Tacticians and Tacklers: Sports as a Tool of Public Diplomacy "Sport alone cannot enforce or maintain peace. But it has a vital role to play in building a better and more peaceful world." - Dr Jacques Rogge, IOC President, October 2007 Introduction International sporting competition has been a tool of public diplomacy since the time of the ancient Olympiad. Athletes had the credibility to act as representatives of their nations on one of the world’s most popular stages, and in some cases settle disputes on the playing field instead of the battlefield. Today, sports still hold a special place in the public diplomacy arena as a tool of dialogue, the exchange of information, and establishing shared experiences among disparate communities Pigman, Geoffrey. Contemporary Diplomacy: Representation and Communication in a Globalized World. . The need to influence public opinion remains an important construct in public diplomacy toolkit and I believe that sports provide a unique avenue for gaining relational and contextual understanding that can be operationalized for influence. As international sporting communities continue to grow in size and reach, do sports have a place in the modern day diplomatic toolkit? And, if they do, how prominent a role should sports play vice other cultural and arts programs that states may employ? Sports as a Unique Tool of Public Diplomacy The utility of sports in public diplomacy is an under-researched and under-valued area of study. Modern day diplomacy must respond to crises that are increasingly complex economic, nuclear, environmental, cultural and religious; in addition to an increasingly complex environment, today’s world is increasingly interconnected and as such the battles for hearts and minds are no longer geographically confined. Sports provide communication networks that cut across national boundaries and enable diplomats to engage with a wider public audience than traditional cultural diplomacy programs. “The truth is that foreign publics now matter to practitioners of diplomacy in ways that were unthinkable as little as 25 years ago. It is clear that public diplomacy is gradually moving away from the periphery of diplomatic work, and into the forefront Melissen, Jan. The New Public Diplomacy.” and sports are a tool of public diplomacy that can be utilized to build relationships, exchange information, and ultimately influence. One unique value that sports provide over other cultural diplomacy programs is the reach that sports provide; because sports require no literacy, little equipment, and no common language to participate in, they are the most accessible form of public diplomacy available. The scope of sports is not limited to direct athlete to athlete interaction either, with the rise of internet penetration and the diffusion of technology “sporting experiences that were once limited to athletes and attendees are, on any given day, at nearly any hour, now shared by millions Pigman, GA and Rofe, JS. Sport and Diplomacy: an introduction.” through satellite television, internet streaming, and cable networks. The global reach of sports as a networked communication nodes Note that here I mean networks in the vernacular of the field of communications and not referring to ESPN or a television “network” means that sports groups have access to the “ideal channels for sharing identity, merit and ‘national brands’ with the rest of the world. Pigman, GA and Rofe, JS. Sport and Diplomacy: an introduction.” The reach of sports programming is indeed impressive but practitioners of diplomacy must also recognize the danger that connectivity and networked interest groups Defined as people with a common connection through sports i.e. teams, fans, enthusiasts, etc pose when mobilized for harm. The power of sports to connect is not limited to those with a positive message, and the onus remains on diplomats to cultivate these networks as conduits of shared understanding and international relationship building. When weighing the value of sport diplomacy in respect to influence, one must remember that influence is only effective when people are prepared to receive the message. Alinksy, Saul. Rules for Radicals. The value of sports exchanges, programs, and viewership isn’t defined by an immediate paradigm shift, the value lies with the cultivation of networks, relationships, and the exposure to a new community that primes the recipient for messages of democracy, human rights, and freedom in the future. Or put more simply, sports diplomacy is the process of exchange, not the packaging of sports as a product for consumption; it is that process that increases the value of future interactions SMPA 6270 Class Discussion. April 20, 2015.. In addition to their reach, sports have carved out a unique place in international communication channels that are bogged down in some of the most complex, and outright hostile relationships of our time. Take for example the “ping-pong diplomacy” cultivated by the United States and China during the 1970s Dichter, H and Johns, A. Diplomatic Games: Sport, Statecraft, and International Relations Since 1945. - oftentimes, sports provide an avenue for conversation and understanding that may be stymied in more traditional diplomatic channels. “Using sports to open the doors of communication - sports, not politics Silberman, Lindsay. Dennis Rodman Opens Up. ” are the key to cultivating shared understanding. It is because of the reach that sports provide, and the ability of athletes and sports programs to warm frosty diplomatic relationships, that sport diplomacy is an invaluable tool for navigating the most complex diplomatic environment