Review of General Psychology
2012, Vol. 16, No. 2, 104 –108
© 2012 American Psychological Association
1089-2680/12/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0027905
INTRODUCTION
Human Nature and Pop Culture
Maryanne L. Fisher
Catherine Salmon
Saint Mary’s University, Halifax
University of Redlands
largely created by and for heterosexual women and yet focuses on
romantic and sexual relationships between two male expropriated
media characters, such as Kirk and Spock from Star Trek or Clark
Kent and Lex Luthor from Smallville. At first glance, such stories
seem an unlikely choice for heterosexual females. But these stories
often epitomize ideal aspects of female mate choice, including
intense bonds of commitment, strong friendships before engaging
in a sexual relationship, all of which involve high-mate-value men.
Evolutionary approaches have already been used in the fields of
literary theory and art. The field of Darwinian literary studies,
which is quickly gaining considerable momentum, has provided
evidence that humankind’s evolved history influences the topics of
texts (Carroll, 1995). For example, one can study Jane Austen’s
novels and learn about women’s mating strategies (Strout, Fisher,
Kruger, & Steeleworthy, 2010) or analyze the content of folk tales
from around the world to document sex differences in mate preferences (Gottschall, Martin, Quish, & Rea, 2004). One can also
explore topics of Western paintings, and see that the most frequent
topics are not random, but instead reflect topics that can be
predicted by theory that is informed by evolution (Fisher & Meredith, in press).
Like pop culture, literary theory (and the study of art) has been
dominated by a variety of perspectives, such as social constructivism, postmodernism, and deconstructionism (including Marxist,
feminist, and psychoanalytic frameworks), which have focused
more on a blank-slate view of human behavior. Even those working within these fields have commented on the stagnation that has
resulted from this narrow perspective of human behavior (e.g.,
Carroll, 1995). Psychologists should not be surprised; after all,
Freud and Lacan, e.g., are basically footnotes in our understanding
of human behavior in modern psychology programs. We’ve
achieved a better understanding of the human mind since the 1930s
(which was the last decade of Freud’s life). At last, the study of
literature and art is starting to benefit from the work of those who
are applying that new understanding. For examples from the literary and art fields, there are a number of anthologies including
The Literary Animal, edited by Jonathan Gottschall and David
Sloan Wilson, the journal founded by Alice Andrews called The
Evolutionary Review: Art, Science and Culture, and books like
Homo Aestheticus by Ellen Dissanayake, The Rape of Troy by
Jonathan Gottschall, and The Art Instinct by Denis Dutton. In the
end, this new understanding is all about the important why questions: Why do people spend so much time engrossed in worlds of
fiction or other imaginary social worlds? Why do particular genres
rise and fall (as in music or comedy)? After establishing that the
reason is linked to human nature, we can then begin to tease apart
various factors. For example, how much of a show’s success is due
He who understands baboon would do more toward metaphysics than
Locke. Charles Darwin, M Notebook, 1838
You might be asking yourself, why a special issue on evolutionary approaches to studying popular culture? After all, isn’t
evolutionary psychology focused on reproductive success and the
ancestral environment? The aspects of pop culture featured in this
issue, such as TV shows and horror films, were not a feature of our
ancestral world. They don’t seem to directly relate to reproductive
success. They don’t have obvious ties to the environment (whether
it be geographical or temporal) in which we evolved. So, what
could an evolutionary perspective possibly add to our understanding of them as aspects of our modern world?
The punch line is that we created these media products using our
evolved brains, and that we interact with them using these brains.
