and early 1980s. This process was twofold.
The new Gracies generation carried it out by incorporating techniques borrowed from
other martial art disciplines and by developing a higher degree of specialization in ground
combat. Simultaneously, Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s popularization amid middle class youths led
to technical improvements because of competitions among the growing number of dojos
throughout the country. In the post-fight interview given by the Japanese wrestler Kimura
Koichiro in Tokyo in 1995 after his defeat by Rickson Gracie illustrates the originality of
Brazilian jiu-jitsu: “ Now, I understand the enormous depth of ‘Gracie’ jiu-jitsu. It is not
simply a blend of wrestling and judo. Their jiu-jitsu is really a new martial arts discipline
that I want to understand as much as I can.”471
In the 1980s, the Brazilian jiu-jitsu became a medium by which a peripheral
nation exported male practitioners to the United States and throughout the world.472 In the
United States, the Gracies established a modern arena to display their martial arts skills
called the “Ultimate Fighting Championship,” which was largely inspired by their violent
performances in Brazil. This created another hybrid martial art style known as a “mixed
martial arts” by combining several other disciplines with Brazilian jiu-jitsu as its
471
472
Choke, directed by Robert R. Goodman (2000; USA: Manga Entertainment, 1999), DVD.
Ibid.
184
backbone. Moreover, the televised cable show conceived of by Rorion Gracie and his
American associates became a billion-dollar global combat sports business.
Conspiracies and failed globalization
In late 1963, three Gracie students made an early attempt to introduce Brazilian
jiu-jitsu in the United States with support from the Hollywood film industry’s
representative in Brazil, the American embassy and U.S. intelligence operatives. The
newspaper O Globo headlined the article “Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s success in the U.S.”473
Flávio Behring, João Alberto Barreto and George Barrene toured in Washington D.C. and
New York, performing jiu-jitsu demonstrations and screening a film about jiu-jitsu in
Brazil. They showcased a demonstration at the exclusive New York Athletic Club before
a selected audience including its president Charles Lamb, the European judo champion
and a New York Police Department Instructor, Walter Burnett.474 Afterwards, they
headed to the Naval Academy in Annapolis where one of the Brazilians defeated an
American wrestling champion. Barreto told to the journalist that Harry Stone, the CEO of
the Motion Pictures Export Association of America in Brazil, enthusiastically supported
their trip after watching the footage of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Stone introduced the Brazilians
to the U.S. Defense Attaché Colonel Vernon Walters, who put them in contact with the
F.B.I.475
473
"Exito Do Jiu-Jitsu Brasileiro Nos Eua," O Globo, November 7 1963, 3.
Ibid.
475
Flávio Behring, personal communication, Sao Paulo, July 10 2009. Behring is a “Grand Master” red belt
under Helio Gracie.
474
185
The Americans who supported the Gracies’ protégés in their exploratory tour in
the United States were both long-time expatriates living and working with Brazilians.
Harry Stone served during the World War II in Italy along with Brazilian troops with
whom he learnt Portuguese. Later, he became an American movie industry representative
in Brazil. In the early 1960s, he often had clashes with Brazilian movie makers who were
defending Brazil’s local film industry. It was a time of the nationalistic avant-guard
experiences with the Cinema Novo (New Cinema) in Brazil. Glauber Rocha, then a rising
star of this movement, criticized Harry Stone by calling him “cultural terrorist” or the one
who “bribes local critics serving Scotch whisky” and “manipulating Brazil’s movie
industry.”476 Vernon Walters too, through his Portuguese skills, served as liaison between
Brazilian troops and the U.S. Fifth Army in the Italian front during the World War II.
There, he befriended junior army officers who were later in charge of the upcoming
events in Brazil. Walters, at this time, was involved in conspiracies with his former
acquaintances in the Brazilian military in an effort to overthrow the democratic regime.477
Fall of populism and twilight of Brazilian jiu-jitsu
In 1965, as part of the celebrations of Rio de Janeiro’s fourth centenary, two
events marked the city’s cultural life: in September, the International Film Festival and in
October, the Judo World Championship. Both held for the first time in Brazil, roughly a
year after the military deposed President Joao Goulart in March of 1964. A “mild”
476
Glauber Rocha, Revolucao Do Cinema Novo, (Rio de Janeiro: Alhambra, 1981), 230, 474.
Green, We Cannot Remain Silent : Opposition to the Brazilian Military Dictatorship in the United
States, 36.
477
186
military government ruled the country ever since which led the French bombshell Brigitte
Bardot enjoying the deserted beaches off Rio de Janeiro to declare: “I loved revolution in
Brazil, there were no gunshots.”478 Brigitte Bardot was right: for the time being, it was a
bloodless coup.
The populist tendency initiated by Getúlio Vargas in the 1930s was badly hurt,
but not dead yet. The Guanabara state governor, Carlos Lacerda was a populist leader
who supported the coup temporarily spared from political persecution by the military.
Ex-communist militant turned into fierce anti-communist, scion of a landowning family
and skillful orator, Lacerda sought to make an exemplary administration aiming at the
presidency in 1965’s elections. Lacerda anticommunist hysteria found timely and
enthusiastic support from Lyndon B. Johnson’s administration. The growing concern
about the spread of communism explains the funding of local politicians like Lacerda
through the Alliance for Progress’s deep pockets.479 This program created by John F.
Kennedy in 1961 aimed to promote social and economic development in Latin America
in the wake of the Cuban Revolution.
478
479
"Brigitte: 'Adorei Revolucao No Brasil; Nao Tem Tiro," Ultima Hora, April 4 1964, front page.
Black, United States Penetration of Brazil, 68.
187
Figure 71: The U.S.-Brazil’s dictatorship alliance. Senator Robert F. Kennedy enjoys Copacabana Beach
before his meeting with the new military President Castello Branco in Rio. Above Robert F. Kennedy was
sitting on the sand while his body-guard rush to stop the photographer. Source: Jornal do Brasil, 1965.480
The military also expected to profit from the publicity of the International Film
Festival. The The New York Times highlighted that film producing was booming in
Brazil in the aftermath of the military coup. Harry Stone, the representative of Hollywood
film industry declared his high hopes that Brazil could attract foreign movie production.
The new president, Marshal Castello Branco himself escorting the Italian diva Claudia
Cardinale opened the festival. Lastly, the article announced the participation of the film
“Sugata Sanshiro II” representing Japan in the festival.481
The film was the sequel of Akira Kurosawa’s epic movie “Sugata Sanshiro”
produced in Japan during the World War II. The sequel made in 1965, co-produced by
Kurosawa and fictionalized the life of the judo master Saigo Shiro in the primeval period
of Kano Jigoro’s modern jiu-jitsu dueling with its traditional styles. The novelist Tomita
480
481
"O Senador Robert Kennedy Horas Depois De Chegar Ao Rio," Jornal do Brasil, November 25 1965, 7.
"Foreign Film Production Booming in Brazil," The New York Times, September 25 1965, SUA7_1.
188
Tsuneo wrote original the saga based on his father’s life as the first Kano Jigoro’s black
belt.482 The Japanese arrived sporting their traditional clothes to watch a fully booked
gala evening. Mifune Toshiro, the Japanese actor in the central role, received four
standing ovations during the movie session.483 The film awarded a “Silver Kite” by the
festival jury, attracted sizeable audiences, received positive reviews and appealed
especially to the young military officers.484 The success of “Sungata Sanshiro” in the Rio
de Janeiro’s Film Festival marked the beginning of Kodokan judo’s popularity in Brazil.
Figure 72: Sungata Sanshiro’s movie poster. Source: Wikipedia, 2010.485
482
Tomita Tsunejiro was the first judo master trained by Kano Jigoro. Coincidently, he was the senior
martial artist who took the young black belt, Mayeda Mitsuyo, with him to the United States in 1904.
483
"Sungata Sanshiro Deu Prosseguimento Ao Festival E Foi Muito Aplaudido," O Globo, September 17
1965, 6.
484
"Franca E Inglaterra Conquistam a 'Gaivota De Ouro' Do Fif," O Globo, September 29 1965, 6.
485
Wikipedia contributors, "Sugata Sanshiro " Wikipedia,The Free Encyclopedia, accessed July 11, 2010,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanshiro_Sugata.
189
In 1965, the recently imposed military dictatorship hosted a number of important
international events. Once again, the Marshal Castello Branco inaugurated in 1965 the
world judo championship held in Rio in which one hundred and forty athletes from fortythree countries attended.486 During the competition, the Jornal do Brasil briefly
interviewed Hélio Gracie asking his opinion about the future matchup between the Dutch
world champion Anton Geesink and the Japanese Inokuma Isao. Gracie declared his
preference for the latter. The article placed on the bottom of the page, surrounded by
news about judo and a column on football, starkly contrasted with the Gracies’ past
omnipresence in the newspapers.487
Kodokan judo had increasingly grown in popularity among Brazilians since the
1950s while Brazilian jiu-jitsu remained secluded in its social and geographical
encroachments. Kodokan judo, by contrast, expanded toward the middle class in clubs
and dojos throughout the country. The military also supported strongly the adoption of
judo as martial art of choice. The process started in the previous decade through
participation in international contests to reach its peak in the 1960s. In the military, the
growing alignment with the United States played an important role in support for judo. In
1964, the article entitled “How the Army will practice judo” published in a Brazil’s army
periodical pointed out:
A few months ago, we prepared the Brazilian book of regulations that
used as one of the models, its American counterpart. The judo
organization in the United States carried out by the US Air Force
whose ranks realized the importance of judo for the military based on
the tragic events in the World War II. The American military keeps a
strong and high-level interchange with Kodokan Institute in Japan. As a
486
487
"Inicia-Se O Mundial De Judo," O Globo, October 14 1965, front page.