yet. Measuring the Power of Sports in Public Diplomacy Justifying the appeal of and the efficacy of sports programming in public diplomacy are two very difficult tasks. As a former collegiate athlete, and current coach, I believe in the power sports have to make an incredible impact on a person’s life; as a scholar and practitioner, I am motivated to understand why sports are a powerful diplomatic tool. To build a convincing argument we must be define the measure of success and failure when discussing influence and public opinion. Manuel Castells said that the most fundamental power is the ability to shape the human mind, and in the case of public diplomacy, power and by extension success, lie in the asymmetric ability of an actor to influence the decisions of another actor in a way that favors the will, interests, or values of the actor exerting influence Castells, Manual. A Network Theory of Power. . In this capacity, power is defined as relational, contextual, and resource based Dahl, Robert. The Concept of Power. -sports themselves are a resource for diplomats to build relationships and understand context, which can then be mobilized as influence in diplomatic engagement. To illustrate the success of sports as a tool of public diplomacy, I offer up two case studies; the US State Department’s effort to build sport diplomacy abroad, and secondly a study of sport as a public diplomacy tool for domestic audiences in the case of South Africa and the Rugby World Cup. These case studies provide the most compelling evidence that sports are a successful tool of public diplomacy that can be employed to influence audiences at home and abroad. SportsUnited – An International Effort The United States Department of States funds, through the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, a small program called SportsUnited. The program uses sports as a platform for foreign athletes, coaches, and administrators to gain better understanding of American culture and to establish links with U.S. sports professionals and peers US Department of State, SportsUnited Website.. During a three year evaluation period (2006-2009) more than 350 international students and sports educators visited the United States as a part of the SportsUnited program. A 2013 study by the Educational and Cultural Affairs Bureau and the consulting group Management Systems International provides extremely valuable insight into the impact of the State Department’s use of sports as a tool of public diplomacy, particularly to build the relational and contextual elements of influence. The measured impact of the program to build relationships and contextual understanding of the United States is best illustrated by the data indicating that 87% of respondents replied that they had a more positive view of the United States and the United States government than they did before participating in the program, in addition to 92% of respondents who indicated they had “a much more favorable” view of Americans after the program. I gained an awareness of how important sport is as a tool to assist in educating and organizing human beings, especially the youth. [SportsUnited] has provided tools that gave me awareness of the power we have in our hands to help our community. Sports Program Administrator - Baseball, Dominican Republic (2008) Importantly, upon returning to their home country, 99% of participants report having discussed American values like democracy, rule of law, and gender equality with friends and family. That is an overwhelming majority of people who have visited the United States, specifically to participate in a sports program, that return home and carry forward messages about the most important ideological values of the United States. For many participants the program helped revise misconceptions about the United States, understand freedom of speech, human rights, and the importance of inclusion and diversity. And finally, nearly every respondent described sports as a unique way to promote cross cultural awareness and understanding, and critical element of gaining power to influence. In the public diplomacy equation, these results make a compelling case for the value sports programs add in the United States’ ability to shape the views and ideas of participants, defines a successful effort by the United States to exert asymmetric influence on the values, interests, and will of participants, and to build the relational and contextual fundamentals that define the concept of power for influence in the future Dahl, Robert. The Concept of Power. , Castells, Manuel. A Network Theory of Power. . South Africa: Rugby World Cup One of the most poignant examples of the power of sport in public diplomacy is the 1995 Rugby World Cup in South Africa. At the time, South Africa had only ended apartheid four years earlier, integration of the races was extremely contentious, and Mr. Nelson Mandela had been in office for less than year. In previous years, South Africa a lauded rugby power house, had been excluded from participation in the World Cup – a strong signal of international disapproval for the apartheid government. And so, in 1995, for the very first time South Africa was granted the right to play in the tournament. The utility of sports to connect people is not limited to international application; there are valuable ways in which sports can bridge some deep social divides at home. In South Africa, the understanding and connectivity divide between white Afrikaners and black South Africans was deep. When President Mandela was elected his administration made a point to demonstrate that racial incongruity was a way of the