There might not actually be werewolves running around New York
City, but we evolved the capacity to imagine them, to consider
problems that need solutions, and to play out situations that evoke
a sense of astonishment. Indeed, there are many aspects of our
modern environment and our behavior that are best understood
under the light of an evolutionary perspective. For example, much
attention has been focused in recent years on the increase in
obesity, especially in the United States, and how one possible
cause includes the overconsumption of fast food. The reality is,
that for millions of years, humans who stored fat during times of
abundance had an advantage over others when food was scarce,
and hence they were favored by natural selection. A taste for
fatty and sweet foods would also have been favored by natural
selection, as they were relatively rare (e.g., honey, ripe fruit) or
required hard work to obtain (e.g., hunting for meat) and yet were
important sources of calories (Burnham & Phelan, 2000; Saad,
2007). In the modern world of fast food, it is all too easy to get
such foods without expending much energy, and so we end up
overweight. We end up with a mismatch, in that our bodies
evolved to want these foods and to enjoy them, but sadly, we did
not also evolve a way to ensure we don’t eat too much of them, as
the latter would not have been a problem during the our evolutionary past. In a similar vein, Salmon and Symons (2004) used
evolutionary thinking about human sexuality to explain an unusual
genre of erotica produced by and for women. Slash fiction is
Maryanne L. Fisher, Department of Psychology, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; Catherine Salmon, Psychology Department, University of Redlands.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Maryanne Fisher, PhD, Department of Psychology, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 3C3. E-mail: mlfisher@smu.ca
104
INTRODUCTION
to its appeal to universal aspects of human nature, and how much
is due to other factors (such as attached prestige, celebrity of
promoters, etc.)? By using evolution to inform our scholarly endeavors, we arrive at a far more satisfying and comprehensive
understanding (see Saad, this issue for a general review of these
issues, as well as for a detailed discussion on the success and the
resistance to the evolutionary framework).
What Is Evolutionary Psychology and What Does it
Bring to Pop Culture?
There are lots of definitions of what an evolutionary perspective
on the mind entails, and for this special issue, we’d like you to
consider the following. The focus of evolutionary psychology is on
how evolution, via natural and sexual selection, has shaped human
bodies, minds, and behavior, and how culture has emerged out of
our evolved nature. If we think about the problems humans faced
over most of our history as a species, they fall into three main
groups: problems of survival, problems of mating and parenting,
and the problems of social living. If we look at the content of pop
culture, whether it’s plot lines to movies (see Garcia et al., 2012)
or TV shows (Fisher, 2012), song lyrics (Kurzbahn, 2012), pornography (Salmon, 2012), a comedian’s repertoire (Khule et al.,
2012), tattoos (Carmen et al., 2012), superheroines (Ingalls, 2012)
or social networking (Crosier et al., 2012), the heart of the matter
is often the ways in which people deal (successfully or not) with
these same ancestral problems in the modern world. For example,
horror films (typically viewed through a Freudian psychoanalytic
lens, see Clasen, 2012) often travel very well between cultures.
The genre itself is defined by people’s reactions to what they are
watching. The focus is on fear, one of many emotions that
are adaptations that have helped us (and other species) survive and
reproduce over historical time. Experiencing fear without the risk
of real live dangers is seen as enjoyable for many people. The
desire to experience such things second hand may function to help
us learn a variety of different types of information, including how
to better read the minds of others, cues of social dangers, and
possible solutions to such dangers (Grodal, 2009). Stories allow us
to gather a collection of experiences (even if we did not personally
experience them) involving problems or conflicts that we can later
draw upon to solve problems of our own. We watch what happens
and take notes on the outcomes of the strategies and tactics others
use in pursuing their goals (see Barkow et al., 2012, and DeBacker,
2012).
A suggestion of one of the founders of literary Darwinism,
Joseph Carroll, was that it is important to investigate texts both in
terms of human universals and individual differences in lifehistory strategies, such as mating and parenting (Carroll, 2005).
Indeed, while many evolutionary psychologists focus on human
universals (Brown, 1991; Buss, 2011), some also focus on individual differences (Buss, 2009; Figueredo et al., 2005; Kaplan &
Gangestad, 2005). For example Jonason and colleagues (2012)
review the dark triad of personality traits, and how they tie into
reproductive outcomes. Others take this one step further and examine adaptive behavioral flexibility, such as that seen in lifehistory theory (LHT; Figueredo et al., 2006; Salmon, Figueredo &
Woodburn, 2009). LHT describes the allocation of limited material
resources to the goals of survival and reproduction. According to
LHT, resources are first partitioned into somatic effort, invested in
105
the survival of the individual, and reproductive effort, invested in
the production of offspring. Reproductive effort is further partitioned into mating effort, the acquisition and retention of sexual
partners, and parental effort, the survival of existing offspring. A
slow life-history strategy is one that emphasizes somatic and
parental effort, whereas a fast life-history strategy is one that
emphasizes reproductive and mating effort (Bogaert & Rushton,
1989; Figueredo et al., 2005; Stearns, 1992). Many plotlines exemplify this behavioral flexibility. For example, think of the music
video that shows a gang member with low life expectancy following a risky discounting strategy. He’s involved in crime, a run-ofthe-mill thug, and then suddenly, his environmental conditions
change to one of high life expectancy (attaining money and other
resources, as well as getting the girl). There is a shift from focusing
on one day at a time, to keeping what he has won for the future he
now expects to live.