"Para Helio Gracie, Geesink Perderia Do Japones Inokuma," Jornal do Brasil October 16 1965, 18.
190
result, the U.S. judo improved the judo practice and currently
Americans enjoy great international prestige. We then asked to each
other: “Why not do the same in Brazil?” Judo in Brazil has been widely
practiced for ten years now. Nonetheless, we have few great athletes in
the military. Exception to the rule is the paratroopers Regiment Santos
Dumont where judo is already included in the training. Close combat is
the last phase of warfare, how can we trust in troops not prepared for
the final showdown with the enemy? This is particularly relevant when
fighting to neutralize or eliminate guerrillas. Presently, we lack of
troops prepared for this task. Therefore, I recommend the introduction
of judo in all levels in the army starting with its inclusion in the
curriculum on all military schools.488
The article, written by Colonel Vicente da Rocha, then a junior army officer instrumental
in the project to adopt Kodokan judo, is revealing. It demonstrated that the hemispheric
alliance Brazil-United States was decisive in the implementing of judo in the Brazilian
military. Moreover, the article paved the way for use of a military version of judo to train
counter-insurgency units for the upcoming showdown between armed forces and guerrilla
movements in the years to come.
Another Army officer and a prominent actor in the process of adoption of judo by
the army, declared:
In regard to teaching of self-defense in the military, the Army School
of Physical Education has previously adopted the Brazilian jiu-jitsu.
However, after 1964, judo became our martial arts of choice. The judo
practice allows the military to compete in local and international
tournaments.489
Lieutenant-Colonel Pacheco was an elite judo practitioner, infantry paratrooper and
intelligence operative (S.N.I.) who worked in the task force to introduce judo at all levels
488
Vicente Leitao da Rocha, " Revista da Escola de Educacao Fisica do Exercito, "Como O Exercito
Podera Praticar O Judo," Revista da Escola de Educacao Fisica do Exercito, 94, No. 2o Semestre (1964):
n.p.
489
Manoel Ramos Pacheco, personal communication, Rio de Janeiro, June 29 2008. Lieutenant-Colonel
Pacheco was a judo black belt graduated in my father’s dojo.
191
of the Brazilian military. His statement confirmed the option for judo in the beginning of
the military rule. The “Army School of Physical Education” located in Rio de Janeiro
pioneered the practice of physical education in Brazil since its foundation in 1919. As
other military institutions in Brazil, it suffered a considerable expansion of role and
influence during the authoritarian Getulio Vargas regime when the military has
established firm control over sports in general and combat sports, in particular. After
1964, the military sphere of influence grew beyond the limits of the army barracks. The
“Army School of Physical Education” through its direct or indirect support sought to
promote Kodokan judo. Commanding officers holding the rank of colonel run the school
and among its attributions includes research and pedagogical support for sports practice
in the army and cooperation with civilians under authorized permission from the upper
echelon.490 The aforementioned army officers, Rocha and Pacheco, stationed in the
school of physical education had an instrumental role in the decision making to promote
the expansion of Kodokan judo in the Armed Forces. This occurred rather by virtue of
their privileged position in a strategic institution than to their actual ranking within the
army hierarchy. Nonetheless, the possibility to enhance the prestige of the military
regime internationally, particularly after judo received official Olympic status in 1964 in
Tokyo, may have been part of the replacement of Brazilian jiu-jitsu by Kodokan judo.491
490
491
Escola de Educação Física do Exército, accessed September 20 2012, http://www.esefex.ensino.eb.br/.
Ian Buruma, Inventing Japan, 1853-1964, (New York: Modern Library, 2003), 5.
192
Figure 73: “Army officers learn jiu-jitsu.” In the 1960s, the military replaced Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s practice
by Kodokan judo. Source: Última Hora, 1956.492
The Brazilian jiu-jitsu had its fate tied to the Gracies. Any trouble they had as
public figures certainly affected their martial art prestige. Two critical events occurred in
1963, and 1965, respectively may help to explain the deterioration of Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s
status in the eyes of the new regime. The first took place in 1963 when a bitter legal
dispute between the Gracies and Oscar de Santa Maria became public. For several weeks,
Rio de Janeiro’s newspapers published the exchange of the embarrassing accusations
between the two parties. Santa Maria’s charges included extortion, fraud, plagiarism,
adultery and charlatanism.
The scandal gave the Gracies inconvenient publicity at a difficult time of
transition and conservative backlash. Unlike in the 1950s when the media celebrated
them as examples of modern Brazilian family and “machines of procreation,” in 1963,
they had their reputation tarnished by allegations of sexual promiscuity.493 The change
492
"Oficiais Do Exercito Aprendem 'Jiu-Jitsu'," Ultima Hora, March 22 1955, 4-5.
"Os Gracie Afirmam Estar Sendo Alvo De Chantagem," 12. "As Cartas De Carlos Gracie Sao Eloquente
Confissao Do Crime," O Globo, November 4 1963, 2. "O Advogado Dos Gracie Ainda Nao Formou Ideia
Acerca Das Acusacoes," O Globo, November 6 1963, 2. "Carlos Gracie Garante Que Ouvia Espiritos E
Acusa Oscar De Santa Maria," O Globo, December 3 1963, 17.
493
193
became clear when Roberto Marinho, the owner of the newspaper O Globo and once a
staunch Brazilian jiu-jitsu promoter sided with Santa Maria. 494
Conservative press barons like Roberto Marinho were among the driving forces
behind the coup d’état.495 The newspaper O Globo enthusiastically supported the military
takeover and displayed a one-page manifest paid for by powerful commercial interests in
Rio de Janeiro. It declared: “Something has changed in this country: Instead of
agitation…
hard
work.
Instead
of
subversion…discipline.
Decency
replaced
corruption.”496
Figure 74: “Something has changed in the country.” Source: O Globo, 1965.497
494
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, 393.
Page, The Brazilians, 155-63.
496
"Alguma Coisa Mudou Neste Pais," O Globo March 24 1965, 19.
497
Ibid.
495
194
Figure 75: Brazil’s new order celebrating the first anniversary of the military coup in 1965. On the top, left
to right: Air-Marshal Eduardo Gomes (Ministry of Aeronautics), Magalhães Pinto (Minas Gerais state
governor and banker), Marshal Costa Silva (first military president), and José Maria Alckmin (civilian
vice-president). In the back row, right to left in uniforms: Marshal Odilio Denys (Minister of War) and
General Ernesto Geisel (military chief of staff and future president). On the bottom in the front row, the
symbol of a waning era: The once media mogul Assis Chateaubriand speechless using a wheelchair and
running a media empire in decline. A half-paralyzed “Chateau” wearing a military uniform performed a
clumsy salute using the wrong (left) arm. The Minas Gerais State Police (Polícia Militar de Minas Gerais)
conferred him the rank of honorary colonel. Source: O Cruzeiro, 1965. 498
The Gracies could no longer count on the strong support of Assis Chateaubriand's
media empire which had been falling apart in the 1960s. Furthermore, in 1964, the
security apparatus accused Carlos Gracie’s sons, Carlson and Robson of being
instrumental in helping the leftist politician Leonel Brizola to escape to Uruguay. In a
classified document produced originally in the southern Rio Grande do Sul State by the
local authorities Carlson had his name mentioned:
498
"Desfile De 31 De Marco De 1965 Em Belo Horizonte," O Cruzeiro, April 8, 1965, 60.
195
Subversive activities
Carlson Gracie, Hélio Gracie’s nephew, a famous judo (sic)
practitioner in the Guanabara state is very close to Leonel Brizola.
After the latter fled to Uruguay, Carlson took care of Brizola’s car. On
December 16 1964, Carlson accompanied by an individual named
Moacir, traveled to Porto Alegre to meet with Leonel Brizola’s
courier.499
The report followed the intelligence protocol that distributed the classified file to other
agencies. The file labeled as “classified, urgent and trustworthy” also circulated through
the recently created National Service of Information (S.N.I.). The classified document
reported:
Moacir Blaile Ferraz participated in the public speech delivered by
Leonel Brizola in the city of Belo Horizonte. He is associated with
Carlson and Robson Gracie. Moacir traveled from Rio to Montevideo
carrying two bags with documents and one revolver. He was probably
transporting important documents since he is Leonel Brizola’s
bodyguard. Moacir usually goes to Copacabana Beach and to
Teresópolis during the weekends with the Gracies. Orders: Identify
Moacir’s contacts in Rio de Janeiro and issue a search warrant for
them.500
Leonel Brizola’s tour to the city of Belo Horizonte on February 16, 1964 met local
resistance from the conservative women affiliated to the CAMDE (Campanha da Mulher
pela Democracia). The group was among others right-wing women’s movements staging
mass street protests against the Jango Goulart administration prior the military coup.501
Ministerio da Guerra, Gabinete do Ministro, 2ª Divisao – SSI D2, 15 de Fevereiro 1965, Informe no
73/65, Assunto: “Atividades Subversivas,” Origem: Informe 21-SSP, 20/01/1965, da Secao Rio Grande do
Sul, Classificacao: Secreto, Difusao: I Exercito e Aeronautica, Arquivo Publico do Estado do Rio de
Janeiro.