past, so when South Africa won its bid to host the Rugby World Cup, Mandela was presented with one of the sporting world’s biggest stages and the chance to exhibit not only to his countrymen, but to the world, that South Africa was truly “the Rainbow Nation”. A flashbulb moment came when South Africa’s defeated New Zealand in the Cup final – presenting the trophy to Captain Francois Pienaar, President Mandela wore the green and gold Springbok jersey. “The jersey itself was the symbol of privilege and separateness. And that is why Mandela made the decision to don both shirt and baseball cap on the podium at Ellis Park in 1995, wearing the number 6 on his back, the same as that of Springbok captain, Francois Pienaar, the chisel-jawed, blond-haired, classically-molded totem of the Afrikaner’s sport. Mandela was at one not just with his own people but with the oppressor. It was a resonant moment, the ultimate example of power dressing. Cleary, Mick. Nelson Mandela seized the opportunity of the Rugby World Cup 1995.” Ultimately, “the message and symbolism of the event were clear and politically significant” James, Wilmot. Democracy in Action. The World Cup was a successful tool in signaling to the South African public, that the newly elected ANC was prepared to build relationships with blacks and whites that were so desperately needed to move the country forward. In addition to Mandela’s buy in, the participation of the Springbok team was instrumental in supporting Mandela’s goals. Inclusion of black winger, Chester Williams on the starting side made him the face of the team in South Africa; with the support of the players and administrators the Springboks “excelled beyond expectations on the playing field and in doing so elevated the concept of national unity in a way that 1000 lectures and community workshops could not have begun to achieve. James, Wilmot. Democracy in Action.” “Some people wonder aloud how deeply athletic excellence can penetrate the spirit. However, it is a mistake of the intelligence to think that prowess on the sports field evokes merely a momentary sentimentality for the masses. It sets an unmistakable example, involves millions of people in collective forms and celebrations, and is in fact a powerful example of spontaneous ideology” James, Wilmot. Democracy in Action. Nelson Mandela was the consummate practitioner of public diplomacy and his gift for understanding the importance of context and relationships in building influence were the critical building blocks in amassing the power to influence change in South Africa. Every element of the tournament, from the ‘one team, one nation’ slogan, to the singing of the new national anthem, to Mandela’s wardrobe built the relationships and cultivated an environment that enabled South Africans to unite despite historical differences. “The World Cup was one of those classic textbook cases suggestive of the liberating nature of sports events with a powerful symbolic appeal. This made the political elite sit up and realize the significance of this event for strengthening national unity and manufacturing legitimacy in a newly created, still fragile political order Van Der Merwe, Justin. Political Analysis of South Africa’s Hosting of the Rugby and Cricket World Cup.” Reflecting upon the success of the World Cup to galvanize national identity, social and political change, it is important to remember that the success was not because the team participated the game of rugby, or because they won – success in South Africa was and is directly related to the ability of the ANC administration to visibly contextual new race relations, build visible relationships between blacks and whites, and mobilize those resources into public support for new legislation, and ultimately change. Conclusion Identifying the value of sports as a tool of public diplomacy is a challenging undertaking; results are often subtle and can take years to truly rise to the surface because measuring influence and changing social norms is an inexact science. I believe however that there is adequate evidence to support the conviction that sports have a place in the modern diplomat’s public diplomacy toolkit. Whether affected international opinion of our country abroad like the SportsUnited program, or mobilizing the vast networks of sporting fans to change civil society like President Mandela, sports alone provide high level visibility, universal accessibility, and reach. Sports are unique tool of public diplomacy that not only belong in the diplomat’s toolkit but deserve more attention and application than more traditional cultural exchanges. Though valuable, programs which utilize music, art, or language tend to require expensive equipment, years of training, and skill – on the other hand mutual understanding and connection can be found kicking a soccer ball between even the most inexperienced players. Unlike music and art, sports do not require a common language, literacy, or formal training to enjoy, and as such they offer a more inclusive tool of public diplomacy. Inclusivity and reach are key for diplomats who are working to affect public opinion at home or abroad. The power to achieve influence over the values, will, or interests of another is fundamental to affecting change and sports provide the most valuable form of cultural diplomacy available to diplomats for bolstering the relationships and mutual understanding that can be mobilized as resources of true influence.  References and Works Cited Alinksy, Saul. Rules for Radicals. Random House, 1971. Abawi, Atia. Sport Diplomacy: Target Afghanistan. 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