Despite individual differences in preferences for certain types of
stories and storytelling, humans in all cultures (and potentially
across all eras) spend significant time participating in storytelling
and fictional worlds. These worlds engage our emotions in ways
similar to real events and experiences. Tooby and Cosmides (2001)
suggest that “humans have evolved specialized cognitive machinery that allows up to enter and participate in imagined worlds” (p.
9). As a result, we engage not only in the worlds seen in modern
media products, but our children engage in pretend play, allowing
them to further develop their senses of others’ minds and motivations. The absence of such pretending in children is often a sign of
developmental problems (such as autism).
Another area of evolutionarily informed research particularly
relevant to our enjoyment of many types of media pertains to the
problem of being a cooperative, reciprocating species. Being successful at the reciprocity game involves a variety of skills or
adaptations, including the ability to detect defectors, freeloaders,
or cheaters (Cosmides, 1989; Cosmides, Barrett, & Tooby, 2010).
The successful maintenance of groups based on such a system also
promoted the evolution of moral emotions. People want to see
cheaters punished and admire those individuals who are the punishers, especially when they are seen as altruistic punishers (who
willingly incur a cost with no benefit in order to punish cheaters).
The social and moral emotions that guide our behavior (trust,
fairness, revenge) are at the center of many works of art and
popular culture (Flesch, 2007). Indeed, one need only attempt to
imagine a sitcom or soap opera without these elements—what
would one have left for a storyline?
Why Are Some Stories and Themes, Whether in Pop
Culture or Shakespeare, so Appealing?
The majority of fictional tales are representations of our social
world and, as such, cannot only be used to inform, but also to
influence the behavior of other people (Sugiyama, 1996). They are
full of the natural patterns and concerns of life, and the rewards
and dangers of the behavioral choices people can make. In many
cases, those choices will be condoned or condemned, which is the
morality-play aspect of stories. For the reader/listener, they are a
source of information about choices and their consequences. For
the creator, they are a way to influence or direct choices. In that
sense, they are appealing to the producer and consumer. “Culture
translates human nature into social norms and shared imaginative
FISHER AND SALMON
106
structures” (Carroll, Gottschall, Johnson, & Kruger, 2010, p. 213).
Products of popular culture focus on how social behavior plays out
among individuals pursuing specific goals. Their success or failure
is the plotline (whether of a movie or a comedian’s routine). Take,
for example, the humor of a stand-up comedian, as reviewed by
Khule and Pollack (2012). They propose that the reason the humor
of comedian Chris Rock resonates with audiences is because there
is some truth to what he says, that the audience can relate to it, and
to the experiences that he describes.
To spin this argument another way, Barkow, O’Gorman, and
Rendell (2012) review how cultural transmission is an important
aspect of actually being human. They discuss how it is (or is not)
potentially influenced by mass media products, and provide many
avenues for future researchers to explore. For example, how do
people acquire and edit information they obtain from the media?
Are there individual differences in this process that can be predicted by evolutionary theory?
The Breadth of Popular Culture
We take the stance of media theorist John Fiske, in that we view
pop culture as dynamic, never achieved but always moving toward
somewhere. When reviewing Fiske’s body of work, theorists
Glynn, Gray, and Wilson (2010) show that he proposed that it is
not something that is simply passed down through the generations,
but instead, something created or modified with each social transmission (for a review see Fiske, 2010). Fiske espouses that pop
culture is a resource that can be drawn upon in daily life, and
represents part of the material people use to shape their lives.
Although Fiske does not provide an evolutionary spin, and might
in fact dislike our use of his work here, at the very core, the
argument we are all making is the same one: pop culture is a part
of human nature, and can provide information that is relevant to
our daily existence. We go one step further and propose that the
products of pop culture can be predicted based on problems we
faced in our ancestral history: problems of mating and parenting,
surviving, and social living. Where we part ways is that Fiske
focuses on societal issues such as power, “Popular culture is made
by various formations of subordinated and disempowered people
out of the resources, both discursive and material, that are provided
by the social system that disempowers them” (Fiske, 1989, p. 2),
among other factors, as a way to best view pop culture. However,
the fact that there is an area of overlap indicates that there is a
space for us to explore, and one that hopefully initiates a dialogue
between media theorists and those who work within an evolutionary framework. In our opinion, scholars can examine the intersection of pop culture and evolutionary psychology, and arrive at a
more comprehensive and meaningful interpretation of cultural
products than has ever before been attempted.