500
Ministerio da Guerra, I Exercito, 1ª Regiao Militar, EMR – 2ª Secao, Rio de Janeiro, 12 de Maio 1965,
assunto: Moacyr Braile Ferraz, origem: informante, classificacao: D.O.P.S., “Pedido de Busca,” Arquivo
Publico do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
501
Sonia E. Alvarez, Engendering Democracy in Brazil : Women's Movements in Transition Politics ,
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 6.
499
196
They stormed the auditorium where Leonel Brizola was ready to deliver a speech,
holding their Catholic rosaries. Despite the protection of marines, Brizola left directly for
the airport.
The agents following the movements of the Gracies and their students like Moacir
Ferraz knew their routine well. They frequented a particular section of Copacabana
Beach and in the weekends headed up to the upper-class mountain resort in Teresópolis
near to Rio where they kept a large estate since the 1950s. Carlson’s participation in
politics was apparently incidental. It had no further consequences other than being
suspicious to conspire against the military regime. Robson was, however, deeply
involved with Brizola’s group. The security forces had him arrested and tortured and
Robson only left the prison through Hélio Gracie’s connections with the military
regime.502
502
Robson Gracie, personal communication, Rio de Janeiro, July 17 2008. He is a 9th degree red belt and
currently president of Federação de Jiu-Jitsu do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro Jiu-Jitsu Federation).
197
Figure 76: The Gracies compound (scale model available in the Gracies Museum in Torrance, California)
in their aristocratic mountain resort near Rio de Janeiro. According to information available on the Gracie
Academy website: “Located in the mountain resort of Terezópolis, Rio de Janeiro, this estate was the
Gracie summer retreat. It had 21 bedrooms and 18 bathrooms. There were 18 uniformed employees
working at the house, who had amongst themselves 14 children. There were 25 in-house telephones and a
switchboard that enabled 6 people talk at the same time. There was an in-house laundry with industrial
machines that washed 650 gis a week to provide for the academy in Rio. The tall building in the front was a
15,000-gallon water reservoir and a meditation room used by Carlos Gracie. At the center grassy area was
the training area for the Gracie family.”503 Source: Gracie Academy website, 2010.
The military coup was undeniably a watershed for the Gracies that had direct
consequences on Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s marginalization, considering its prestige within the
previous political establishment. Regarding pedagogical aspects, Kodokan judo’s
philosophy emphasizes collective over individual interests within a quasi-militaristic
framework. It helps to explain the army’s option.
504
Further, it opened up avenues to
prestige and exchange through international tournaments. By contrast, Brazilian jiu-jitsu
was a martial art strongly attached to a small group of upper-class practitioners
encroached in upscale neighborhoods in Rio de Janeiro. It was hardly a match for the
503
Brajitsu, "Gracie Jiu Jitsu Academy " accessed May 20, 2010, 2010, http://www.gracieacademy.
com/gracie_museum.asp.
504
Joseph A. Maguire and Masayoshi Nakayama, eds. Japan, Sport and Society: Tradition and Change in a
Globalizing World (London: Routledge, 2006), 15.
198
middle-class Kodokan judo. Besides, the Brazilian army recruited their officers from the
middle classes, and advancement had not been dependent of social connections and
money. Thus, the Gracies’ lavish lifestyle and social pretensions were not appealing for
austere army officers.
Lastly, it is symptomatic that the Gracies and Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s presence in the
media vanished in the 1960s and 1970s. Kodokan judo in the 1960s dominated the spaces
reserved for martial arts. Only in the 1970s karate started enjoying popularity among
martial arts aficionados in Brazil.505
In the late 1950s, the Gracies inspired local artists to create characters with
nationalist appeal to counterbalance the U.S. comic book industry of comics. In 1969, the
Brasil-America comic books (EBAL) owned by the Jewish-Russian immigrant Adolfo
Aizen, launched the character “O Judoka” (The judo player).506 Floriano Hermeto
recreated in Brazil the character based on the “Judo-Master” published by the American
Charlton Comics. The comic book published from 1969 to 1973 became a movie in
1972.The parody starred by the male beauty pageant Pedro Aguinagua and by the soapopera actress Elizângela, met relative success since it was distributed by Brazil’s most
important movie studio at the time. The main actor’s performance was a fiasco, since he
had no experience in martial arts and his only credential was the title of “the most
beautiful man in Brazil.”507 The success met by the character “O Judoka” coincided with
transformation of the military regime in a full swing dictatorship with its own version of
Survey conducted from 1963 to late 1970s in the two Rio’s newspapers, “O Globo” and “Jornal do
Brasil” confirmed this assertive. The Gracies and their Brazilian jiu-jitsu have vanished from media and
they are replaced respectively by judo and karate.
506
John A. Lent, Cartooning in Latin America, (Cresskill: Hampton Press, 2005), 7.
507
Francisco Uchoa, "O Judoka," accessed May 11, 2010, http://planetamongo.worldpress.com./
505
199
the “years of lead.”508 The cartoon represents the popularity and prestige achieved by
Kodokan judo in Brazil through the influence of the United States.
Figure 77: On the left the cover of “The Judoka.” “Presenting the Brazilian champion of comic books.
Who is he? Where he came from? Who was his master?” On the right, the promotional poster of the film:
“Don’t be scared! We are shooting scenes of “The Judoka.” Please, help us: Don’t look to the camera, don’t
call the police (they know we are here), act naturally and watch the movie! Thank you, the crew” The
comic book’s character was Japanese and the movie star was a white Brazilian. Source: Um Blog no
Planeta Mongo, 2011509
.
The social breakthrough: Middle class Brazilian jiu-jitsu and
hybridization
In the early 1970s, the military rule reached a dialectical point of transition. It
turned into a repressive regime enforcing censorship, exercising harsh repression against
its opponents through the implementation of authoritarian political decrees.510 Yet the
508
Alexandre Valenca Alves Barbosa, "Histórias Em Quadrinhos Sobre a História Do Brasil Na Década De
50 ", M.A. Thesis, Universidade de Sao Paulo, 2006, 190.
509
Francisco Uchoa, "O Judoka," accessed May 11, 2010, http://planetamongo.worldpress.com./categoryquadrinhos/ebal/o-judoka./
510
In 1968, upon the imposition of the “Institutional Act no 5” Brazil became a full-fledge authoritarian
regime.
200
regime had considerable support thanks to feats such winning the FIFA Soccer World
Cup in Mexico in 1970, and the accomplishments of the “economic miracle.”511
Following Hélio Gracie’s retirement from public fights in 1955, Carlson became
the most important member of the clan in activity teaching jiu-jitsu in the Gracie’s dojo
in downtown and fighting his family’s adversaries in prizefighting performances.512 In
the early 1970s, Carlson Gracie, opened his first dojo in the neighborhood of Copacabana
and thereafter he had his own independent operation
Carlson was in many ways the antithesis of his uncle Hélio, which reflected on his
jiu-jitsu teaching philosophy and consequently, in what type of clientele he targeted.
Furthermore, unlike his father Carlos, Carlson had no patriarchal ambitions concerning
the expansion of the clan. Despite his ideological involvement with the populist left in the
1960s, he was not a political militant. Carlson was once an outstanding professional
fighter, but over the time, he became a colorful individual who cultivated traits based on
the beach culture of the typical Copacabana resident of his generation. This neighborhood
in the 1960s-1970s became a truly eclectic space thanks to the boom of urbanization and
sprawling of high-rise buildings. Its residents hailed from all social classes within a
hierarchy based on how close apartments were from the beach strip.513 Regardless of the
existence of a social and spatial hierarchy, the inhabitants of Copacabana shared a strong
511
Riordan Roett, Brazil : Politics in a Patrimonial Society, (Westport: Praeger, 1999), 12.
Marcelo Alonso, "Carlson Gracie: A Historia Do Homen Que Popularizou O Jiu-Jitsu No Brasil,"
Tatame, 2006, 20.
513
Richard G. Parker, Beneath the Equator : Cultures of Desire, Male Homosexuality, and Emerging Gay
Communities in Brazil, (New York: Routledge, 1999), 141. Green, Beyond Carnival : Male Homosexuality
in Twentieth-Century Brazil, 153-54.
512
201
ethos of beach culture. Carlson recruited his students from the sizable middle class of
Copacabana beach goers.
The relaxed atmosphere and reasonable prices contrasted starkly with the rigidity
and high prices of the Gracies’ dojo in downtown.514 Conversely, Carlson’s classes were
relatively free of ritualistic drills, despite the harshness of the training routine. Carlson
engineered a system based on his peculiar personality and winning charisma. Although
cockfighting was declared illegal in 1961, he remained a cockfighting aficionado his
entire life. Carlson sought inspiration to create a fighting system from his experience in
Rio de Janeiro’s underground cockfighting arenas. He revered potential Brazilian jiu-jitsu
champions for their aggression and their capacity to endure limitless punishment without
surrendering - like a pure-breed fighting gamecock. Carlson jiu-jitsu’s “deep play”
program equated humans to roosters through the extended metaphor of cockfighting.515
Despite his nearly anarchic method, Carlson was a skilled fighter who increased
his chances of producing champions by making Brazilian jiu-jitsu affordable to middle
class students. Finally, he was a highly competitive individual who sought every
opportunity to beat his rivals, particularly his uncle Hélio Gracie.
As a result of his peculiar coaching, Carlson’s students had the upper hand
whenever competing against his uncle’s pupils; but they simultaneously developed a
competitive dojo subculture that often ended in outbursts of public violence.
514
Prices were equivalent to US$40-50 per month for unlimited training.
John Holmes McDowell, Poetry and Violence : The Ballad Tradition of Mexico's Costa Chica, (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 2000), 49. See: Clifford Geertz, ""Deep Play' Notes on the Balinese Cock
Fight" " in The Interpretation of Cultures : Selected Essays (New York: Basic Books, 1975).
515
202
Figure 78: Carlson Gracie’s “middle class” team. Source: Blog Mano a Mano, 2011.516
Against a background of democratization and in the aftermath of the economic
downturn, Carlson’s dojo became the Mecca of jiu-jitsu practice in Rio de Janeiro.517 In
the 1970s, however, the Gracies remained sidetracked by the media mainstream. Only in
1973, after six years asking for the military’s blessing, did the Gracies inaugurate their
Brazilian jiu-jitsu association. The military since the 1930s directed sport associations in
all levels. During that time, the Gracies through their strong identification with the
regime were constantly at odds with state officials. Authoritarianism had changed,
however, and at the height of repression during President Garrastazu Medici’s term, the
grateful Gracies pledged allegiance to the president of the National Council of Sports
directed by the Air Force Brigadier Jerônimo Bastos. The latter, during the ceremony
informally disclosed his Amazonian background that he shared in common with Carlos
and Hélio. At the end of the ceremony, the brigadier acknowledged the importance of
preserving the Gracies as national symbols. The article concluded by regretting that
516
Fabio Quio Takao, "Desconstruindo O Lendário Carlson Gracie," accessed February 11, 2011,
http://gustavonoblat.blog.terra.com.br/2010/12/21/desconstruindo-o-lendario-carlson-gracie/.
517
Marcelo Alonso, "Carlson Gracie: A Historia Do Homen Que Popularizou O Jiu-Jitsu No Brasil,"
Tatame, 2006, 20-21.
203
“despite being introduced in 1916, the Brazilian jiu-jitsu had been recently deprecated in
favor of judo and karate”.518
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu’s relative isolation also took a toll on its technical
development. The creation of a local jiu-jitsu style occurred throughout the 1930s-1940s1950s was also a product of a combative exchange between it and other martial arts
styles, notably the Kodokan judo. From the 1960s onward, the social seclusion of
Brazilian jiu-jitsu within its upper class quarters kept it in relative isolation severed
previous technical interactions.
Another of Carlos Gracie’s son, Rolls, decisively
contributed to the process whereby the Brazilian style became a full fledge hybrid martial
art. Rolls Gracie was Carlson’s half brother and a product of a very short relationship
between Carlos and Claudia, an Italian flight attendant.519 Carlos, after experiencing a
great deal of social mobility through the practice of jiu-jitsu and his business connections
with Oscar Santa Maria no longer resorted to dark-skinned women of humble background
to enforce his procreative purposes. From 1950s onward, overlapping with the period in
which the Gracies’s attained greater public recognition and financial stability, Carlos
married Layr, a white woman hailing from a nouveau riche family with whom Carlos had
six children. Rolls Gracie thus was the only child Carlos conceived out of the wedlock
after he met Layr. 520
A generation junior to his half-brother Carlson, Rolls’ embodied the atmosphere
of the young bourgeois’s life style residing along the beach strip of Rio de Janeiro in the
518
"Jiu-Jitsu Obtem Federacao Apos Seis Anos De Luta," Jornal do Brasil, June 13 1973, 26.
Luca Atalla, "Rolls, a Lenda Da Familia Gracie," Gracie Magazine, 1999, 30.
520
Gracie, Carlos Gracie: O Criador De Uma Dinastia, passim.
519
204
1970s. In this enclave, contemporaneous with the period of repression and censorship,
intellectuals, artists and surf practitioners experienced an unusual degree of freedom.521
After the period of radicalization in the late 1960s, intellectuals and activists involved in
the resistance to the military rule renounced direct confrontation, generating a counter
cultural movement called desbunde.522 They opted for a countercultural lifestyle that
often affronted conservative sectors. This movement shared space next to a pier built on
the sandy beach of Ipanema with a booming upper class beach culture. Rolls was the
pioneer in the cultural symbiosis, bonding Brazilian jiu-jitsu and surf. He was a blue-eyed
and athletic individual with a carefree life style, bouncing back and forth between
beaches and dojos.
521
Fernanda Danelon, "Ipanema: Território Livre, Trip, April 13, 2009, accessed March 24, 2010,
http://revistatrip.uol.com.br/print.php?cont_id=28112.
522
Marcos Napolitano, Cultura Brasileira: Utopia E Massificação (1950 - 1980), (Sao Paulo: Contexto,
2001), 81-83.
205
Figure 79: Rolls (left) and Carlson (right) half-brothers performing martial art cross training. Source:
Gracie Magazine, 1999.523
Rolls shared with Carlson the dojo located in Copacabana and had started a
comprehensive research of other martial arts disciplines. It led him to incorporate new
techniques into the core of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. One of the most emblematic moves that
Rolls borrowed from Kodokan judo was the ground technique called Sankaku- Jime
(triangle choke).524 Rolls adopted a classical technique from the canon of jiu-jitsu fallen
into disuse due the modern rules of judo tournaments. This technique perfected over the
time combined with Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s emphasis on grounding game hallmarked the
process of jiu-jitsu’s hybridization.
523
524
Atalla, "Rolls, a Lenda Da Familia Gracie," 35.
Kyuzo Mifune, Canon of Judo: Principle and Technique, (Tokyo: Seibundo-Shinkosha, 1960), 154.
206
Figure 80: Sankaku-Jime (triangle choke). This old Japanese technique hallmarks the process of
modernization underwent by Brazilian jiu-jitsu in 1970s-1980s. Source: deviantart.com, 2011.525
Rolls also mastered other martial arts, such as Olympic wrestling and Russian
Sambo. The latter is a martial arts system created in the1930s that evolved from Japanese
jiu-jitsu. The Soviet establishment encouraged Sambo practice in order to provide the
new “homo sovieticus” with a distinctive combat sport.526 Rolls participated successfully
in Sambo tournaments held in California during the 1970s, envisioning the United States
as a potential market for the Brazilian jiu-jitsu.
525
Strutsi, "Triangle Choke," accessed October 13, 2011, http://strutsi.deviantart.com/art/Triangle-choke153973408.
526
Green, Martial Arts of the World : An Encyclopedia, 507.
207
Figure 81: Rolls (right) and Rickson (left) training Russian Sambo under Hélio’s supervision. Source:
Gracie Magazine, 1999.527
Figure 82: Rolls Gracie (left). Source: Gracie Magazine, 1999.528 (right) “Ipanema Pier” in the 1970s:
counterculture and dictatorship.
In the 1980s, the military power was fading and former politicians returned from
exile after the passing of the bill of amnesty in 1979. Among those, Leonel Brizola, the
527
528
Atalla, "Rolls, a Lenda Da Familia Gracie," 35.
Ibid.
208
aforementioned leftist populist leader won the election to become governor of Rio de
Janeiro in 1982. Brizola had been the reason for Carlson and Robson Gracie’s troubles
with the military regime. Nonetheless, he was back ruling the second most important
state of the Brazilian federation. For the Gracies, it meant not only in symbolic terms, but
also in concrete ones, the end of their isolation during the military rule. Following his
inauguration Brizola appointed Robson Gracie head of a state agency related to sports.
After the quiet revolution initiated by Carlson and Rolls in the 1970s, Brazilian jiu-jitsu
underwent an unprecedented process of popularization in the 1980s.
Populist rule in Rio de Janeiro had to cope with long-term structural problems
such as endemic social inequality and urban violence. In the 1980s, the military retreated
to the army barracks and dismantled their repressive apparatus. As urban violence
spiraled, the upper classes sought refuge behind walled condominiums that stretched
along Rio’s shoreline. These new urban spaces, as Richard Parker has observed, were
“modeled on that of the United States, and especially on an image of American life in
Southern California.”529 Similar to traditional areas of the Rio’s Zona Sul, the new upper
class neighborhoods such as the one called Barra da Tijuca adopted Brazilian jiu-jitsu as
a martial art of choice. Following the demographic expansion, the number of Brazilian
jiu-jitsu dojos mushroomed into these bourgeois safe havens. The dissemination of
Brazilian jiu-jitsu among middle class practitioners became associated with the trendy
lifestyle of the new Gracie generation. The appealing Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s way of life in
the1980's combined naturalist dietary habits, beach culture and martial practice without
529
Parker, Beneath the Equator : Cultures of Desire, Male Homosexuality, and Emerging Gay
Communities in Brazil, 141.
209
the rigidness of Asian disciplines and provided the practitioners with a great instrument
to enhance their masculine performances in the public sphere.530
In the 1980s and the 1990s, Brazilian jiu-jitsu was also directly associated with
upper class hooliganism. The media both celebrated and desecrated the booming martial
art. The Gracies undeniably played an ambiguous role in this process. Although, while
condemning violence through a standardized public discourse, they often were caught out
by their acts and statements. Hélio Gracie, then one of the heads of the clan, defined for
example homosexuality as a manifestation of “weakness and a disease.” He said,
however, “he could not condemn anybody for being weak or for their defects.” Further,
Hélio stated that “love is a manifestation of weakness and that he finds the ordinary man
fragile as a child.”531 Or Hélio’s remarks on violence:
I am fully conscious of my capacity of being violent. I am the worst
person I have ever seen. I put myself in the criminal’s shoes and I know
that I could do better than he could. Therefore, I know I am bad news; I
am a wolf in sheep’s clothes.532
Homophobic remarks did not divide the Gracies. Robson and Carlson, despite their
progressive political views, openly or veiled, shared their uncle’s opinion on issues of
manhood.533
The widespread violence involving Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners overlapped
with an overall increase of criminality in Rio and other Brazilian urban centers in the
530
Varda Burstyn, The Rites of Men : Manhood, Politics, and the Culture of Sport, (Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1999), 209.