As demonstrated by the variety of topics in our special issue,
there are several ways in which evolutionary psychology intersects
with popular culture. Based on the work of our contributors, there
seems to be two overarching themes, although we acknowledge
that they overlap considerably. The first is how cultural transmission (of mass media products in general, and pop culture products
specifically) relates to predictions that can be made based on
evolutionary theory. Saad starts at the beginning and explains how
various products should be seen as cultural artifacts, similar to the
artifacts a paleoanthropologist might uncover and investigate, to
arrive at conclusions about human physical evolution. However,
he also examines the transmission of evolutionary psychology
within popular culture, such as how blogging can be used to
transmit various findings. Barkow, O’Gorman, and Rendell provide an overview of cultural transmission and how it leads to
specific, testable predictions. Indirectly, Carmen, Guitar, and Dillon follow the lead of Barkow et al. by specifically focusing on
tattoos, which they partly examine using the principles of cultural
transmission. Although one might not immediately think of tattoos
within the same breath as these other products, tattoos are a form
of art and a way to transmit various types of information. They
have also become increasingly part of popular culture, at least
within the United States. Thus, Carmen et al., reflect on the
development of this popularity, and come to show that tattooing
relates to core evolutionary principles, such as the handicap theory,
and how tattoos can be influenced by cultural transmission. DeBacker spans this theme (and the next), as she looks at the creation
of stars, the information they are transmitting to audiences, and
how stars (and the relationship they have to audiences) can be
understood using an analysis grounded in evolutionary theory.
That is, she analyses celebrity status to determine how, and more
importantly, why, audiences form parasocial relationships with
these famous individuals.
For the second theme, some of our contributors agree with
Saad’s perspective and examine specific cultural products and
explain how they can be best understood using evolutionary
theory. Salmon examines pornography and romance, and how
these are similar and different, and how they reflect sex-specific
mating interests. Garcia, Reiber, Massey, and Merriwether look
at the history of short-term uncommitted sexual “hook-ups” in
popular culture, and show how they reflect both evolutionary
sex differences and changing social and sexual scripts. Khule
and Pollack focus on the comedian Chris Rock, in an effort to
show that his notoriety stems from his sophisticated use of
taking information that is true, to some degree, and reflects sex
differences in evolved mating interests, for example. Kurzbahn
discusses country music lyrics, and argues that listeners pay
attention because these songs contain information about social
interactions that reflect human’s evolved history, such as the
need to take revenge and feelings of sexual jealousy. Jonason,
Li, Webster, Schmitt, and Crysel interlink individual differences in life history theory with dark triad personality traits to
investigate the antihero in pop culture. They take the novel
position of arguing that the dark side of human nature, as
exhibited by James Bond or The Dark Knight (Batman), for
example, confer sizable benefits, evolutionarily speaking.
Fisher analyses themes within the highly popular TV show
Dallas, in order to show that the global popularity of the series
likely rested on its adherence to evolutionarily relevant themes.
Ingalls examines female heroes created by women, in an effort
to show that the sex of the creator matters and is reflected in the
features of the heroes. She presents evidence that the characteristics of these female heroes, as developed by men and
women, can be predicted using sex-specific theories based on
evolutionary psychology. Clasen then examines horror, as a
genre, to show that it represents a valuable vehicle for understanding the ways that evolutionary theory and sociocultural
contexts overlap. To understand the increasing array of social
networking tools, Crosier, Webster, and Dillon show how the
INTRODUCTION
use of these tools reflects humans’ evolved sociality. They
further explore the influence social networking may have on the
development of pop culture.
This special issue by no means addresses all the ways in which
evolutionary psychology and popular culture intersect. However, it
does represent a good start to understanding this area, and hopefully will propel future researchers into new directions. There is a
formidable amount of work that can be performed, and thus, these
papers should be seen as springboards. In fact, most of the articles
actually contain direct references to experiments that should be
performed in the future.
We close by admitting that this was an extremely enjoyable
special issue to put together. Our contributors were enthusiastic to
talk about these topics, and happily worked with us throughout the
entire process. The reviewers, in every single case, returned carefully thought-out reviews on time, which renewed our faith in
the academic review process. This issue could not have been the
success it is without the hard work of the contributors and the
reviewers, and we thank them all.
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Received February 7, 2012
Revision received February 7, 2012
Accepted February 22, 2012 䡲