531
Paulo Lima, "Devil Inside," Trip, November 1997, accessed May 20, 2010, http://revistatrip.uol.com.br.
532
Almeida, "O Velho Samurai," 13.
533
Renato Fagundes, “Os Gracie: A Familia Vale-Tudo,” Marie Claire, Novembro 2000, accessed July 18,
2010, http://marieclaire.globo.com/edic/ed116/rep_gracie.htm.
210
wake of the economic crisis that followed the “economic miracle” of the 1970s.
Reflecting the consequences of long-established patterns of inequality, in the 1980s, new
walled neighborhoods in Rio were built as a consequence of the militarization of urban
spaces.534 This obsession with security and social seclusion deepened socio-spatial
divisions in Brazilian cities. As Teresa Caldeira observed, “there is a law for mortal
people, but not for Alphaville residents.”535 This was true for São Paulo and for the
generation of upper-middle class Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s practitioners raised in the socially
secluded enclaves of Rio de Janeiro.
The case of Roger Gracie perhaps illustrates the influence of Hélio Gracie’s
discourse on the new Gracies’ generation. The following story is based on an article
published by the women’s magazine Marie Claire in November of 2000 and by the major
newspapers in Rio and São Paulo. Roger, Carlos’ grandchild through the maternal line,
became Brazilian jiu-jitsu world champion in the tournament held in Rio in 2000. Three
days later, he along with two other martial artists, he attacked a group of transvestites in
Copacabana with paintball guns and baseball bats. Physical assault and other forms of
violence against homosexuals along the beach perpetrated by Brazilian jiu-jitsu
practitioners were common, but this time the police arrested the aggressors on the spot.
The aggressors released on bail left the police station joking about the whole affair.
Roger’s mother learned about her son’s wrongdoing through the TV news and she said
Teresa Pires do Rio Caldeira, Cit o alls Cri e, egregation, and Citizenshi in
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 62, 78, 253.
535
Mike Davis, Planet of Slums, (London: Verso, 2006), 118.
534
o Paulo,
211
she encouraged Roger to meet with the victims and apologize. He refused to do so. In
addition, he never returned to the police station or appeared in court.
Instead, his mother went alone to the police station to apologize and reach a
settlement with the victims. Later she complained to the magazine: “the Brazilian jiu-jitsu
environment became excessively macho and a place where practitioners cultivated
questionable values.”536 Curiously, Reila’s behavior echoed the same values that she
sought to criticize. After all, the environment surrounding Brazilian jiu-jitsu was no
different from the past, since the Gracies expressed their sexist bias in crude terms in
several occasions.
Reila’s attitude seems to confirm the existence of a hierarchy deeply rooted in
social inequality, since she used her influence to conciliate the authorities and the victims
on behalf of her son. This episode corroborates the ideas of João Fragoso and Manolo
Florentino, who have argued that social inequalities papered over in this period on the
understanding that economic growth in the previous decades would eventually create a
more egalitarian society. In the wake of economic stagnation in the 1980s and a
subsequent spiral of violence, this social pact collapsed and the Brazilian elite responded
by explicitly reinforcing a hierarchy based on social-economic inequality.537
Renato Fagundes, “Os Gracie: A Familia Vale-Tudo,” Marie Claire, Novembro 2000, accessed July 18,
2010, http://marieclaire.globo.com/edic/ed116/rep_gracie.htm.
537
João Luís Ribeiro Fragoso e Manolo Florentino, O Arcaísmo Como Projeto : Mercado Atlântico,
Sociedade Agrária E Elite Mercantil Em Uma Economia Colonial Tardia : Rio De Janeiro, C.1790C.1840, (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2001), 237.
536
212
In another interview, Roger’s mother expressed her sentiments the following way:
“My son is not a delinquent. It was only a faux pas.”538 As Roberto Da Matta has
observed, “delinquency” applied only to people without power or status in a patriarchal
order in Brazil.539 Roger’s mother remarks exposed the complex drama of a fractured
society. The elites could transgress the law but they were never delinquents, a perspective
that protected them but delivered outstanding levels of violence against minorities.540
Acts of random violence involving Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners multiplied
throughout the 1980s and 1990s. They became so persistent that at some point the martial
art became associated with an endemic subculture of violence. One of the most
emblematic episodes of this endemic process of violence was the turf war fought between
Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners and wrestlers in the late 1980s in the streets of Rio de
Janeiro. Confrontations pitting these rival gangs of martial artists became commonplace
and a brawl fought on a crowded beach was the acme of previous duels in similar
fashion.
The video shows Rickson Gracie, after a short verbal exchange, slapping his
opponent in the face and unleashing a savage attack which ended up where the tide
breaks. The crowd watches the scene closely, but without interfering since most of them
538
"Pais De Lutadores De Jiu-Jitsu Pedem Desculpas Aos Tres Travestis Agredidos," Folha de São Paulo,
August 5 2000, C8.
539
Robert M. Levine, "How Brazil Works," in The Brazil Reader : History, Culture, Politics, ed. Robert M.
Levine and John J. Crocitti (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), 406.
540
Luis Mott, "Estratégias Para a Promoção Dos Direitos Humanos Dos Homossexuais No Brasil,” Centro
de Midia Independente Brasil, February 2002, accessed May 8 2011, http://brasil.indymidia.org/pt/blue/
2002/02/18020.shtml.
213
knew that was a Gracie affair.541 Rickson, together with his cousin Rolls, divided his time
between surfing and jiu-jitsu. Rickson emerged as the clannish champion in the 1980s
and his hyper masculine image and performance was instrumental in popularizing
Brazilian jiu-jitsu. The several violent confrontations and acts of hooliganism made the
headlines and provoked brief debates on the Gracie’s subculture or about measures to
prevent such outbursts of violence. Finally, in 1991 sponsored by the largest media
conglomerate of the day, Globo Organizations (Organizações Globo), scheduled three
bouts pitting wrestlers and Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners in a suburban middle class
country club. The spectacle broadcasted on national television and had as special guests
the Rio de Janeiro Mayor Marcello Alencar and local celebrities. Upon his arrival at the
club, the mayor witnessing the event’s lack of organization exclaimed: “What a mess!”
The Jornal do Brasil, in an article entitled "Jiu-Jitsu Defeats Wrestling: night of brawling
at Grajaú Country Club” described the event:
Muscular and well-dressed youth arrived in fancy cars. Parents with
children had a hard time navigating through the crowd to buy tickets.
Spectators grew agitated by the presence of soap-opera actors and other
celebrities. The bloodshed finally began. In the first fight, Wallid
Ismail, a Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioner defeated the wrestler Eugenio
Tadeu. In all bouts that evening, the referrers and fighters totally
ignored the rules pre-established by Rio’s jiu-jitsu federation.542
The fights became unruly brawls, sometimes involving the spectators, in which Brazilian
jiu-jitsu’s middle class hooligans had the upper hand, inside and outside the ring.
“Rickson vs Hugo Duarte,” YouTube video, 8:58, posted by “hugofgarciach1,” September 5 2010,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AEUC39Dum20.
542
"Jiu-Jitsu Derrota Luta Livre: Noite De Pancadaria No Grajau Faz Lembrar O Velho Circo Romano,"
Jornal do Brasil, September 2 1991 14. “Wallid vs Eugenio Tadeu parte 1,” YouTube video, 7:23,
uploaded by “augustoqm5,” March 21 2007, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8MMCpmtAng.
541
214
Afterwards, acknowledging the public fiasco, the television network decided to suspend
sponsorship of prizefighting. In any event, after twenty-seven years, the Gracies and
Brazilian jiu-jitsu were back in the limelight.
Figure 83: The Palestinian-Brazilian Wallid Ismail (top) versus the Afro-Brazilian Eugenio Tadeu
(bottom): Graphic violence on prime time TV. Source: Fight Magazine, 2011.543
Immigration and globalization: exporting violence “made in Brazil”
In the mid-1980s, U.S. fashion photographer, writer and filmmaker Bruce Weber
went to Rio de Janeiro to photograph the sensuality of Brazilian bodies. Weber soon
came across Rickson Gracie and his clan. As a result, the Gracies dominated Weber’s
book, in which the author offered a graphic depiction of local sexuality and eroticism.
They generously opened their family archives showing their long-time status as upper
class icons since the 1930s. The snapshots captured intimate family gatherings, bodies
543
Kelly Crigger, "Back to Brazil: The UFC Returns to Its Roots," accessed September 7, 2011,
http://mag.fightmagazine.com/back-to-brazil-2104/.
215
covered with blood after wild matches, and even rare moments of the Gracies’ women
practicing jiu-jitsu considering their low-profile status within their clannish hierarchy.
Bruce Weber’s discovery of the Gracies coincided with Brazilian jiu-jitsu great
visibility and an explosion of a cultural trend associated with beach lifestyle. In addition,
the 1980s was the first time a significant number of Brazilians left the country to settle
abroad. Throughout the twentieth century Brazil had been a destination for millions of
immigrants from Europe, Japan and Middle East. Nevertheless, in the1980s, after a
decade of persistent economic recession and political delusion, “optimism was in short
supply in Brazil.”544
Figure 84: “He has his own look. Not menacing but devoid of emotion. The blankness of the supremely
confident. Rickson is 29, as muscular as a bodybuilder, with a Marine's crew cut, the high cheekbones of an
Inca Indian and a square jaw. If Rorion is amiably handsome, Rickson is devastatingly handsome.545
Source: (picture) O Rio de Janeiro, 1986. 546
544
545
"Optimism Is in Short Supply in Brazil," Financial Times, 1996, 6.
Bruce Weber, O Rio De Janeiro : A Photographic Journal, (New York: Knopf, 1986), 50.
546
216
The Gracies like scores of Brazilians sought to fulfill their dreams in the United
States. Rorion, Hélio’s eldest son, moved to California in 1979 determined to spread the
Gracie’s word. Nurturing a strong beach culture ethos, bringing with him a new martial
arts system and his family penchant for performance, Rorion settled in Southern
California looking to recreate an American version of Rio de Janeiro.
By publishing in his book O Rio de Janeiro in the Unites States in 1986 Bruce
Weber captured the attention of Playboy Magazine. This gave Rorion the avidly sought
breakthrough in the 1980s. Furthermore, by the late 1980s, Rorion and his brothers had
already earned a “tough” reputation in Southern California through their growing number
of students at his garage-dojo and by defeating local fighters in bloody no-holds-barred
performances fought behind closed doors.547 In 1989, Rorion gave a lengthy interview to
Pat Jordan. The article affirmed in its opening remarks:
The toughest man in the United States holds no official titles and has
had only one fight in years. He lives with his pregnant wife and four
children, three small sons and a baby daughter, in a modest ranch house
on a tidy little street of similar homes in Torrance, California. He is 37,
tall and skinny at 6'2", 165 pounds, and he does not look very tough.
He looks more like Tom Selleck than like Mr. T. He is dark and
handsome like Selleck, with wavy black hair, a trim mustache and a
charming, self-deprecating smile.548
In the 1980s, the iconic magazine once identified with the sexual revolution during the
1960s, came under attack from conservative forces after the inauguration of Ronald
Reagan. Moreover, even within liberal circles, the magazine came to represent an
anachronism vis-à-vis the sexual liberation in the 1980s. In the 1980s, the magazine’s
547
Clyde Gentry, No Holds Barred : Ultimate Fighting and the Martial Arts Revolution, (Lytham: Milo
Books, 2002), 37.
548
Jordan, "Bad."
217
sales dropped sharply, but under new management by the mid-1980s, the magazine
breathed new life into the brand.549 The article advertised Rorion as an ordinary
individual and a family man, however, the use of TV stars of the day to draw parallels is
noteworthy. Rorion, over the years, managed to penetrate in Hollywood and get closer to
macho movie stars like Chuck Norris. His most accomplished performance was
choreographing fight scenes for Mel Gibson in the first movie of the series “Lethal
Weapon” in 1986.550 Rorion further declared that he came to the United States because he
thought that there he would find a “fertile land to grow the practice of Brazilian jiujitsu.”551 He justified it on the grounds that in “America, men are bigger and stronger than
Brazilians; therefore, they could become a superior race of jiu-jitsu warriors.”552 Besides,
he maintained that “Americans are tired of their image as feminist wimps.”553 The
popularity of action movie stars, some of them already associated with the Gracies,
proved this. The Gracies, Rorion concluded, embodied the real version of this type of
macho warrior. “The only difference is that the Gracies do not need bazookas and
guns.”554 As Susan Jefford had suggested, the Regan’s administration was able to promote
its macho projects through the pervasive support of the American film industry.555 The
political climate in the United States seemed to favor Rorion’s archetype of “tough guy”
portrayed in the interview. Moreover, his business association with movie stars like
549
Susan Gunelius, Building Brand Value the Playboy Way, (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 102.
Gentry, No Holds Barred : Ultimate Fighting and the Martial Arts Revolution, 36.
551
Jordan, "Bad."
552
Ibid.
553
Ibid.
554
Ibid.
555
Susan Jeffords, Hard Bodies : Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era, (New Brunswick: Rutgers
University Press, 1994), 3.
550
218
Chuck Norris made Brazilian jiu-jitsu appealing for Americans promoting masculine and
martial behavior undermined during Jimmy Carter’s administration. According to Suzan
Jeffords, “Jimmy Carter’s attention to Rosalynn Carter’s advice on political matters and
with his apparent indecisiveness on foreign policy issues led some openly to characterize
him as a feminine president.”556
Figure 85: Rorion Gracie and his “lethal weapon” disciple. Source: Gracie Academy, 2011.557
Another event in 1991 was also critical to understand the process by which
Rorion Gracie promoted Brazilian jiu-jitsu in the United States. The savage beating of the
African-American Rodney King by officers of the Los Angeles Police Department and
the subsequent riot created an unexpected niche for the Gracies. In the aftermath of the
crisis that followed this event, the Los Angeles police called on martial arts specialists,
including Rorion Gracie, to help them devise and improve their strategies of law
enforcement.558 Unlike others systems of modern martial arts originated in ancient
556
Ibid.
Brajitsu, "Gracie Jiu Jitsu Academy "
558
Gentry, No Holds Barred : Ultimate Fighting and the Martial Arts Revolution, 63
557
219
warfare and later transformed into sport, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Rorion argued, was forged in
twentieth-century violence of the Rio de Janeiro streets. The reason for the Gracies’
advantage over other specialists in violence contracted by the Los Angeles Police
Department was because they claimed to possess a system tested over time in conditions
similar to those found in the streets of Los Angeles.559
After sudden publicity in the widely circulated Playboy Magazine, Rorion met Art
Davies, a Brooklyn-born entrepreneur based in southern California. In 1991, they
produced together a two-video series entitled “Gracie in Action.”560 The videos presented
the Gracie’s saga of violence by chronologically organizing bloody matches and street
fights in Brazil, until recent challenges in the United States. Rorion described them
thoroughly, explaining to U.S. viewers his version of the tradition as invented by the
Gracies. He didactically outlined the principles of Brazilian jiu-jitsu while graphic
footage showed the Gracies in action in the arenas, beaches and streets of Rio de
Janeiro.561
Art Davies realized the market potential for this exotic combat sport supported by
the Gracie’s family aura. At this point, the Gracies had created a mix of street fighting
with a primitive form of blood-sport performance by challenging martial artists from
other disciplines. The Gracies offered prize money to attract challengers who - unaware
of the Gracie fighting system - were invariably defeated. In partnership with Art Davies,
559
Jordan, "Bad."
Gracie jiu-jitsu in Action, produced by Rorion Gracie ( Torrance, CA: Brajitsu Inc., 1991), DVD.
561
Goodman, Choke.
560
220
Rorion conceived the format for the “Ultimate Fighting Championship.”562 Within the
ring, martial artists affiliated to different styles would confront each other until one
emerged victorious. The idea coincided with the desire of U.S. media entrepreneurs to
find new avenues for shows in a pay-per-view format.563 In this context, the Gracies
profited from their association with violent physical performances. Following their
experience in such spectacles, Rorion drafted his youngest half-brother Royce to
represent the family in the first UFC. He certainly expected to create a “David & Goliath”
type of confrontation. Royce was also more manageable than his strong-willed older
brother Rickson. In any event, muscular individuals had always been prey for the Gracies
when they wanted to prove the superiority of their technique over brute force. The
strategy paid off, and the Gracie underdog mesmerized American audiences.564 The first
edition of the UFC broadcast on pay-per-view sent shockwaves throughout the United
States. For decades, East Asian martial arts have shaped American conceptions of martial
arts, but the Brazilian combat sport was essentially a grappling style fought on the ground
and unlike its East Asian counterparts, did not resort to plastic acrobatic moves. The
Gracies had revolutionized the martial arts by proving that the one underneath could in
fact win a fight. Nothing could be more emblematic than the fact that these Latin
American immigrants had the ability to defeat their physically larger Americans hosts
and their highly skilled East Asian rivals. In the following two editions of the UFC,
John Milius, screenwriter, director and producer, designed the octagonal-shaped arena. The “Ultimate
Fighting Championship” hereafter referred to by the acronym UFC.
563
Gentry, No Holds Barred : Ultimate Fighting and the Martial Arts Revolution, 40.
564
Royce Gracie was not an accomplished practitioner before arriving in the United States. Gentry, No
Holds Barred : Ultimate Fighting and the Martial Arts Revolution, 44.
562
221
Royce repeated his performance by defeating mighty rivals from various martial arts
affiliations.565
In 1995, after disagreements with his associates, Rorion sold his share in the UFC,
ending his business association with the show. The UFC format faced mounting pressure
in the United States to change its rules and growing political opposition. Several states
banned the event. The Republican senator John McCain labeled the UFC as “human
cockfighting” and started a crusade against the show.566 For the Gracies, the UFC was
only an instrument to promote their martial art system.567 At this point, the other
members of the Gracie family left Brazil to settle in Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s new frontier. In
the early 1990s, Brazilian immigration in general had been increasing as a result of the
persistent economic crisis and political disappointment. For the first time since the
military coup in 1964, Brazilians elected a president through popular vote. Fernando
Collor de Mello, inaugurated in 1990, promised to fight old-fashioned politics, combat
corruption and open the country’s economy to global markets. He took advantage of his
young, handsome and athletic figure to embody change and modernization.568 Only two
years later, however, the Brazilian Congress impeached him in the wake of scandals and
corruption. This negative situation in Brazil contrasted sharply with the increasing
visibility of Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners in the United States. A nearly constant
565
Royce won the three first versions of the Ultimate Fighting Championship held respectively in Denver
(CO) and Charlotte (NC).
566
David Plotz, "Fight Clubbed," Slate accessed May 12, 2010,
http://www.slate.com/articles/briefing/articles/1999/11/fight_clubbed.html.
567
Gentry, No Holds Barred : Ultimate Fighting and the Martial Arts Revolution, 90.
568
Fernando Collor de Mello was a karate black belt.
222
cultural and demographic flow from Brazil to the United States included a peculiar
diaspora of martial artists.
Figure 86: Fernando Collor performing a Karate (Takudai style) routine with his Japanese master, Tetsuma
Higashino. Source: Karateca.net, 2010.569
One of the most important aspects in Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s territorialization in the
United States was its attachment to U.S. police and military forces. Brazilian jiu-jitsu
proved very effective as an instrument to protect police officers and restrain violent
suspects. Chris Le Blanc, a law enforcement officer and instructor, has argued based on
statistics disclosed by the L.A.P.D. that a great percentage of violent altercations between
police and suspects end up on the ground. This made Brazilian jiu-jitsu, among other
martial arts, a powerful weapon for law enforcement agents. 570 Before long, the Gracies
also ventured into the vast complex of the U.S. military and national security agencies.
Global events around the world were drawing U.S. forces to engage in low-level conflicts
569
"Karateca.Net: Nosso Dojo Virtual Sandan," accessed June 1, 2010, http://www.karateca.net/.
Chris Leblanc, "Going to the Ground: Lessons from Law Enforcement," Journal of Non-Lethal
Combatives, January (2007), accessed April 13 2009, http://ejmas.com/.
570
223
against counter-insurgency movements and later into the war on terror. The Gracies,
along with other Brazilian practitioners, instructed the Rangers, Marines and other elite
units, and even delivered seminars for troops in Iraq.571 The U.S. military was not only
using martial arts as a form of combat. In 1994, after the early repercussions of the UFC,
the U.S. Rangers adopted Brazilian jiu-jitsu to “teach self-confidence.” Most importantly,
however, Brazilian jiu-jitsu could “instill confidence and a warrior spirit in the minds of
new recruits.”572 The Gracies were able to introduce their martial art and link their ethos
to U.S. nationalism as they did in Brazil. Regardless of the differences between Brazil
and the United States, it is undeniable that they successfully promoted Brazilian jiu-jitsu
using similar strategies in both countries.
To Japan and beyond
The Gracies at first closed ranks against their opponents in the United States and
concentrated efforts to spread their martial art gospel. Before long, however, inter-clan
rivalries proved to be irreconcilable. In the United States, Rorion emerged as a new
family patriarch, which led to accentuated sibling rivalries. He sidelined his younger
brother Rickson, arguably the best fighter in the family, in the UFC affair. The latter then
turned to Japan to find his own niche in a growing market for prizefighting in that
country. The arrival or return of Brazilian jiu-jitsu to its cultural matrix after almost a
century was strongly symbolic. It was not the only Japanese diasporic trend from Brazil
571
572
"U.S. Army General Summons the Gracies" accessed March 22, 2009, http//www. gracieacademy.com.
Green, Martial Arts of the World : An Encyclopedia, 55.
224
returning to its homeland. Japanese-Brazilians, the dekasegi, were coming to Japan to
work almost a hundred years after the arrival of their forefathers in Brazil. The Gracies,
by contrast, were not ordinary immigrants and came to Japan to prove the superiority of
their hybrid martial art. Rickson fought and defeated three opponents in a single night in
the "Japan Open” in 1994. After this triumph, the Black Belt Magazine called Rickson
ironically “the other Gracie.” This certainly reflects the triumph of his younger and less
talented brother in America. Afterwards, however, Rickson won over Japanese
audiences.573
The documentary titled Choke shows Rickson’s participation in the 1995 edition
of The Japan Open. Scenes of the Gracies’ everyday life showed viewers their
idiosyncratic lifestyle in which all family members learn since childhood to live up to
their family iconic status. Toward the end, the footage display Rickson defeating his
rivals in Japan with juxtaposed images showing the tense dialogues in the Gracies’ dressroom. The Japanese wrestler Kimura Koichiro, in a post-fight interview for the
documentary, gave an emotional account of his fighting experience with Rickson Gracie:
I am glad I had a chance to fight him. I do not mean to cry, but he is a
fighter I really want to meet. I feel lucky even to have had a chance. I
had hoped to win the first fight in order to be able to fight Rickson.
That confidence that Gracie has because he is a champion gives him
such superiority (sic). Now, I understand the enormous depth of Gracie
jiu-jitsu. It is not simply a blend of wrestling and judo. His jiu-jitsu is
really a new discipline that I want to understand as much as I can.
Therefore, I will study Gracie jiu-jitsu. Please, leave me alone now.574
The Gracies brought to Japan a hybrid martial art rooted in Meiji modernization. For
Japanese living in the late twentieth century, immigration is only an echo of a remote
573
574
Arne F. Soldwedel, "Other Gracie Victorious at Tourney in Japan," Black Belt, 1994, 77.
. Goodman, Choke.
225
past. The Gracies in Japan, contrary to their long resistance to certain aspects of Japanese
tradition, behaved accordingly. Rickson deliberated showcased a Japanese version of the
Gracies performance by bowing to opponents and audience.575 His performances
successfully appealed to the Japanese sense of nostalgia for their immigrant culture and
heritage.576 Finally, hardly anything could match the symbolism of the revival of the
medieval term “jiu-jitsu” by the Gracies. The term had faded after the Meiji under the
hegemonic sweep of the modern style judo and returned to Japan with the exotic epithet
“Brazilian.”
Figure 87: Rickson Gracie’s representations in Japan. Source: Pride, 2010.577
Contemporaneous to the Gracies’ achievements in the United States and Japan,
the Brazilian hybrid spread on a truly planetary scale. Its globalization took Brazilian jiujitsu practitioners beyond predictable destinations in Europe and Latin America. An
example of the scope of this globalization is Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s popularity in the Arab
575
Bowing was one of the first aspects of Japanese to be eradicated in the Brazilian jiu-jitsu in the 1930s.
Carol Gluck, "The Invention of Edo," in Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan, ed.
Stephen Vlastos (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 282.
577
“The History of MMA," accessed October 23, 2011, http//:www.mmapast.wordpress.com.
576
226
Emirates. In the early 1990s, Sheikh Tahnoon Bin Zayed al-Nahyan, a high profile
member of the royal family from Abu Dhabi, began to practice Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Like
many other crowned heads from the Middle East, his rites of passage included studies in
the United States. There, he learned about the improvised garage-dojos in San Diego after
the first UFC and anonymously enrolled in one. As a result, he passionately introduced
and promoted the Brazilian martial arts in his country and beyond. Under his patronage,
Brazilian jiu-jitsu reached the status of a national sport, which became mandatory in
school curriculums and members of the ruling family actively participated in the martial
arts organization and tournaments. A steady flow of Brazilian martial artists came to Abu
Dhabi to teach and instruct the Emirate’s Special Forces. A Brazilian magazine
specialized in martial arts called it the “petro-jitsu revolution.”578
The transformation of Brazilian jiu-jitsu into a global, professionally structured
and business-oriented enterprise, contrasted strongly with its poorly organized system in
Brazil. Thus a Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s organizational apparatus, highly professional and
efficient, gave birth to transnational entities mainly based in Rio de Janeiro and
California with branches established around the world. Since 2007, the World Brazilian
jiu-jitsu championship usually held in Rio de Janeiro has moved to Long Beach,
California. As a result, the Gracies and other Brazilians became truly transnational
entrepreneurs.579 In addition, the Gracies’ combat sports industry that evolved from the
Ultimate Fighting Championship in 1993 has become a global outlet for violence “made
578
Eduardo Ferreira, "A Revolucao Do Petro-Jitsu," Tatame, June 2009, 30-42
Carlos Gracie Junior presides the “Brazilian jiu-jitsu Federation” headquartered in Rio de Janeiro.
http://www.cbjj.com.br/home.htm
579
227
in Brazil.” The show conceived by Art Davies and Rorion Grace in 1993 evolved into a
multibillion dollar
Las Vegas-based enterprise in which the Gracies are still
influential.580 Other versions, based on this model emerged in the U.S., Europe, Japan
and Brazil.
The spread of Brazilian jiu-jitsu in the United States and later throughout the
world is an opportunity to reflect upon a complex phenomenon involving cultural
expansion, the creation of ethnoscapes and globalization. Arjun Appadurai has
commented on transnational movements of martial arts:
The transnational movements of martial arts particularly through Asia,
as mediated by the Hollywood and Hong Kong film industries is a rich
illustration of the ways long-standing martial arts traditions,
reformulated to meet the fantasies of contemporary (sometimes
lumpen) youth populations, create new cultures of masculinity and
violence, which are in turn the fuel for increased violence in national
and international politics.581
The globalization of Brazilian jiu-jitsu was mostly a transnational movement that
occurred due to the agency of the Gracies. In the United States, Japan, and elsewhere
coincided with Brazilian immigration. In both cases, however, they became a repository
of a cultural commodity in demand, which placed them in a special position comparable
to other high-status migrant workers.582 In addition, unlike its Asian counterparts,
Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s breakthrough in the United States was not a product of film industry
580
Miller, "Ultimate Cash Machine: The Fertitta Brothers Built a Violent Fight Club into a Billion-Dollar
Sports Empire". The Sicilian-American brothers Frank and Lorenzo Fertitta own the UFC that is today
worth US $1 billon. In 2010, the Abu Dhabi’s government owned Flash Entertainment has bought a ten per
cent stake in the UFC. Josh Gross, "UFC's Abu Dhabi Connections Extend to Gracie Family," accessed
August 20, 2010, http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2010/writers/josh_gross/01/15/notes/index.html.
581
Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large : Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, (Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1996), 40-41.
582
Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners with good credentials obtain their working visa under the category of
extraordinary abilities.“O-1 Work Visa,” accessed July 12, 2010, http//:www.usimmigrationsupport.org.
228
marketing. To the contrary, its popularity created an entirely new niche explored by
American filmmakers.583 On the other hand, similar to the model proposed by Appadurai,
Brazilian jiu-jitsu met a specific demand for masculinity and violence in the 1980s in the
United States and a demand for nostalgia in Japan in the 1990s.
The Gracies, whom at first acted as cultural interlopers in a society marked by inequality,
managed to blend in other nationalist projects and moved into the global limelight as
transnational agents.
Figure 88: “We are thankful for the privilege of one more day of training.” Brazilian jiu-jitsu in Jordan,
Islamic aesthetics. Source: Gracie Magazine, 2009.584
583
584
I listed 41 “mixed martial” movies produced between 2003 and 2011.
"Agradecemos O Privilegio De Mais Um Dia De Treino," Gracie Magazine, November 2009, 23-24.
229
Figure 89: Brazilian jiu-jitsu in United Kingdom. EFN Sports, 2010.585
Figure 90: Brazilian jiu-jitsu, China: Cultural Revolution appeal. Haukis.com, 2010.586
585
586
"Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Competition ", accessed August 19, 2010, http://www.bjj.eu.com/.
"Shanghai Bjj," accessed August 23, 2010, http://haukis.com/2011_Shanghai_bjj.htm.
230
Figure 91: “One world one fight”. From national sport in Abu Dhabi to New Zealand. Source: Revista
Tatame, 2009.587
Figure 92: Diasporic return to Japan. Source: bjj-asia.com, 2010.588
Figure 93: Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s fever in Israel. Source: Gracie Magazine, 2010. 589
“One World, One Fight.” Tatame, May 2010, 66-67.
"Bjj Japan," accessed August 24, 2010, http://www.bjj-asia.com/.
589
Carlos Eduardo Ozorio, "Jiu-Jitsu Vira Febre Em Israel," Gracie Magazine, accessed August 29, 2010,
http://www.graciemag.com/pt/2010/08/%e2%80%9co-globo%e2%80%9d-destaca-jiu-jitsu-em-israel-comroyce-e-de-la-riva/.
587
588
231
Conclusion
Bringing Japanese jiu-jitsu to Brazil in the early 1900s was part of a
comprehensive set of innovations introduced by the Brazilian elite to promote
modernization in the early 1900s. The use of Japanese jiu-jitsu in the military soon
provoked reactions among groups of the local intelligentsia committed to Brazilian
nationalism still in its embryonic stages. As a result, confrontations between Capoeira
practitioners and Japanese jiu-jitsu martial artists emblematically represented the
beginning of a larger debate involving nationalism, race and identity.
Around the time of World War I, a group of individuals belonging to a branch of
a family of aristocrats living in the Brazilian frontier picked up the gauntlet of
modernization. The Gracies, whose existing world collapsed under pressure of forces
associated with modernization, embraced the practice of Japanese jiu-jitsu. Thereafter
their relationship with this martial art became an example of how the Brazilian elite
coped with modernization. The Gracies kept the innovation out of the reach of ordinary
Brazilians and shared its benefits with their peers. The only shared their martial arts
knowledge outside their elitist circles to instruct agents of repression of an authoritarian
state in the making.
Analyzing the inroads made by Japanese jiu-jitsu in Brazil attests to a particular
mix of gentrification and jiu-jitsu. The introduction of jiu-jitsu to educate emergent urban
middle sectors together with the beginning of Japanese immigration would lead this
martial art to become a Nikkei combat sport. The Gracies, however, diverted jiu-jitsu
232
entirely from its intended purpose by launching two processes. First, they aimed to teach
jiu-jitsu exclusively for their upper class peers instead of helping to expand its practice
among middle class Brazilians. Second, by fighting Japanese martial artists arriving in
the wake of immigration forced them to devise a local jiu-jitsu style. In both processes,
the Gracies enjoyed support from the state and from their social peers.
The
transformation of jiu-jitsu in an elitist practice during a populist rule, whose support
rested largely on middle-sectors, is essentially a contradiction. Yet the support for the
Gracies indicates that despite the new regime discourses of innovation, change and
redefinition of national identity, a past firmly grounded on inequality remained at the core
of a modern Brazilianess. Furthermore, the Gracies felt empowered to reform Japanese
jiu-jitsu in line with new establishment’s xenophobic discourses. If the period of Get lio
Vargas is crucial to understanding modern Brazil, it was also the time in which the
Gracies laid the foundation of their hybrid combat sport.
In the postwar period of democratization, the Gracies’ jiu-jitsu performances and
life style challenged discourses of modernization by further gentrifying the practice of
jiu-jitsu, by creating a clan of martial artists based on concubinage, and by enforcing
customary practices of racism. Paradoxically, the Gracies’ idiosyncratic behavior
paralleled their elevation to the status of national celebrities, driven by intense media
promotion. In a decade marked by developmentalism and discourses severing ties with
the past, the Gracies voiced openly their aristocratic credo, attributing their achievements
to their genteel pedigree. However, in the mid-1950s they came under attack for
overstepping the boundaries of Brazilian cordial racism during a martial arts showdown.
233
Nevertheless, toward the end of the 1950s, the Gracies and their Brazilian jiu-jitsu
reached the peak of their prestige.
Upon the imposition of a military rule in 1964, Brazilian jiu-jitsu was momentary
sidelined. Unlike past authoritarianism identified with oligarchies and working classes,
the military in 1964 became a political representative of the middle class. This exposed
the Gracies to a social backlash on account of their lavish lifestyle, their attachment to the
past populism and their idiosyncratic social practices, in particular their concubinage and
extended families. This backlash occurred at a time when the effects of Cold War
redefined hemispheric strategies, with the result that the practice of Brazilian jiu-jitsu was
replaced by the globalized Japanese judo.
During the process of democratization in the 1980s, Brazilian jiu-jitsu reached the
status of a hybrid combat sport as a result of decades of technical specialization and of
attracting scores of middle class practitioners. Initially, during a time of economic crisis,
urban violence and political disillusion, Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s philosophical underpinnings,
embedded on long-term inequality, generated a wave of middle class hooliganism. At a
time when Brazilian jiu-jitsu became identified with middle class violence, the Gracies
emigrated to the United States. There, in the late 1980s, they found a timely demand for
masculine performances and new ways of combating urban violence. Against this
backdrop, the Gracies promoted and won over American audiences, paving the way for
Brazilian jiu-jitsu’s globalization.
The ability of the Gracies to navigate the shoals of politics and sustain support
from the elite underscores their close association with Brazilian mores. They were
234
modern “aristocratic” warriors in a century of uncertain political and social change. As
Robert Penn Warren has argued about the study of heroes: “If the hero is the embodiment
of our ideals…then to analyze him is likely to mean an analysis of ourselves. By a man’s
hero you shall know him… To create a hero is, indeed, to create a self.” 590 Hélio Gracie
in the 1950s declared: “We are legends and legends cannot be destroyed.” In the same
vein, Ambassador Samuel Souza Leão Gracie, who belonged to a branch of the family
that made a smoother transition into modernity, acknowledged his nephews’
achievements through their martial arts performances.591 Souza Leão Gracie publicly
recognized that by creating a Brazilian style of Japanese jiu-jitsu, his nephews became
the most successful branch of their aristocratic clan.592
The Gracies’ could have had their martial arts trajectory abbreviated: starting in
the Getúlio Vargas regime of the 1930s; growing with the populism of the 1950s;
surviving the military rule of the 1960s and expanding during the democratization of the
1980s in Brazil and beyond. Despite their public outbursts of violence, their bending of
social rules, their open racism, and their cultural incompatibility with the austere military
dictatorship of the 1960s, the Gracies have been always able to return to the limelight.
Gilberto Freyre and Roberto da Matta, among other scholars, have analyzed the
formation of a racially mixed society highly marked by aristocratic ethos, personalism
and authoritarianism.593 My work builds on their insights. It suggests that Japanese jiu-
590
Jonathan S. Cullick, Making History : The Biographical Narratives of Robert Penn Warren, (Baton
Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000), 20.
591
Samuel de Souza Leão Gracie held a number of high-profile diplomatic appointments in Washington
D.C., London and later became Minister of Foreign Affairs in Brazil.
592
Nasser, "A Dinastia Gracie."
593
See Freyre, Casa-Grande & Senzala. Matta, O Que Faz O Brasil, Brasil?
235
jitsu, as promoted by a clan of white and “virtual white,” unconventional aristocrats,
embodied ideals deeply rooted in the Brazilian identity. The Japanese martial art,
reinvented by the Gracies and transformed into a hybrid combat sport, was the powerful
signifier of these cultural values.
236
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Appendix
The Gracie Family Tree594
594
The Gracie tree family displayed above is a smaller version of the full genealogical file held at Colégio
Brasileiro de Genealogia (Brazilian Genealogical Archive) in Rio de Janeiro. For this dissertation purposes,
I only included names mentioned along the work. Fausto, A Concise History of Brazil.
255